[Link].

1st / 2nd Semester – All Branches

Engineering Physics (BAS – 101/201)
Model Questions
SECTION – C: LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
UNIT-1: QUANTUM MECHANICS
1. What is the physical significance of wave function? Derive time independent & time dependent Schrodinger wave equation.
Ans: Physical Significance of Wave Function 𝚿: According to Max Born, “Wave function 𝛹 has no physical significance of its own, rather, the
square of the absolute magnitude of wave function i.e. |𝛹|2 evaluated at a particular point at a particular time instance gives the probability of
finding that particle at that point at that time instance.”
ℎ
Schrödinger wave eq in Time Independent Form. if we place ℏ = the above equation becomes
2𝜋
Let there be a particle of mass m moving with velocity v with a 2𝑚
∇2 Ψ + 2 (𝐸 − 𝑉)Ψ = 0
potential energy V. Then its total energy E will be given by ℏ
1 2
(𝑚𝑣)2 𝑝2 This is Schrödinger wave eq in Time Independent Form.
𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑉 = +𝑉 = +𝑉
2 2𝑚 2𝑚
Schrödinger wave eq in Time dependent Form.
⇒ 𝑝 = √2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)
We know that the wave function describing the wave nature of the
Hence its de-Broglie’s wave length is given as
particle is Ψ = 𝜓𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = … … (1) Partially differentiating the above eq w.r.t ‘t’, we get
𝑝 √2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉) 𝜕Ψ
= −𝒾ω𝜓𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 = −𝒾ωΨ = −𝒾 (2πϑ)Ψ ∵ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜗
Let us suppose that the wave function describing its wave nature is 𝜕𝑡
𝜕Ψ E
Ψ = 𝜓𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 … … (2) = −𝒾 (2πϑ)Ψ = −𝒾 (2π ) Ψ ∵ 𝐸 = ℎ𝜗
We know that the general wave equation is 𝜕𝑡 ℎ
1 𝜕2 Ψ
−1 ℎ 𝜕Ψ ℎ 𝜕Ψ
∇2 Ψ = 2 2 … … (3) ⇒ 𝐸Ψ = ( ) = 𝒾( ) ∵ −1 = 𝒾 2
𝑢 𝜕𝑡 𝒾 2𝜋 𝜕𝑡 2𝜋 𝜕𝑡
where Ψ is the wave function which is a function of x, y, z & t, 𝜕Ψ ℎ
⇒ 𝐸Ψ = 𝒾ℏ … … (5) ∵ ℏ=
and u is wave speed. 𝜕𝑡 2𝜋
Partially differentiating eq (2) two times w.r.t ‘t’, we get Schrödinger wave eq in Time Independent Form is
𝜕2Ψ 2𝑚
= −𝜔 2
𝜓 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
= −𝜔 2
Ψ ∇2 Ψ + 2 (𝐸 − 𝑉)Ψ = 0
𝜕𝑡 2 𝑜 ℏ
2𝑚 2𝑚
Placing the above value in eq (3), we get Or ∇2 Ψ − 2 𝑉Ψ = − 2 𝐸Ψ
ℏ ℏ
𝜔2 2𝜋𝜗 2 2𝜋 2 Dividing throughout by −
2𝑚
we get
∇2 Ψ = − ( 2 ) Ψ = − ( ) Ψ = − ( ) Ψ ℏ2
𝑢 𝜗𝜆 𝜆
4𝜋 2 ℏ2 2
2
∇ Ψ + 2 Ψ = 0 … … (4) − ∇ Ψ + 𝑉Ψ = EΨ
𝜆 2𝑚
Placing the value of 𝜆 from eq (1) in the above we get, Placing the value of 𝐸Ψ in the above eq from eq (5), we get
4𝜋 2 ℏ2 2 𝜕Ψ
∇2 Ψ + 2 [2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)]Ψ = 0 − ∇ Ψ + 𝑉Ψ = 𝒾ℏ
ℎ 2𝑚 𝜕𝑡
This is Schrödinger wave eq in Time dependent Form.
2. Write the Schrodinger wave equation for a particle in one dimensional box and solve it to obtain the energy eigen values and eigen
function?
Ans: Let there be a particle of mass m, as shown in the adjoining figure.
The time independent Schrodinger eq is
2𝑚
∇2 Ψ + 2 (𝐸 − 𝑉)Ψ = 0
ℏ
The particle is free to move along x-axis only, within the range 0 < x < a.
Then V = 0 in this range.
The time independent Schrodinger eq describing this particle is
2𝑚 𝜕 2 Ψ 8𝜋 2 𝑚
∇2 Ψ + 2 (𝐸)Ψ = + EΨ = 0 … … (𝟏)
ℏ 𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
𝟐
If we take,
𝟖𝝅 𝒎𝑬
= 𝑲𝟐 …………..(2) , On placing this value in eq (5) it becomes 𝛹=
𝒉𝟐 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Placing this value in eq (1) , we get 𝐴 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 ( ) … … (𝟔)
𝑎
𝜕2Ψ • 3rdcondition: 𝚿 is normalized between0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 .
+ 𝐾 2 Ψ = 0 … … (𝟑) 𝑎
𝜕𝑥 2 i.e. ∫0 |𝜳|𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏
The general solution for eq (3) is given by 𝑎
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝟐
𝛹 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖 𝑛(𝐾𝑥) + 𝐵 cos (𝐾𝑥) … … (𝟒) ⇒ ∫ |𝐴 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 ( )| 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏
0 𝑎
Where A, B and K are arbitrary constants.
𝑎 𝟐
Applying the boundary conditions. ⇒ 𝐴2 × = 1 ⇒ 𝑨=√
2 𝒂
• 1st Boundary condition: 𝚿 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎, Placing this value of A in eq (6), it finally becomes,
On placing the above values in eq (4), we get
𝛹 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖 𝑛(0) + 𝐵 cos(0) = 0 𝟐 𝒏𝝅𝒙
𝜳 = √ 𝒔𝒊 𝒏 ( ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … … ..
⇒ 𝑩=𝟎 𝒂 𝒂
Hence, eq (4) becomes, 𝛹 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖 𝑛(𝐾𝑥) … … (𝟓) This is the Normalized wave function for the particle free to move in a
• 2ndBoundary condition: 𝚿 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐭 𝐱 = 𝐚, one-dimensional box.
On placing the above values in eq (5), we get 8𝜋2 𝑚𝐸
𝛹 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖 𝑛(𝐾𝑎) = 0 Energy of the Particle wave: Let us take eq (2) again, i.e. = 𝐾2
ℎ2
2 2 2
⇒ 𝑠𝑖 𝑛(𝐾𝑎) = 0 ℎ ℎ 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
⇒ 𝐸= × 𝐾2 = ×( ) ∵𝐾=
⇒ 𝐾𝑎 = 𝑛𝜋 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … … .. 8𝑚𝜋 2 8𝑚𝜋 2 𝑎 𝑎
𝒏𝝅 ℎ2
⇒ 𝑲= ⇒ 𝐸=𝑛 ( 2
) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … …
𝒂 8𝑚𝑎2

1
Energy Eigen Values and Eigen Wave function
Energy and wave function are given as
ℎ2 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐸 = 𝑛2 ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛹 = √ 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 ( ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … …
8𝑚𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎
Energy and Wave function of the particle wave tend to change with the value of n.
• At n = 0, 𝐸0 = 0 & 𝛹0 = 0 ⇒ Particle is at rest
ℎ2 2 𝜋𝑥
• At n = 1, 𝐸1 = ( ) & 𝛹1 = √ 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 ( ) ⇒ Ground State
8𝑚𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎
ℎ2 2 2𝜋𝑥
• At n = 2, 𝐸2 = ( ) & 𝛹2 = √ 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 ( ) ⇒ 1st Excited State
2𝑚𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎
9 ℎ2 2 3𝜋𝑥
• At n = 3, 𝐸3 = ( ) & 𝛹3 = √ 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 ( ) ⇒ 2nd Excited State
8 𝑚𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎
And so on.

