Aerodynamic Lift and Drag and the Theory of Flight https://www.mpoweruk.com/flight_theory.

htm

Battery and Energy Technologies

Finding your Way Aerodynamic Lift and Drag and the Theory of Flight
Around
Smart Phone / Tablet The wings of birds were the original inspiration for the design of aerofoils however it was not until 1799 that engineer George Cayley
Users See carried out the first methodical study of the performance of aerofoils. His publication "On Aerial Navigation" in 1810, marked the beginning
Alternative Navigation of the science of Aerodynamics. Since then, numerous fixed and variable aerofoil profiles have been developed, inspired by fish as well as
Below birds, to optimise lift, drag and stalling characteristics over a wide range of speeds and through a variety of fluids.
Sponsors
Practical examples of the principles and basic forces involved are described below using the examples of Aircraft and Wind Turbines
which both depend for their action on the flow of air around aerofoils.
Battery Performance Theory Aerodynamic Forces
Improvement by
Electronic Means
Bernoulli's Theory of Flight

The Theory of Flight is often explained in terms Bernoulli's

Equation which is a statement of the Conservation of Energy. It
states that:
For a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in steady flow, the
sum of pressure, potential and kinetic energies per unit
volume is constant at any point.
In other words, ignoring the potential energy due to altitude:
When the velocity of a fluid increases, its pressure
decreases by an equivalent amount to maintain the overall
energy. This is known as Bernoulli's Principle

According to Bernoulli's Principle, the air passing over the top of an

aerofoil or wing must travel further and hence faster that air the
travelling the shorter distance under the wing in the same period but
the energy associated with the air must remain the constant at all
times. The consequence of this is that the air above the wing has a
lower pressure than the air below below the wing and this pressure
difference creates the lift.

1 of 11 11/9/2019, 2:49 PM
Aerodynamic Lift and Drag and the Theory of Flight https://www.mpoweruk.com/flight_theory.htm

Unfortunately Bernoulli's Principle does not explain how an

aeroplane can fly upside down. Nor does it explain how aircraft and
other structures with flat plate wings or even kites and paper
aeroplanes can fly or remain airborne. This is where Newton's Laws
come to the rescue. See below.
See also Daniel Bernoulli

Newton's Theory of Flight

Isaac Newton did not propose a theory of flight but he did provide
Newton's Laws of Motion the physical laws which can be used to
explain aerodynamic lift.

Newton's Second Law states that:

The force on an object is equal to its mass times its
acceleration or equivalently to its rate of change of
momentum
F = M a = d/dt (M v)
In other words, whenever there is a change of momentum, there
must be a force causing it. In this case, since momentum is a vector
quantity, the change in direction of the airflow around the wing must
be associated with a force on the volume of air involved.
Newton's Third Laws states that:
To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
This means that the force of the aerofoil pushing the air downwards,
creating the downwash, is accompanied by an equal and opposite
force from the air pushing the aerofoil upwards and hence providing
the aerodynamic lift.
It is thus the turning of the air flow which creates the lift.
See also Isaac Newton

Free Report
Buying Batteries in
China

2 of 11 11/9/2019, 2:49 PM
Aerodynamic Lift and Drag and the Theory of Flight https://www.mpoweruk.com/flight_theory.htm

Aircraft Wings
Electropaedia
Pages Aircraft are kept in the air by the forward thrust of the wings or
aerofoils, through the air. The thrust driving the wing forward is
Alphabetical Index
provided by an external source, in this case by propellers or jet
About Us
AC Batteries engines.
AC Motors The result of the movement of the wing through stationary air is a lift
Alkaline Batteries force perpendicular to the motion of the wing, which is greater than
Alternative Energy the downwards gravitational force on the wing and so keeps the
Storage Methods aircraft airborne. The lift is accompanied by drag which represents
Apollo Moon Shot the air resistance against the wing as it forces its way through the
Authentication and air. The drag is dependent on the effective area of the wing facing
Identification directly into the airflow as well as the shape of the aerofoil.
Battery Applications The magnitudes of the lift and drag are dependent on the angle of
Battery Comparison attack between the direction of the motion of the wing through the
Chart (PDF) air and the chord line of the wing.
Battery Life (and
See more about the angle of attack and the theories of
Death)
aerodynamic lift below.
Battery Management
See also details about the magnitude of Aerodynamic Lift and
Systems (BMS)
Drag and Missile Ballistics
Battery Manufacturing
Battery Pack Design
Battery Performance
Wind Turbine Blades
Characteristics
Wind Turbines extract energy from the force of the wind on an
Battery Power
aerofoil, in this case a turbine blade. The relative motion between
Demand Management
the air flow and the turbine blade, is the same as for the aircraft
Battery Protection
wing, but in this case the wind is in motion towards the turbine
Methods
blades and the blades are passive so that the external thrust
Battery Quotation
provided by the moving air flow is in the opposite direction to the
Request
thrust provided by the aircraft wing. The turbine blades thus
Battery Relability experience lift and drag forces, similar to the aircraft wing, which set
Battery Safety the blades in motion transferring the wind energy into the kinetic
Battery Standards energy of the blades
Battery Storage The turbine blades are connected to a single rotor shaft and the
Battery Testing force of the wind along the length of the blades creates a torque

