PLANT AND ANIMAL TISSUES

3 Main Tissue
Systems:
A. Dermal

a. “Skin” of the planet, “bloodstream” too as it transports water and nutrients

b. Covered with a thick waxy layer called cuticle
i. Protects against water loss and injury
c. Has tiny projections as trichomes
i. Protects the leaf
ii. Gives a fuzzy appearance
d. Has root hair cells
i. Provide a large surface area
ii. Aids in water absorption
e. Guard Cells on underside
i. Regulate water loss and gas exchange
f. Principal subsystems containing several types of specialized cells:
i. Xylem - water conducting tissue
1. Tracheids - long, narrow, impermeable to water. Dies and
cytoplast disintegrates when they mature
2. Vessel Elements - mature and die before conducting water. Wider
than tracheids. Transforms into a continuous tube that water
moves across when dead.
ii. Phloem - food-conducting tissue
1. Sieve tube elements - like vessel elements; small holes where
materials move from one cell to another.
2. Companion Cells - surround the sieve tube, support phloem cells
and movement of substances
 g. Ground Tissue - between dermal and vascular tissues, consists of 3 types of cell
walls:
a. Parenchyma - thin
b. Collenchyma - thick
c. Sclerenchyma - thickest
h. Meristematic Tissue - produces new cells by mitosis; clusters of tissue
responsible for continuing growth of a plant
a. Apical Meristem - undifferentiated cells that produce longer stems and
roots
b. Floral Meristem - produces reproductive systems of flowering plants
c. Lateral Meristem - growth in width

Animal Tissue

I. Smooth Muscles - involuntary, spindle-shaped, one nucleus, digestive, circulatory,

optical
II. Cardiac Muscles - shares traits with skeletal and smooth muscles, striated, have one
nucleus but can have two
III. Epithelial Tissue - closely-joined cells with tight junctions outside the body, covering for
organs and cavities.
i. Barriers for pathogens, mechanical injuries and fluid loss. Have distinct
arrangements:
1. Cuboidal - secretion
2. Simple Columnar - brick-shaped, secretion and active absorption
3. Simple Squamous - plate-like; exchange of material through diffusion
 4. Stratified Squamous - multilayered, regenerates quickly; protection
5. Pseudostratified Columnar - single layer; looks stacked; lined with cilia;
for lining of respiratory tract

Material

Performance

IV. Connective Tissue - composed of:

➢ Blood - made up of plasma
1. Contains water, salts, proteins, erythrocytes that carry oxygen, leukocytes
for defense, platelets for blood clotting.
V. Connective Tissue Proper (CTP) - loose connective tissue found in skin; store fats that
insulate the body and store energy.
VI. Cartilage - functions as cushion between bones
VII. Bones - formed by osteoblasts that deposit collagen; magnesium, calcium and
phosphate ions make the bone hard.
VIII. Muscle Tissue - composed of long cells called muscle fibers that moves the body
voluntary or involuntary.
i. Skeletal: striated; voluntary
ii. Cardiac: striated for synchronized heart contraction by intercalated disk;
involuntary
iii. Smooth: not striated; involuntary
IX. Nervous Tissue - composed of neurons and glial cells (support cells)
i. Neurons sense stimuli and transmit electrical signals, connected to one another
1. Dendrite - part of the neuron that receives impulses
2. Axon - transmits impulse

FORMS FITS FUNCTION

CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

Each species has a unique number of chromosomes

1. Human - Haploid(n) = 23; Diploid(2n) = 46
2. Fruit Fly - n = 4; 2n = 8
3. Dogs - n = 39; 2n = 78
 ●

● Alleles - forms of a gene with different DNA sequences

○ Encodes slightly different versions

CELL CYCLES - complex sequence of events by which cells grow and divide
Checkpoints:
1. G1 - restriction point; most cells stop at this
a. Ensures that cell is large enough for mitosis and has enough nutrients to support
daughter cells
b. Cell goes to a non-dividing state called G0 or rest state when it does not receive
the ‘go-ahead’
c. Most cells are in G0
2. G2 - ensures DNA replication in S(Synthesis) is successful
3. Metaphase Checkpoint - ensures all chromosomes are attached to mitotic spindle by
kinetochore

MITOSIS: PMAT
P - Prophase
M - Metaphase
A - Anaphase
T- Telophase

1. Prophase - preparatory stage;

a. centriole pair duplicates and
moves on opposite poles of
Nucleus;
b. DNA duplicated and condens
c. Nuclear Envelope breaks
down
d. Kinetochore forms on centromere of each chromatid
2. Metaphase - when chromosomes become arranged; centromere on one place between
two spindle poles
a. Long axes of the chromosomes are 90 degrees
b. Plane of alignment: metaphase plate
3. Anaphase - initiated by separation of sister chromatids
a. Daughter chromosomes move toward the poles
4. Telophase - daughter chromosomes complete migration to poles
a. Chromosomes uncoil and assume extended form in interphase
b. Nuclear membrane then forms around each chromosome group;
c. Spindle microtubules disappear
d. Nucleolus then forms
 ● Cancer Cells are the result when the cell cycle goes awry.

MEIOSIS:

1. Prophase I - divided into 5 substages:

a. Leptonema - replicated chromosomes are coiled and visible; number of
chromosomes is the same number in diploid cells.
b. Zygonema - homologues pair and twist around each other, this pairing is called
synapsis.
i. Bivalent Tetrad - pair of four chromatids
c. Pachynema - chromosomes become shorter and thicker. Physical exchange of
chromosome region “crossing-over” occurs. This recombines homologous
chromosomes (genetic recombination).
d. Diplonema - two pairs of sister chromatids separate from each other. Crossing
over is shown to happen. Chiasma, area of contact between two non-sister
chromatids become evident
e. Diakinesis - four chromatids of each tetrad are more condensed as well as
chiasma
2. Metaphase I - spindle apparatus is formed; microtubules attached to centromere
regions; synapse tetrads align at metaphase plate instead of replicated chromosomes
3. Anaphase I - chromosomes migrate to opposite poles, sister chromatids(dyads) remain
attached
4. Telophase I - dyads complete migration, new nuclear membranes form. Cytokinesis
produces two daughter cells.
a. Each daughter cell has a nucleus with only one set of replicated chromosomes
Second Meiotic Division:
1. Prophase II - dyads contract
2. Metaphase II - centromeres are directed to metaphase plate and divide
3. Anaphase II - sister chromatids (monads) move away from each other and migrate to
opposite poles of spindle fiber
4. Telophase II - monads at the poles, forming two groups of chromosomes. Nuclear
membrane forms on each group and cytokinesis follows. Chromosomes uncoil and
extend.
Chromosomal Abnormalities:
1. Turner Syndrome - caused by nondisjunction
○ Happens when a pair of sex chromosomes fail to separate
○ When sperm with no X chromosome unites with a normal egg, that embryo will
only have one (1) X chromosome than XX
○ X chromosome will be missing from every cell of a baby’s body as it grows

2. Klinefelter Syndrome(XXY) - 47, is caused when someone has two X chromosomes and
one Y chromosomes
3. Down Syndrome - caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21, makes it difficult for
cells to control how much protein is made.
 ○ Producing too much or too little protein has serious consequences
4. Cri-du-Chat Syndrome - deletion caused by break in the DNA molecule.

5. Williams Syndrome - microdeletion syndrome, deletion is too small.

6.