3. What is Compton effect? Derive the expression of Compton’s wavelength shift.

Ans: “When a high energy x or gamma ray photon is scattered by a free electron in the target material, resulting in an increase in the
wavelength of the incident photon, then this is called Compton Effect. It is also known as Compton Scattering.”
Two types of component are obtained in the scattered photon beam -
• one component having the same wavelength as that of the incident photon. These are called unmodified radiation.
• the other component has higher wavelength compared to incident radiation. These are called modified radiation.
Let an x-ray photon of frequency 𝜐 collides with a stationary electron of rest
mass 𝑚𝑜 , as shown in the figure.
According to Law of conservation of Energy,
Loss in photon energy = Kinetic Energy (KE) gain by recoil electron
i.e. ℎ𝜐 − ℎ𝜐 ′ = 𝐾𝐸 …..…. (1) [where h is the Planck’s
constant]
Applying Law of Conservation of Momentum –
- along horizontal axis, we get
ℎ𝜐 ℎ𝜐′
+ 0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 + 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃…..…. (2)
𝑐 𝑐
- along vertical axis, we get
ℎ𝜐′
0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 − 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃…...... (3)
𝑐
Multiply equations 2 & 3 by c then solving we get: Now Substituting the value of 𝑝2 𝑐 2 from equation (6) into (10), we get
𝑝𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ℎ𝜐 − ℎ𝜐′𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 ………. (4) 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 (ℎ𝜐 − ℎ𝜐 ′ ) = 2(ℎ𝜐)(ℎ𝜐 ′ )(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) ……… (11)
𝑝𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ℎ𝜐′𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 ……………. (5) ℎ𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 (𝜐 − 𝜐 ′ ) = (ℎ2 )(𝜐𝜐 ′ )(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
By squaring and then adding eqn. (3) & (4), we get: (𝜐−𝜐′ ) ℎ
(𝑝𝑐)2 = (ℎ𝜐)2 − 2(ℎ𝜐)(ℎ𝜐 ′ )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 + (ℎ𝜐′)2 ……… (6) = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
𝜐𝜐′ 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
the total energy of recoiled electron is given by: 1 1 ℎ
− = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
Total Energy = KE + Rest Mass Energy 𝜐′ 𝜐 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
𝑐 𝑐 ℎ
𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 ……….. (7) − = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
𝜐′ 𝜐 𝑚𝑜 𝑐
But the total energy of recoiled electron is also given by
𝐸 2 = 𝑚02 𝑐 4 + 𝑝2 𝑐 2 ………….. (8) ℎ
Replacing the value of E in eq (8) from (7), we get 𝜆′ − 𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
2 2 2
(𝐾𝐸 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 ) = 𝑚0 𝑐 + 𝑝 𝑐4 2 2
Δ𝜆 = 𝜆𝑐 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
(𝐾𝐸)2 + 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 (𝐾𝐸) = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 ………. (9)
• The term Δ𝝀 gives the change in photon wavelength due to Scattering
Now, substituting the value 𝐾𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 − ℎ𝜐 ′ in eq(9) we get
2 with a free electron. It is called Compton Shift.
𝑝2 𝑐 2 = (ℎ𝜐)2 − 2(ℎ𝜐)(ℎ𝜐 ′ ) + (ℎ𝜐 ′ ) + 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 (ℎ𝜐 − ℎ𝜐 ′ )…..(10) ℎ
• The term 𝜆𝑐 = = 2.426 × 10−12 𝑚 is called Compton Wavelength.
𝑚𝑜 𝑐

UNIT-2: ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

1. Derive the EM wave equations for free space. Show that electromagnetic waves travel with velocity of light in free space. Or
Deduce the Maxwell’s equations for free space. Show that the wave equation for electric and magnetic fields is given by-
𝝏𝟐 𝑬 𝝏𝟐 𝑯 𝟏
𝛁2 E = µ0ϵ0 & 𝛁2 H = µ0ϵ0 . Also prove that c =
𝝏𝒕𝟐 𝝏𝒕𝟐 √𝛍𝐨 𝛜𝐨
Ans: Maxwell’s equations are ⃗⃗⃗
∇. 𝐷⃗ =𝜌 ⃗∇. 𝐵
⃗ =0 ⃗ 2 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇𝑜
−∇
𝜕
(ϵo
⃗
∂E
)
⃗
𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃗
∂D 𝜕𝑡 ∂t
⃗∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − ⃗∇ × ⃗H
⃗ = J+ ∂2 E
⃗
⃗ 2 𝐸⃗ − 𝜇𝑜 ϵo 2 = 0
𝜕𝑡 ∂t ⇒ ∇ (6)
∂t
⃗ = 𝜖𝑜 𝐸⃗ , 𝐵
Where 𝐷 ⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻⃗ & 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸⃗ Similarly taking curl of equation (4) and solving as above, we obtain
For free space, 𝜌 = 0 , 𝜎 = 0, 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜀𝑜 & 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜇𝑜 ∂2 ⃗H
⃗
⇒ ⃗∇2 𝐻 ⃗ − 𝜇𝑜 ϵ o = 0 (7)
Therefore for free space Maxwell’s equations become ∂t 2
⃗⃗⃗
∇. 𝐸⃗ = 0 (1) ⃗∇. 𝐻
⃗ =0 (2) Equations no. (6) and (7) are the em wave equations in free space.
⃗
𝜕𝐻 ⃗
∂E If we compare these equations with general wave equation
⃗∇ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇𝑜 (3) ⃗∇ × ⃗H
⃗ = ϵo (4)
𝜕𝑡 ∂t 1 ∂2 u ⃗
⃗ 2𝑢
∇ ⃗ − = 0 (8)
Now taking curl of equation (3), we get 𝑣 2 ∂t 2
⃗
⃗ × 𝐸⃗ ) = ⃗∇ × (−𝜇𝑜 𝜕𝐻)
⃗∇ × (∇ Where 𝒖 ⃗ is the wave function and v is wave speed., Comparing
1 1
𝜕𝑡 (6),(7) & (8), we get 2 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜖𝑜 ⇒ 𝑣2 =
⃗ × 𝐶 ) = 𝐴 (𝐵
We know that 𝐴 × (𝐵 ⃗ . 𝐶 ) - (𝐴. 𝐵
⃗ )𝐶, therefore 𝑣 𝜇𝑜𝜖𝑜
𝜕
⃗∇(∇
⃗ . 𝐸⃗ ) − ⃗∇2 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇𝑜 ⃗ ×𝐻
(∇ ⃗ )…………………….(5) 1 4𝜋 4𝜋 1 1
𝜕𝑡 𝑣=√ =√ =√ × = √ −7 × 9 × 109
⃗ 𝜇𝑜 𝜖𝑜 4𝜋𝜇𝑜 𝜖𝑜 4π × 10−7 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 10
from equations (1) and (4) we have ⃗⃗⃗ ∇. 𝐸⃗ = 0 & ∇ ⃗ = ϵo ∂E
⃗ × ⃗H
∂t 1
Placing these values in equation (5) we get 𝑣 = √9 × 1016 = 3 × 102 𝑚/𝑠 =𝑐 ⇒ 𝒗=𝒄=√
𝜇𝑜 𝜖𝑜