3 of 11 11/9/2019, 2:49 PM
Aerodynamic Lift and Drag and the Theory of Flight https://www.mpoweruk.com/flight_theory.htm

Battery Types which turns the rotor.

Beginners Page As with aircraft wings, the magnitudes of the lift and drag on the
Benefits of Custom turbine blade are dependent on the angle of attack between the
Battery Packs apparent wind direction and the chord line of the blade.
Boolean Logic and See more deatils about Apparent Wind Direction
Digital Circuits
Brushless DC and The dynamics of wind turbines is however slightly more complex
Reluctance Motors than the dynamics of a simple wing because the direction of the
gravitational force on the turbine blade changes with the rotation of
Buying Batteries in
the turbine rotor.
China (PDF)
In a "theoretical" turbine with a single blade operating with a The magnitude of the gravitational force on the aerofoil depends on
Carbon Footprints
constant wind force, the magnitude and direction of the lift and drag the position and orientation of the turbine blade at any point during its
(Humour)
with respect to the aerofoil profile will be constant throughout the full 360° rotation and either augments or opposes the lift force. (See
Cell Balancing
360° rotation of the turbine rotor but the direction of the lift with opposite)
Cell Chemistries respect to the ground will depend on the position of the rotor. The
Cell Construction magnitude of the gravitational force on the blade will also be
Charger Specification constant for any position of the rotor but the horizontal position of
Checklist the centre of gravity of the blade with respect to the centre of the
Chargers and rotor will vary as the rotor turns. The net effect of these forces on the
Charging rotor torque depends on the position of the rotor.
Charger Quotation When the blade is horizontal and moving upwards it is
Request moving against the force of gravity which is pulling the
Common Battery blade downwards so that the net lifting force on the blade
Case Sizes (PDF) and the resulting torque on the rotor is reduced.
Communications After 180° rotation of the rotor, the blade is once more
Buses horizontal but upside down and moving downwards so that
Communications the "lifting force" due to the wind is in the opposite direction
Satellites and reinforces the downwards gravitational force so that
Computer the torque on the rotor is increased.
Architecture When the blade is vertical, either at the top or the bottom of
Contact Sponsors its cycle, the gravitational force is perpendicular to the
Contact Us lifting force and passes through the centre of the rotor shaft
Contacts and hence has no effect on the torque which is purely due
to lift.
Conversion Table
Practical turbines however have multiple blades which balance each
DC Motors
other, so that the gravitational effects cancel out and the torque on
Direct Energy
the rotor is constant.
Conversion (AMTEC)
See more details about Wind Power and Energy Conversion

4 of 11 11/9/2019, 2:49 PM
Aerodynamic Lift and Drag and the Theory of Flight https://www.mpoweruk.com/flight_theory.htm