2
2. Write em wave equations for free space and show that em wave propagation is transverse.
Ans: Maxwell’s equations for free space From eq (1) we have ⃗⃗⃗
∇. 𝐸⃗ = 0
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
∇. 𝐸 = 0 (1) ⃗ ⃗
∇. 𝐻 = 0 (2) ⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸⃗ = ( 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝜕 𝑘
LHS = ∇.
𝜕 𝜕 ̂ ) . [𝐸𝑜x 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑜y 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑜z 𝑘 ⃗⃗ .𝑟
̂ ]𝑒𝑖(𝐾 ⃗ −𝜔𝑡)
⃗
𝜕𝐻 ⃗
∂E 𝜕x 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇𝑜
∇ (3) ⃗ × ⃗H
∇ ⃗ = ϵo (4) 𝜕 ⃗ .𝑟 −𝜔𝑡)
𝑖(𝐾
𝜕𝑡 ∂t =∑ [𝐸𝑜x 𝑒 ]
By finding curl of eq (3) and solving, we can derive that em wave 𝜕x
⃗ .𝑟 −𝜔𝑡) 𝜕
𝑖(𝐾 ⃗ . 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡)]
equations are ⃗ 2 𝐸⃗ − 𝜇𝑜 ϵo
∇
∂2 E
⃗
= 0 (5) = ∑ 𝐸𝑜x 𝑒 [𝑖(𝐾
∂t2
𝜕x
⃗ .𝑟 −𝜔𝑡) 𝜕
𝑖(𝐾
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇ ⃗ 2𝐻⃗ − 𝜇𝑜 ϵo 2 = 0 ∂2 H
⃗⃗
(6) =∑ 𝐸𝑜x 𝑒 [𝑖(𝐾x x + 𝐾y 𝑦 + 𝐾z 𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡)]
𝜕x
∂t
⃗ .𝑟 −𝜔𝑡)
𝑖(𝐾
General solutions to these equations can be written as =∑ 𝐸𝑜x 𝑒 (
𝑖𝐾x )
𝐸𝑜 𝑒 𝑖(𝐾⃗.𝑟−𝜔𝑡)
𝐸⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ (7) = 𝑖(𝐾x 𝐸𝑜x + 𝐾y 𝐸𝑜y + 𝐾z 𝐸𝑜z )𝑒 𝑖(𝐾⃗.𝑟−𝜔𝑡)
⃗𝐻 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ .𝑟 −𝜔𝑡)
𝑖(𝐾
𝐻𝑜 𝑒 (8) = 𝑖(𝐾⃗ .𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑜 )𝑒 𝑖(𝐾⃗.𝑟−𝜔𝑡)
Where 𝐸𝑜 = 𝐸𝑜x 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑜y 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑜z 𝑘̂ , Amplitude of Electric field
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
∇. 𝐸⃗ = 𝑖𝐾⃗ . 𝐸⃗ = 0 ⇒ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑲 ⊥ ⃗⃗⃗𝑬
𝐻𝑜 = 𝐻𝑜x 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑜y 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑜z 𝑘̂, Amplitude of Magnetic field
⃗⃗⃗⃗ Similarly solving eq(2) as above, we obtain
𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘 ̂, Reference position vector ⃗⃗⃗
∇. 𝐻⃗ = 𝑖𝐾⃗ .𝐻
⃗ =0 ⇒ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑲 ⊥ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑯
⃗𝐾 = 𝐾x 𝑖̂ + 𝐾y 𝑗̂ + 𝐾z 𝑘̂ , Propagation vector This shows that em wave propagation is transverse.
3. State and prove the work- energy or Poynting theorem for the flow of energy in an electromagnetic field?
Ans: “Poynting theorem states that the work done on the charge by
𝜕 2 ⃗⃗ 2 ⃗
an electromagnetic force is equal to the decrease in energy stored Now (𝐻⃗ ) =2𝐻 ⃗ . ∂H and 𝜕 (𝐸⃗ ) = 2 𝐸⃗ . ∂E
𝜕𝑡 ∂t 𝜕𝑡 ∂t
in the field, less than the energy which flowed out through the
surface.” So, eq (5) becomes
⃗⃗ . 𝐽 − 𝜇 𝜕 (𝐻 ϵ 𝜕
⃗
Maxwell’s 3rd equation is ⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = − 𝜕𝐵 (1)
∇ ⃗∇. (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ ) = −𝐸
2
⃗) − (𝐸⃗ )
2
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡
Maxwell’s 4th equation is (∇ ⃗ ) = 𝐽 + 𝜕𝐷⃗
⃗ ×𝐻 (2) 𝜇𝜕
⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . 𝐽 = −
2
⃗ ) −∇ ⃗ . (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻 ⃗ )−
ϵ 𝜕 2
𝜕𝑡 ⇒ (𝐻 (𝐸⃗ )
⃗ 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡
Or 𝐻 ⃗ . (𝜕𝐵)
⃗ .( ⃗∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) = −𝐻 (3) 𝜕 𝜇 2 ϵ 2
𝜕𝑡 ⇒ 𝐸⃗ . 𝐽 = − [ (𝐻 ⃗ ) + (𝐸⃗ ) ] − ⃗∇. (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻 ⃗)
⃗ 𝜕𝑡 2 2
And 𝐸⃗ . (∇
⃗ ×𝐻⃗ ) = 𝐸⃗ . 𝐽 + 𝐸⃗ . (𝜕𝐷) (4) Integrating over the volume V, we get
𝜕𝑡
Now, subtracting eq (4) from (3), we get 𝜕 𝜇 2 ϵ 2
∫ (𝐸⃗ . 𝐽) 𝑑𝑉 = − ∫ [ (𝐻 ⃗ ) + (𝐸⃗ ) ] 𝑑𝑉 – ∫ [∇ ⃗ . (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ )] 𝑑𝑉
⃗ .( ∇
⃗ × 𝐸⃗ ) − 𝐸⃗ . (∇
⃗
⃗ . (𝜕𝐵) − 𝐸⃗ . 𝐽 − 𝐸⃗ . (𝜕𝐷⃗ ) 𝜕𝑡 𝑉 2 2
𝐻 ⃗ ×𝐻 ⃗ ) = −𝐻 𝑉 𝑉
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 From Gauss’s divergence theorem ∫ [∇ ⃗ . (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ )] 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻 ⃗ ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
From the property of scalar triple product, we have 𝑉 𝑆