Discovery of the
Elements Angle of Attack
Electric Machines
Electric Vehicle The angle of attack of a turbine blade is the angle between the
Charging direction of the apparent or relative wind and the chord line of the
Infrastructure blade. For an aircraft wing, it is the angle between the direction of
Electrical Energy motion of the wing and the chord line of the wing.
Electricity Demand
Electricity from At very low angles of attack, the airflow over the aerofoil is
Biofuels essentially smooth and laminar with perhaps a small amount of
turbulence occuring at the trailing edge of the aerofoil. The point at
Electricity from Fossil
which laminar flow ceases and turbulence begins is known as the
Fuels
separation point.
Electrochemical
Increasing the angle of attack increases the area of the aerofoil
Energy Generation
facing directly into the wind. This increases the lift but it also moves
Electromagnetic
the separation point of laminar flow of the air above the aerofoil part
Radiation - Radio
way up towards the leading edge and the result of the increased
Waves
turbulent flow above the aerofoil is an increase in the drag.
Electropaedia Maximum lift typically occurs when the angle of attack is around 15
Technology Search degrees but this could be higher for specially designed aerofoils.
Engine Above 15 degrees, the separation point moves right up to the
Energy Efficiency leading edge of the aerofoil and laminar flow above the aerofoil is
Energy from Coal? destroyed. The increased turbulence causes the rapid deterioration
(Humour) of the lift force while at the same time it dramatically increases the
Energy Resources drag, resulting in a stall.
Energy Conversion
and Heat Engines
Engineering Harmony
(Humour)
Enigma’s Cryptic
Secrets The graph opposite shows the lift and drag at different angles of
Feedback Form attack experienced by a Clark Y aerofoil, a type widely used in
Flow Batteries general purpose aircraft designs. When moving through the air at
Free Report Request constant speed, as the angle of attack is increased, both the lift and
Frequently Asked the drag increase until the aerofoil reaches a critical angle when the
Questions - FAQ lift suddenly falls away and the aerofoil begins to stall, in this case,
Fuel Cell Comparison as the angle of attack approaches 20 degrees.

5 of 11 11/9/2019, 2:49 PM
Aerodynamic Lift and Drag and the Theory of Flight https://www.mpoweruk.com/flight_theory.htm

Chart
Fuel Cells
Gas Turbine Power
Generators
Generators
Geothermal Power
Generation
Glossary Note:
Going Solar - Grid Since the lift generated by an aircraft wing is proportional to the
angle of attack and also to the square of the aircraft speed, the
Scale (PV)
same lift can be accomplished by flying at a higher speed with a
Graphene
lower angle of attack. Reducing the angle of attack also reduces the
Grätzel Cell
induced drag due to turbulence thus enabling greater aerodynamic
Grid Scale Energy efficiency. (See next)
Storage Systems ESS
Hall of Fame
High Power Batteries
High Temperature
Batteries
History of Technology
Historical Themes and
Characters
Home Page
Homebrew Battery
How to Specify
Batteries Public Domain (Modified)
Hybrid Power
Generation Plants
Hydroelectric Power
Generation
Hydrogen Power
Instructions for Using
Batteries
Lead Acid Batteries
Leclanché Cells
Legal Statement
Liquid Metal Batteries

6 of 11 11/9/2019, 2:49 PM
Aerodynamic Lift and Drag and the Theory of Flight https://www.mpoweruk.com/flight_theory.htm

Lithium Battery
Shipping Regulations Aerodynamic Drag Components
Lithium Cell Failures
Lithium Primary Drag is the force experienced by an object representing the
Batteries resistance to its movement through a fluid. Sometimes called wind
Lithium Secondary resistance or fluid resistance, it acts in the opposite direction to the
Batteries relative motion between the object and the fluid. The example
Low Power Batteries opposite shows the aerodynamic drag forces experienced by an
Magneto-Hydro-Dynamic
aerofoil or aircraft wing moving through the air with constant angle of
attack as the air speed is increased..
(MHD) Electricity
Generation
The Total Aerodynamic Drag is the sum of the following
Motor Controls
components:
MSDS - Typical
Induced Drag - Due to the vortices and turbulence
Material Safety Data
resulting from the turning of the air flow and the downwash
Sheet (PDF)
associated with the generation of lift. Increases with the
New Cell Designs & angle of attack. Inversely proportional to the square of the
Chemistries air speed. Decreases as aircraft speed increases and the
Nickel Cadmium angle of attack is reduced. Induced drag associated with
(NiCad) Batteries the high angle of attack needed to maintain the lift is
Nickel Hydrogen dominant at low air speeds.
Batteries Form Drag or Pressure Drag - Due to the size and shape
Nickel Iron (NiFe) of the aerofoil. Increases with the square of air speed.
Batteries Streamlined shapes designed to reduce form drag.
Nickel Metal Hydride Friction Drag - Arises from the friction of the air against
(NiMH) Batteries the "skin" of the aerofoil moving through it. Increases with
Nickel Zinc Batteries the surface area of the aerofoil and the square of air speed.
Nuclear Power - Profile Drag or Viscous Drag- The sum of Friction Drag
The Practice and the Form Drag.
Nuclear Power - Parasitic Drag or Interference Drag - Incurred by the
The Theory non-liftting parts of the aircraft such as the wheels,
Other Galvanic Cell fuselage, tail fins, engines, handles and rivets. Increases
Chemistries with the square of air speed. Parasitic drag becomes
Page Quality Rating dominant at higher air speeds.
Particle Physics - Wave Drag - Due to the presence of shock waves
The Standard Model occurring on the blade tips of aircraft and projectiles.
Piston Engined Power Associated with passing the sound barrier it is a sudden
Generators and dramatic increase in drag which only comes into play