⃗∇. (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻⃗)=𝐻 ⃗ . (∇

⃗ × 𝐸⃗ ) − 𝐸⃗ . (∇⃗ ×𝐻 ⃗)
𝝏 𝝁 𝟐 𝛜 𝟐
⃗ . (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ ) = 𝜇𝐻
⃗⃗
∂H
⃗ .( )−𝐸 ⃗⃗ . 𝐽 − −ϵ𝐸⃗ . (∂E⃗) ⇒ ⃗⃗ . 𝑱) 𝒅𝑽 = −
∫ (𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗ ) + (𝑬
∫ [ (𝑯 ⃗⃗ ) ] 𝒅𝑽 – ∫ (𝑬 ⃗⃗ ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑯 𝒅𝒔
⇒ ∇ (5) 𝝏𝒕 𝑽 𝟐 𝟐
∂t ∂t 𝑽 𝑺
In the above equation the terms are (Physical significance)–
• ∫ (𝐸⃗ . 𝐽) 𝑑𝑉 is generalized statement of Joule’s law and represents the total power (work per unit time) dissipated in volume V.
𝑉
𝜕 𝜇 2 2
• − ∫ ⃗ ) + ϵ (𝐸⃗ ) ] 𝑑𝑉 represents the rate of decrease of energy stored in the volume V due to electric and magnetic fields.
[ (𝐻
𝜕𝑡 𝑉 2 2
• ∫𝑆 (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ represents the rate of outward energy flow through the surface S enclosing the volume V.
⃗ ) . 𝑑𝑠
4. Explain the concept of displacement current. Why and How Maxwell modify Ampere’s circuital law? Prove that electromagnetic waves
are transverse in nature.
Ans: Maxwell established that changing electric field produces a Maxwell introduced the concept of displacement current and
magnetic field which makes it equivalent to a current producing the proposed that Ampere’s law should be written as
same effects as that of the conventional current. This changing (𝛁⃗ ×𝐻 ⃗ ) = 𝐽 + 𝐽𝐷
electric field is known as displacement current. Where 𝐽𝐷 is the displacement current density.
Now taking divergence on both sides of this new equation, we get
Ampere’s circuital law in its initial form was given as ⃗𝛁. (𝛁 ⃗ × ⃗H⃗ ) = ⃗𝛁. J + ⃗𝛁. JD
∮𝐵⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 Scalar triple product with two identical vectors yields zero
∮𝐻⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼, Where I is the net current threading. ⃗𝛁. J + ⃗𝛁. JD = 0
⇒
If 𝑱 be the current density, then 𝐼 = ∮ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ . J = −𝛁 ⃗ . JD
⇒ 𝛁
And ∮ 𝐻 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ∮(𝛁 ⃗ ×𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ , from Stoke’s theorem
⃗ ). 𝑑𝑠 𝝏𝝆
According to equation of continuity 𝒅𝒊𝒗 𝑱 = −
⃗ ⃗ 𝝏𝒕
Hence, Ampere’s law becomes (∇ × 𝐻 ) = 𝐽
⇒ − 𝛁⃗ . JD = − 𝝏𝝆
Or ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗
∇. (∇ × H) = ∇. J⃗ 𝝏𝒕
From Maxwell’s first equation ,we have 𝛁. ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑫 ⃗⃗ = 𝝆
Scalar triple product with two identical vectors is zero.
𝝏
⃗ ⃗
⇒ ∇. (∇ × H) = 0 ⃗
⃗ Therefore, ⃗
𝛁 . JD = ⃗⃗⃗
(𝛁. ⃗
𝑫 ⃗ )
𝝏𝒕
⇒ ⃗ .J = 0
∇ differentiation can be commuted on account of operators being
Equation of continuity is ⃗∇. J = − 𝜕𝜌 independent of each other, hence equation becomes
𝜕𝑡 ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗
For 𝛁 ⃗ .J= 0 , 𝝏𝝆
= 𝟎 ⇒ 𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. ⃗⃗⃗ (𝝏𝑫)
⃗ . JD = 𝛁.
𝛁 ⇒ JD =
𝝏𝑫
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
This shows that Ampere’s law was applicable for static fields only. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Hence (𝛁 ⃗ ×𝐻 ⃗ ) = 𝐽 + 𝝏𝑫
This is why Maxwell modified Ampere’s law. 𝝏𝒕
This is the modified form of Ampere’s law valid which is valid for
time varying fields as well.

3
 UNIT-3: WAVE AND OPTICS
1. Discuss the phenomena of interference of light due to thin films of uniform thickness in reflected light and find the conditions of
maxima and minima.
Ans: Let there be a thin transparent film of refractive index 𝜇 & thickness t.
A monochromatic beam of light falls on it and produces interference in the
reflected system, as shown in the figure.
The optical path difference between ray 1 & 2 is given as
𝛥 = 𝜇(𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶) − 𝐴𝐷 ------------(1)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
Snell’s law at point A gives, 𝜇=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
From right angle triangles ADC and AGC, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = 𝐴𝐷 ⁄𝐴𝐶 & 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 = 𝐺𝐶 ⁄𝐴𝐶
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝐴𝐷⁄𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐷
hence 𝜇= = = ∴ 𝐴𝐷 = 𝜇. 𝐺𝐶
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝐺𝐶 ⁄𝐴𝐶 𝐺𝐶
So the path difference from eq (1) is,
𝛥 = 𝜇(𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶) − 𝜇. 𝐺𝐶 = 𝜇(𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 − 𝐺𝐶) = 𝜇(𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐺)
∵ ∆𝑠 𝐵𝐸𝐴 𝑛𝑎𝑑 𝐵𝐸𝐹 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝐴𝑆𝐴 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒, 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐹𝐵
𝛥 = 𝜇(𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐺) = 𝜇(𝐹𝐺) _________(2)
𝐹𝐺
In ∟∆𝐴𝐺𝐹, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 = 𝐴𝐹 ∴ FG = AF 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 = 2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟
Hence the path difference from eq (2), 𝛥 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟
Including Stoke’s phase reversal in ray-1, • For minimum intensity path difference,
∴ Effective path difference is 𝜟 = 𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒓 ± 𝝀⁄𝟐 𝛥 = (2𝑛 ± 1) 𝜆⁄2
• For maximum intensity path difference, 𝛥 = 𝑛𝜆 ∴ 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 ± ⁄2 = (2𝑛 ± 1) 𝜆⁄2
𝜆
∴ 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 ± 𝜆⁄2 = 𝑛𝜆 𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀 , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …………
𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒓 = (𝟐𝒏 ± 𝟏) 𝝀⁄𝟐

2. Discuss the formation of interference fringes due to a wedge-shaped thin film seen normally in the reflected sodium light and
obtain an expression for fringe width.
Ans: Let there be a thin wedge shaped transparent film of refractive index 𝜇 & wedge angle 𝜃. A monochromatic beam of light falls on it and
produces interference in the reflected system, as shown in the figure.
The optical path difference between ray 1 & 2 is given as
𝛥 = 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) − 𝐵𝑀 ------------(1)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
Snell’s law at point B gives, 𝜇 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
From right angle triangles BMD and BND,
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = 𝐵𝑀⁄𝐵𝐷 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 = 𝐵𝑁⁄𝐵𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝐵𝑀 ⁄𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝑀
hence 𝜇= = = ∴ 𝐵𝑀 = 𝜇. 𝐵𝑁
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝐵𝑁⁄𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝑁
So the path difference from eq (1) is,
𝛥 = 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) − 𝜇. 𝐵𝑁 = 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 − 𝐵𝑁) = 𝜇(𝑁𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷)
∵ ∆𝑠 𝐷𝑄𝐶 𝑛𝑎𝑑 𝐿𝑄𝐶 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝐴𝑆𝐴 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒, 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐿
𝛥 = 𝜇(𝑁𝐶 + 𝐶𝐿) = 𝜇(𝑁𝐿) _________(2)
𝑁𝐿
In ∟∆𝐷𝑁𝐿, 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝑟 + 𝜃) =
𝐷𝐿
∴ NL = DL 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝑟 + 𝜃) = 2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝑟 + 𝜃)
Hence the path difference from eq (2), 𝛥 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝑟 + 𝜃)
Including Stoke’s phase reversal in ray-1,
∴ Effective path difference is 𝜟 = 𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝒓 + 𝜽) ± 𝝀⁄𝟐

• For maximum intensity path difference, 𝛥 = 𝑛𝜆 • For minimum intensity path difference, 𝛥 = (2𝑛 ± 1) 𝜆⁄2
∴ 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝑟 + 𝜃) ± 𝜆⁄2 = 𝑛𝜆 ∴∴ 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝑟 + 𝜃) ± 𝜆⁄2 = (2𝑛 ± 1) 𝜆⁄2
𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝒓 + 𝜽) = (𝟐𝒏 ± 𝟏) 𝝀⁄𝟐 𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝒓 + 𝜽) = 𝒏𝝀 , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …………
Fringe Width: For nth maxima, we have 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝑟 + 𝜃) ± 𝜆⁄2 = (2𝑛 ± 1) 𝜆⁄2
For normal incidence and for air film, r = 0 and 𝜇 = 1,
Then 2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = (2𝑛 ± 1) 𝜆⁄2
Distance of nth maxima from O is xn, then from the figure, we have 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
⇒ 2𝑥𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = (2𝑛 + 1) 𝜆⁄2
Special Cases-
2𝑥𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = (2𝑛 + 1) 𝜆⁄2
• If 𝜃 is very small, then sin𝜃 = 𝜃,
If xn+1 is the distance of (n+1)th maxima from O, then 𝝀
2𝑥𝑛+1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = (2𝑛 + 3) 𝜆⁄2
Therefore 𝝎=
𝟐𝜽
Distance between nth and (n+1)th maximum is the fringe width.
⇒ 2(𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜆 • If the film of material of refractive index 𝜇,
𝝀
𝝀 then 𝝎=
⇒ 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝝎 = (𝒙𝒏+𝟏 − 𝒙𝒏 ) = 𝟐𝝁𝜽
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽

4
 3. Discuss the formation of Newton's ring. Prove that in reflected light diameters of the dark rings are proportional to the square
root of natural numbers and diameters of the bright rings are proportional to the square root of odd natural numbers.
Ans: “An interference pattern, with alternate bright & dark concentric circular fringes,
obtained due to an air film formed between the curved surface of a Plano-Convex Lens and
a plane glass plate, is called Newton’s Rings.”
• It is a special case of interference due to a transparent wedge shaped film or a film of non-
uniform thickness.
• Set-up is shown in the figure.
We know that the Path difference between the interfering rays in the case of Wedge
shaped film is given as-
𝛥 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝑟 + 𝜃) ± 𝜆⁄2
In this case- 𝑟 = 0 & 𝜃~0 ⇒ 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝜟 = 𝟐𝝁𝒕 ± 𝝀⁄𝟐
Now conditions of Maxima and minima are given as-
• For Bright Rings, path difference is • For Dark Rings, path difference is
• 𝛥 = 𝑛𝜆 𝛥 = (2𝑛 ± 1) 𝜆⁄2
∴ 2𝜇𝑡 ± 𝜆⁄2 = 𝑛𝜆 ∴ 2𝜇𝑡 ± 𝜆⁄2 = (2𝑛 ± 1) 𝜆⁄2
𝟐𝝁𝒕 = (𝟐𝒏 ± 𝟏) 𝝀⁄𝟐 𝟐𝝁𝒕 = 𝒏𝝀 , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …

Diameters of the Rings

By using the theorem of geometry in the adjoining figure,
𝐵𝐷 × 𝐵𝐸 = 𝐵𝐶 × 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 = 2𝑅 − 𝑡,
𝑟 × 𝑟 = 𝑡(2𝑅 − 𝑡) where {𝐵𝐶 = 𝑡
𝑟 2 = (2𝑅𝑡 − 𝑡 2 ) 𝐵𝐷 = 𝑟
Because ‘t’ is very small as compared to ‘r’, therefore, neglecting t2
𝒓𝟐
𝑟 2 = 2𝑅𝑡 ⇒ 𝒕 = 𝟐𝑹  ()

•Condition for Maxima /Bright Ring is: 𝟐𝝁𝒕 = (𝟐𝒏 ± 𝟏) 𝝀⁄𝟐 •Condition for Minima /Dark Ring is: 𝟐𝝁𝒕 = 𝒏𝝀
𝑟2 𝑟2
from equation (1), we get 𝟐𝝁𝒕 = 2𝜇 = (2𝑛 ± 1) 𝜆⁄2 from equation (1), we get 𝟐𝝁𝒕 = 2𝜇
2𝑅
= 𝒏𝝀
2𝑅
⇒ 𝑟𝑛2 = (2𝑛 ± 1)
𝜆𝑅
⇒ 𝐷𝑛2 = (2𝑛 ± 1)
2𝜆𝑅 ⇒ 𝑟2𝑛 = 2𝑛 . 𝜆𝑅
2𝜇
⇒ 𝐷 = 4𝑛𝜆𝑅
2
𝜇
2𝜇 𝜇
⇒ 𝐷𝑛 = √(2𝑛 ± 1). √
2𝜆𝑅
⇒ 𝑫𝒏 ∝ √(𝟐𝒏 ± 𝟏). 4𝜆𝑅
𝜇 ⇒ 𝐷𝑛 = √𝑛. √
𝜇
⇒ 𝐷𝑛 ∝ √𝑛

UNIT-4: FIBRE OPTICS AND LASER

1. Define Acceptance angle, Numerical Aperture and Acceptance cone. Derive the expressions for Acceptance angle and Numerical
Aperture.
Ans: Acceptance Angle: It is the maximum angle of incidence at which the light signal entering the core is propagated by Total Internal
Reflection, without getting lost in the cladding.
√𝑛12 −𝑛22
It is given by, 𝑖𝑎 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎x = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [𝑁𝐴] = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [ ]
𝑛𝑜
Numerical Aperture: It is the light gathering ability of an optical fiber i.e. the amount of light that can be propagated through a fiber.
√𝑛12 −𝑛22
It is given by, 𝑁𝐴 = [ ]
𝑛𝑜
Acceptance Cone: An imaginary cone within which all the light signals entering the fiber will be collected and transmitted through the
fiber is known as the Acceptance Cone.
This cone is formed by an all round rotation of the signal entering the fiber at acceptance angle, about the fiber axis.
Let a light signal is propagated through an optical fiber of Core & cladding
Refractive Indices n1 & n2, respectively, as shown in the figure.
• At point A:
𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑛1
Snell’s law gives = ⇒ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 =
𝑛𝑜
× 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 ------(1)
𝑛𝑜 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟
𝐼𝑛 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶, 𝑟 = 90 − 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (90 − 𝜃) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑛
∴ 𝑒𝑞 (1) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠, 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = 1 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑛𝑜
𝑛1
⇒ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = × √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 ------(2)
𝑛𝑜
• At point C:
𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Snell’s law gives
𝑛1
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟′
𝑛2
For TIR at C, 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑐 (𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟′ ≥ 90 ⇒ = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐 ------(3)
𝑛1
For TIR at C eq(2) will be written as • Here Acceptance angle is given as-
𝑛1
𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑖𝑚𝑎x ) = × √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐 √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑛𝑜 𝑖𝑎 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎x = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [𝑁𝐴] = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [ ]
𝑛𝑜
𝑛1 𝑛 2 𝑛1 √ 𝑛2 2
1 −𝑛2
Using eq (3), we get, 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑖𝑚𝑎x ) =
𝑛𝑜
× √1 − ( 2) =
𝑛1 𝑛𝑜
×
𝑛1 • Numerical Aperture is given as-
√𝑛12 −𝑛22
√ 𝒏𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐 𝑁𝐴 = [ ]
⇒ 𝑺𝒊𝒏 (𝒊𝒎𝒂𝐱 ) = 𝑛𝑜
𝒏𝒐

5
[Link] do you understand by attenuation in optical fiber? Discuss the important factors responsible for the loss of power in optical fiber.
Ans: There two types of power losses in optical fiber transmission-
Attenuation: Signal Dispersion
The reduction in amplitude and intensity of a signal as it is It is defined as the signal broadening or spreading while it
transmitted through an optical fibre is called Attenuation. propagates through the fibre.
It is given by-
𝟏 𝑷
𝜶 = × 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 ( 𝒊 ) • It occurs when a pulse sent into the fibre broadens in time
𝑳 𝑷𝒐 during propagation, which is caused when its phase velocity
where 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, its unit is dB/km th depends on its frequency. Due to this, pulses launched into the
L = Fiber length, 𝑃𝑖 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 & 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 fibre together emerge out at different times.
• Due to dispersion, a pulse of light travelling through a fibre not
A fibre with a lower attenuation will allow more power to reach a only gets attenuated but also distorted.
receiver than with a higher attenuation.
• Signal Dispersion in Optical Fibres is of two types-
Main causes of attenuation are-
(i) Modal/Intermodal Dispersion- It occurs when each mode
a) Absorption of light energy by the material of the fibre.
of signal travels different distances over the same time
b)Scattering of light due to impurities and imperfections present in span. Because of this they emerge out at different times
the fibre material. leading to pulse spreading. It does not occur in single mode
➢ Rayleigh Scattering- It takes place when the signal is fibre.
scattered by the microscopic in-homogeneities, microscopic (ii) Chromatic/Intra-modal Dispersion- It occurs when the
fluctuations in the density of the material content, small light source feeds the signal at different frequencies
refractive index irregularities caused due to impurity or including propagation delay differences between the
bubble formation. signals of different frequencies. It causes the broadening of
➢ Waveguide Scattering- It is caused by irregularities in the each transmitted mode.
waveguide geometry and can be minimised by placing an It is of two types-
additional silica layer over the cladding. a) Material Dispersion- It is caused when there are
c) Bending Losses which occur due to imperfections and different refractive index responses offered by the
deformations present in the fibre structure. material of the fibre to different frequencies of the
➢ Micro-bending Losses- These occur when the core surface input signal. As different spectral components of the
has smaller imperfections which cause light to refract into optical pulse have different speeds, it causes pulse
the cladding spreading in time.
➢ Macro-bending Losses- These occur due to wrapping or b) Waveguide Dispersion- It occurs when the speed of the
pulling of fibre round a corner through which the light wave in an optical fibre varies with its frequency due to
travelling through it cannot take the sharp bend and is lost in geometric reasons. It occurs for waves propagating
the cladding. through any inhomogeneous structure of the fibre.
The amount of wave guide dispersion depends upon the fibre design.
3. Explain the classification of optical fibers on the basis of modes of propagation and refractive index.
Optical fibers are classified into two categories as under.
On the basis of allowed modes- On the basis of Refractive Index-

4. What are Einstein’s coefficients? Obtain a relation between them (Einstein’s Equations). Also discuss the essential condition for laser
action. Or What are Induced absorption, Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated Emission? Derive Einstein’s Equations/Relations.
5.
Induced Absorption: When an atom residing in the ground state
absorbs the incident photon and jumps to some excited state then this
transition is known as induced absorption. hν = E2-E1
The rate of absorption may be expressed as
Rabs = B12 ρ(ν) N1 --------------(1)
Where – ρ(ν) = Energy density of incident beam. * B12 indicates the probability of an induced absorption transition.
N1 = Population of atoms in E1
B12 = Einstein’s coefficient of Induced absorption.

6
 Spontaneous Emission: The process in which an excited atom emits a
photon all by itself without any external influence, this is known as
Spontaneous emission.
The rate of emission may be expressed as hν = E2-E1
Rsp = A21 N2 -----------(2)
Where – N2 = Population of atoms in E2
A21 = Einstein’s coefficient of Spontaneous emission. * A21 gives the probability of a Spontaneous emission transitions.
Stimulated Emission:If an exited atom is stimulated to lose its energy in such a way that transition from the excited to lower state takes place
before the lapse of relaxation span (10-8 seconds), resulting in photon emission, then this is called stimulated emission.
The rate of stimulated emission of photon is given by
Rst = B21 ρ(ν) N2 ---------------(3)
Where – ρ(ν) = Energy density of incident beam.
N2 = Population of atoms in E2
B21 = Einstein’s coefficient of Stimulated Emission

* B12 indicates the probability of an induced absorption transition.

Einstein’s Relations: For steady state transitions the number of transitions from the excited state to the lower state must be equal to the
number of transitions from ground state to the excited state.
i.e. The number of absorptions = The no of emissions Plank’s Radiation Formula is
i.e. 𝑅𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑅𝑆𝑝 − 𝑅𝑆𝑡 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 1
𝜌 (𝜈) = [𝑒 (ℎ𝜐)/𝑘𝑇 −1]---------------- (6)
From equations (1), (2) & (3), we can substitute 𝑐3
Comparing eqs (5) & (6), we get

Dividing the Nr & Drof the RHS by (B12 N2 ) we get

𝐴 1
𝜌(𝜈) = 𝐵21 [𝑁1 𝐵 ]
12 − 21
𝑁2 𝐵12
These two equations are known as the Einstein’s Relations, which exhibit
𝑁1
We know that, 𝑁2
= 𝑒 (𝐸2 −𝐸1 )/𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒 (ℎ𝜐)/𝑘𝑇 relationship between Einstein coefficients.
• Population Inversion is the necessary condition to obtain stimulated
𝐴21 1 emissions.
⇒ 𝜌(𝜈) = [ ] ---------------- (5)
𝐵12 𝑒 (ℎ𝜐)/𝑘𝑇 −𝐵21
𝐵12
Population Inversion: The steady state condition of a transparent material in which the number of atoms in its excited state N 2 is larger than
the number of atoms in ground/lower energy state N1 i.e. N2 >N1 , is called Population Inversion.
If N1 and N2 are the populations in the ground and exited states respectively then according to Boltzmann’s law the population ratio
𝑵𝟏
between the two energy levels is given as = 𝒆(𝑬𝟐−𝑬𝟏)⁄𝒌𝑻 where 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 is the difference in energy of the two states,
𝑵𝟐
k is the Boltzmann’s constant & T is the absolute temperature.
6. Describe the construction and working of Ruby laser.
Ans: Ruby laser was devised by Maiman in 1960. It is the first laser that was ever
devised. It falls in the category of solid-state laser because the active material happens to
be a crystal of Ruby.
Construction:
• Energy Source: Xe flash lamp which emits white light.
• Working Substance: Ruby (single crystal): Al2O3 + Cr,
Cr3+ Concentration: 0.3 – 0.5%
Shape: Cylindrical Rod.
Dimensions: Length – 10cm.
Diameter- 0.8cm
• Optical Cavity: Single cylindrical crystal of ruby is taken whose ends are made flat,
one of which is fully silvered & the other one is partly silvered. The fully silvered face
of ruby rod has 100% reflection, while the partly silvered face has 90% reflection.
Working:
• White light from the Xe flash lamp enters the ruby and excites most of the chromium
atoms.
• The chromium atoms are pumped by blue and green light with wave length range
400 to 550 nm, in either E4 or E3 levels.
• Then they fall quickly to the meta stable (E2)level
• Population inversion is attained between E2 & E1
• The first spontaneous emission after 10-3 seconds, triggers stimulated emissions
giving off red light of wavelength 694.3 nm.
• The beam bounces back and forth between the silvered ends of the optical cavity,
until it gains enough energy to burst through the partially silvered end as laser light.
• The entire process repeats to give a pulsed output.

7
7. Describe the construction and working of He-Ne laser.
He – Ne laser was the first gas laser.
It was devised by Ali Javan and his associates, in1961.
Construction: The laser is fabricated in a tube filled with a mixture of helium and
neon gases, in the ratio 10:1.
• The mixture is filled inside the long narrow discharge tube. The pressure inside the
tube is maintained above 1mm Hg.
• Energy Source: Electrical discharge & Atom-atom/atom-electron collision
• Working Substance: Neon; in a mixture of He & Ne. He:Ne = 10:1.
Optical Cavity : At one of the ends a totally reflecting and on the other end a
transmitting cavity mirrors are attached. Hence, these mirrors form a resonator.
Working: The laser is excited by an electric discharge.
• This discharge first ionizes the He gas, so that the electrons flow through the gas.
• The electrons accelerated by the electric field release their energy to Ne gas atoms by
collisions.
• Hence, the population of Ne atoms in the excited states (20.66eV)increases rapidly in
comparison to lower states, reaching the state of population inversion.
• The Ne atoms jump to lower levels (18.75eV) by emitting a photon of wavelength
632.8nm spontaneously. These emissions grow and form the output beam.
• The wavelength 632.8nm is the red light of He – Ne laser.
• From there, the atom comes to ground state through collisions with walls.
He-Ne laser is a continuous wave laser belonging to four level system.
The light obtained from gas lasers is more directional and more monochromatic.
UNIT-5: SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND NANO-MATERIALS
1. Distinguish between type-I and type-II superconductors. Give some examples for both types.
Type - I or Soft superconductors: Type - II or Hard superconductors:
• These are those super • Those superconductors that lose their superconductivity gradually
conductors that lose when placed in an increasing external magnetic field.
their superconductivity • Substance remains in complete superconducting state up to a
abruptly at the critical lower critical field value 𝐻𝑐1 . At this value the magnetic flux lines
field value (𝐻𝑐 ),when start penetrating gradually with increasing the magnetic field.
placed in an increasing • At a relatively higher magnetic field 𝐻𝑐2 substance loses
external magnetic field. superconductivity completely & comes in its normal state
• Between 𝐻𝑐1 and 𝐻𝑐2 , the specimen is in mixed or vortex state.
• These substances
• They have a single and small value of show incomplete
𝐻𝑐 . Meissner’s effect.
• These don’t have a mixed or vortex • Usually impure
state. substances form
• These exhibit complete Meissner’s Type-II
effect. superconductor
• Usually pure substances form Type-I • These are called Hard
superconductors. Superconductors.
• These are called Soft Superconductors. • These are used for strong
• These can’t be used for strong electromagnets. Their practical electromagnets.
applications are limited. • Examples are NbTi, Nb3Sn, etc.
• Examples are Aluminium, Tin, Lead, Mercury etc.