7 of 11 11/9/2019, 2:49 PM
Aerodynamic Lift and Drag and the Theory of Flight https://www.mpoweruk.com/flight_theory.htm

Primary Batteries as the vehicle increases speed through transonic and

Privacy Promise supersonic speeds. Independent of viscous effects.
Recycling
Redox Batteries
Reference Books
Reserve Batteries Sir George Cayley
Rocket Science
Satellite Technologies The graph opposite is a modern day representation of results of
Secondary Batteries experiments carried out by Sir George Cayley starting in 1799 and
Semiconductor Primer published in 1810.
Shocking Batteries It shows the superior lift characteristics and higher stall speed of
Silver Oxide / Silver aerofoils compared with a simple flat plate.
Zinc Batteries Cayley's aerofoils were based on the wings of birds.
Site Map More Pages
Here His experiments were carried out many years before the advent of
Site Search Engine the wind tunnel and he used a Whirling Arm devised by John
Smeaton in 1759 to provide a controlled airflow over his models.
Small Scale Electricity
Generation
See more about George Cayley and John Smeaton
Software Configurable
Battery
Solar Batteries
Solar Power
Generation
Special Purpose
Motors
Sponsors
State of Charge
(SOC) Determination
State of Health (SOH)
Determination
Steam Turbine Power
Generators
Stirling Engine Power
Generator
Supercapacitors

8 of 11 11/9/2019, 2:49 PM
Aerodynamic Lift and Drag and the Theory of Flight https://www.mpoweruk.com/flight_theory.htm

Technical Library -
White Papers
Thermal Batteries
Thermal Management
Thermoelectricity
Generators
Timekeepers
Timeline of Quantum
Theory All In Stock For Sale Electric Drives - AC Motors - Lagos - New York City Simple Missile Ballistics
Timeline of Description and Applications
Technology
Traction Batteries
Typical Cylindrical Ad GSHI mpoweruk.com Ad Travelstart® Nigeria mpoweruk.com

Cells (PDF)
Typical High Power
Cells (PDF)
Typical Prismatic
Cells (PDF)
Uninterruptible Power
Supplies (UPS)
V2G Energy Transfer
Water Activated
Meet New People Virtually V2 Rocket Diagrams, The Stirling Engine Electric Drives - Electrical
Batteries Photographs and Description Machine Fundamentals -
Why Batteries Fail Description and Applications
Wind Power
Ad Second Life mpoweruk.com mpoweruk.com mpoweruk.com
Generation
Wireless Wonders
Zebra Batteries
Zinc Air Batteries

Send this page

to a friend
Woodbank does not
monitor or record
these emails

9 of 11 11/9/2019, 2:49 PM
Aerodynamic Lift and Drag and the Theory of Flight https://www.mpoweruk.com/flight_theory.htm

Do You Agree?
Is The Information
Correct?
Can We Make It
Better?
Rate This Page

More Sponsors

10 of 11 11/9/2019, 2:49 PM
Aerodynamic Lift and Drag and the Theory of Flight https://www.mpoweruk.com/flight_theory.htm

Print This Page || Home || FAQ || Site Map || Legal || Privacy Promise || Contacts

Woodbank Communications Ltd, South Crescent Road, Chester, CH4 7AU, (United Kingdom)
Copyright © Woodbank Communications Ltd 2005

11 of 11 11/9/2019, 2:49 PM