[Link] what is Meissner’s effect? Describe critical magnetic field and critical current for superconductors.
Meissner effect: It is the expulsion of a magnetic field from a superconductor during its transition to the
superconducting state on cooling below its critical temperature.
Effects of Magnetic Field on Superconductors
When a material sample in its superconducting state at constant temperature is subjected to an increasing
magnetic field, the magnetic flux lines enter back inside the material sample at a particular value of
magnetic field and the material comes back in its normal state.
Critical Magnetic Field: The value of the magnetic field beyond which the superconductors return to
conducting state, is known as the critical magnetic field.
𝑻𝟐
It is given by 𝑯𝒄 (𝑻) = 𝑯𝒄 (𝟎) [𝟏 − ] where 𝐻𝑐 (𝑇)is the critical magnetic field at temperature T
𝑻𝒄 𝟐
and 𝐻𝑐 (0) is its value at 0 K.
* The value of the critical magnetic field is inversely proportional to the temperature.
Critical Current: When the current is supplied through a superconductor it produces a magnetic field.
Increasing current would increase the magnetic field also. If the magnetic field reaches the critical value the
material returns to its normal state, destroying its superconducting state.
So, the maximum value of current flowing through the superconductor at which superconductivity is
destroyed is called critical current.
If a superconducting wire of radius r carries current I, then
∴ ∮ 𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐻 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝐼
from Ampere’s law we have
If 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑐 then the value of current is 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼 ⇒ ∮ 𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼
i.e. 𝐼𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝐻𝑐 here 𝐻𝑐 is the critical field and 𝐼𝑐 is the critical
Magnetic field loop length around the wire = 2𝜋𝑟 current.
8
 [Link] are high temperature superconductors? Give few examples. Write down the characteristics and application of superconductors.
Ans: High Temperature Superconductors: Properties of Superconductors:
Superconducting materials, which exhibit superconducting property at The superconducting material shows some extraordinary properties
higher temperatures, are called high temperature which make them very important for modern technology. Some are
superconductors. Thus, those superconductors which possess higher listed below-
value of critical temperature as compared to conventional • Zero Electric Resistance (Infinite Conductivity)
superconductors are called high temperature superconductors. .g. • Magnetic field does not penetrate inside a Superconductor (Meissner
Yittrium Barium Copper Oxide(YBCO), Bismuth Strontium Calcium Effect).
Copper Oxide(BSCCO). • Above Critical Temperature they become normal conductors.
• Most of the high temperature superconductors are found to be • In all superconductors entropy decreases substantially below critical
non-metals and inter metallic compounds, but are oxides, that fall temperature.
into the category of ceramics. • Specific heat of
• All high temperature superconductors are oxides of copper, and bear superconductors
a particular type of crystal structure called Perovskite crystal doesn’t vary directly
structure. with the
• Crystal structures having large number of copper-oxygen layers are temperature but
called Perovskite crystal structure. exponentially.
• It was found that addition of extra copper-oxygen layer raises the • Critical Magnetic
critical temperature Tc to higher values. Field
• The super currents are strong in the copper-oxygen layer and • Presence of Persistent Currents
weak in the direction perpendicular to the planes. • Josephson Current
Applications of Superconductors • Superconductors are used in Electro-magnetic shielding.
• Superconductors are used in particle accelerators. • Magnetic levitation. Magnetically levitating the world’s fastest
• Superconductors are used in generators. trains.
• In the making of Supercomputers. • SQUIDs (superconducting quantum interference devices) are
• Superconductors are used in electric motors. being used in the production of highly sensitive magnetometers.
• Superconductors are used in long-distance, high-power They are generally used for the detection of land mines.
transmission lines. • Superconductors are also being used for the development of
• Superconductors are primarily employed for creating powerful high-intensity Electro Magnetic Impulse (EMP). They are used to
electromagnets in various applications. paralyze all the electronic equipment within the range, etc.
• They are used in memory or storage elements.

[Link] are nano materials. Write a short note on Quantum well, Quantum wire and Quantum dots with applications.
Ans: Nano materials: Particles in the form of crystals, rods, or spheres having size between 1 nm and 100 nm at least in one dimension.
Nano material classification is based on the number of dimensions of a material, which are outside the nano scale i.e.<100 nm range.
Quantum Dots(zero-dimensional -0D)-
• When all the dimensions of a nano material fall within the nano scale i.e. no dimensions is larger than 100 nm, they are called Nano
particles or Quantum Dots. Bucky balls, Nano crystals and nano clusters also fall in the same category.
• In this case particle is not free to move in any direction, hence its degree of freedom is zero i.e it is confined in one place.
Quantum Wire (one-dimensional nanomaterials - 1D)-
• When one dimension of the nano material is outside the nano scale and two dimensions are fall within nano range, it is called nano tube,
nano rod, or nano wire.E.g. CNTs.
• In this case the particle is free to move along one direction only and its degree of freedom is 1.
Quantum Well (two-dimensional nanomaterials - 2D)-
• When two dimensions of a nano material are outside the nano scale and only one dimension falls within nano range, such are called
quantum well or quantum layers.
• Examples are graphene, nano films, nano layers, and nano-coatings.
• In this case particle is free to move along two dimensions and its degree of freedom is 2.
Bulk (Three-dimensional materials - 3D)-
• These are the materials that are not confined to the nano scale in any dimension. All the dimensions are greater than 100nm.
• This class can contain bulk powders, dispersions of nano particles, bundles of nano wires, and nano tubes as well as multi-nano layers.
• In this case particle can move in any dimension and its degree of freedom is 3.

5. Define top-down process for synthesis of nano materials. Explain the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) / Sol-gel method.
Top-down approach: Bottom-up approach:
• It was advanced by Richard • It was pioneered by Jean-Marie Lehn.
Feynman in 1959. • In this process, nano phase materials
• It involves the techniques by very are produced by building of atom by
small structures are obtained by atom, molecule by molecule or
breaking down bulk matter into cluster by cluster.
nano sized particles.

• Size and morphology of the particles can’t be externally controlled. • This approach is more time consuming. Size and morphology
• It is relatively expensive and time consuming. of the fabricated particles is well controlled.
• Not suitable for large scale production. • Less expensive.
• Methods involved are-1. Ball milling 2. Plasma arching • Suitable for large scale production.
3. Laser sputtering • Methods involved are- 1. Sol-gel 2. Colloidal
4. Electro-deposition 4. Solution phase reductions

9
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) • Areas of growth are
Chemical vapour deposition is a well-known process in which chemically controlled by
reactive gases are used to deposit athin film on a solid substrate. patterning processes
CVD Apparatus: A CVD apparatus will consist of Gas delivery system, Reactor like photolithography
chamber, Substrate loading mechanism,Energy source, Vacuum system, or photo masking
Exhaust system & Process control equipment. (deposition patterns
Process Steps: The basic steps involved in this process are- are etched on to the
• In a chemical vapour deposition process, vapour is formed in a reaction surface layers of the
chamber by pyrolysis reduction, oxidation or nitridation, and then wafers).
deposited on the surface. This method is an
excellent method which
is used to control the
particle size, shape and
chemical compositions.
This method is used to
produce the nano
powders of oxides and
carbides of metals.
Production of pure metal
powders is also possible
using this method.

SOL-GEL Method
The sol-gel process is a wet chemical method for the synthesis of various • In this method, the molecular precursor (usually metal
nanostructures, especially metal oxide nanoparticles. alkoxide) is dissolved in water or alcohol to prepare a
stable sol.
Process Steps- • Then precursor solution is converted into a colloidal
suspension of increased viscosity, called a gel, by a series
of hydrolysis and polymerisation processes.
• This gel is then aged by poly condensation reaction till it
becomes like a porous mass and solvent is driven out of the
porous gel.
• After that it should be dried using appropriate methods
depending on the desired properties and application of the
gel.
• After the drying stage, the produced gels are powdered and
then calcinated.

6. Write down the properties and applications of nanomaterials.

Ans: General Properties of Nanomaterials Applications Of Nano Materials
There are three major physical properties of nanoparticles, and all are (i) Automotive industry: Lightweight construction, Painting
interrelated: (fillers, base coat, clear coat), Catalysts, Tires (fillers), Sensors,
(i) they are highly mobile in the free state. Coatings for window screens and car bodies
(ii) nanoparticles have a very high surface area to volume ratio. (ii) Chemical industry: Fillers for paint systems, Coating systems
(iii) they exhibit quantum confinement effects, where electrons move based on nanocomposites, Impregnation of papers, Switchable
different for very small sizes of particle. adhesives, Magnetic fluids
At nano scale some properties which we can only be seen at the nano (iii) Engineering: Wear protection for tools and machines (anti-
scale are - blocking coatings, scratch-resistant coatings on plastic parts,
• reactivity increases which makes them better catalysts (gold). etc.) Lubricant-free bearings
• increased diffusivity/permeability, especially at elevated (iv) Electronic industry: Data memory, Displays, Laser diodes,
temperatures. Glass fibers, Optical switches, Filters (IR-blocking), Conductive,
• reduction in melting temperature. antistatic coatings
• Altered solubility (v) Construction: Construction materials, Thermal insulation,
• suspensions of nanoparticles become possible due to stronger Flame retardants, Surface – functionalized building materials for
particle-solvent interactions. wood, floors, stone, facades, tiles, roof tiles, etc., Façade,
• Increased electrical conductivity e.g. insulators become conductors coatings, Groove mortar
(silicon) (vi) Medicine: Drug delivery systems, Contrast medium,
• Altered optical properties, e.g. gold nanoparticles appear deep red Prostheses and implants, Agents in cancer therapy, Active
to black in solution. agents, Medical rapid tests, Antimicrobial agents and coatings
• substances which usually stop light become transparent (copper); (vii) Textile/fabrics/non-woven stuff:Surface – processed textiles,
• it becomes possible to burn some materials (aluminium); Smart clothes
• solids turn into liquids at room temperature (gold). (viii) Energy: Fuel cells, Solar cells, Batteries, Capacitors
• Nano scale ferro magnetics can switch polarities even at slight (ix) Cosmetics: Sun protection, Lipsticks, Skin creams
intake of energy Toothpaste
(x) Food and drinks: Package materials, Additives, Storage life
sensors, Clarification of fruit juices,
(xi) Household: Ceramic coatings for irons, Odours catalyst
Cleaner for glass, ceramic, floor, windows
(xii) Sports/outdoor: Ski wax, Antifogging of glasses/goggles,
Antifouling coatings for ships/boats, Reinforced tennis rackets
and balls.

10
 [Link]. 1st / 2nd Semester – All Branches
Engineering Physics (BAS – 101/201)
Model Questions
SECTION – B: NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. The wavelength of an X-ray photon is doubled on being scattered 2. In a Compton scattering, X-rays of wavelength 0.015Å are
through 90°with a carbon block in a Compton Experiment. Find out scattered at 60°. Find the wavelength of scattered X-rays.
the wavelength of the incident photon. Also find the energy of the Calculate the energy of the recoiled electron also.
incident photon. (Electron mass = 9.1 × 10-31 𝑘𝑔, Planck’s constant ℎ
Ans: Given - 𝜃 = 60𝑜 , 𝜆 = 0.015Å = 0.015 ×
= 6.63 × 10-34 𝑚 𝑘𝑔/𝑠, speed of light 𝑐 = 3.0 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑚/𝑠). −10
10 𝐦
We know that, 𝑚𝑜 = 9.1 × 10-31 𝑘𝑔, ℎ = 6.63 × 10-34 𝑚 𝑘𝑔/𝑠,
Ans: Given - 𝑚𝑜 = 9.1 × 10-31 𝑘𝑔, ℎ = 6.63 × 10-34 𝑚 𝑘𝑔/𝑠,
𝑐 = 3.0 × 10 𝑚/𝑠
𝑐 = 3.0 × 10 𝑚/𝑠, 𝜃 = 90𝑜 , 𝜆́ = 2𝜆
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒔
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒔 ℎ
𝒉 𝜆́ − 𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝝀́ − 𝝀 = (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽) 𝑚𝑜 𝑐
𝒎𝒐 𝒄 ℎ
6.63 × 10−34 or 𝜆́ − 𝜆 = × 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃/2)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
2𝜆 − 𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠90)
9.1 × 10−31 × 3 × 108 6.63 × 10−34
6.63 × 10−34 𝝀́ − 0.015 × 10−10 = × 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (60/2)
𝜆= (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠90) 9.1 × 10−31 × 3 × 108
9.1 × 10−31 × 3×108 6.63 × 10 1 −34 2
𝜆 = 0.0245 × 10 −10
= 0.0245𝐴𝑜 𝝀́ = 0.015 × 10−10 + ( )
9.1 × 10−31 × 3×108 2
𝒄
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏, 𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 = 𝒉 𝝀́ = 0.015 × 10−10 + 0.012 × 10−10
𝝀
3 × 108 𝝀́ = 0.027 × 10−10 = 0.027𝐴𝑜
𝐸 = 6.63 × 10−34 × = 8.106 × 10−14 Joule 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 = 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏
0.0245 × 10−10 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 1 1
𝐾𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈́ = − = ℎ𝑐 ( − )
𝜆 ́𝜆 𝜆 𝜆́
1 1
𝐾𝐸 = 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 ( − )
0.015 × 10−10 0.027 × 10−10
−10
𝐾𝐸 = 0.05 × 10 Joule
3. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of an α-particle accelerated 4. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of neutron of energy 12.8
through a potential difference of 200 volts. MeV. Mass of neutron = 1.67x10-27 kg
Ans: Given – V = 200 volts
For an alpha particle - 𝑚 = 4 × 𝑚𝑝 = 4 × 1.67 × 10−27 kg
& 𝑞 = 2𝑒 = 2 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
de-Broglie’s wavelength for a charged particle accelerated by field of
potential difference V is given as
ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
𝜆= =
√2𝑚𝑞𝑉 √2 × 4 × 1.67 × 10−27 × 2 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 200
= 7.16 × 10−13 𝑚 = 0.00716𝐴𝑂

5. Calculate the energy difference between the ground state and the 6. Find the two lowest permissible energy states for an electron
first excited state for an electron in a one-dimensional rigid box of which is confined in a one dimensional infinite potential box of
length 10-8cm. width 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 m.
Ans: Given – 𝑎 = 2.5 × 10−10 m
We know that, 𝑚 = 9.1 × 10-31 𝑘𝑔, ℎ = 6.63 × 10-34 𝑚 𝑘𝑔/𝑠,
2
ℎ2 (6.63 × 10−34)
Energy, 𝐸 = 𝑛2 ( 2
2) = 𝑛 [ 2 ]
8𝑚𝑎 8×9.1 × 10−31 (𝟐.𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 )
𝑛2 (9.66× 10−19)
𝐸 = 𝑛2 (9.66 × 10 −19
)𝐽 = 𝑒𝑉
1.6× 10−19
𝐸 = 𝑛2 (6.04)𝑒𝑉
For Ground State , n=1
𝐸1 = 12 (6.04)𝑒𝑉 = 6.04𝑒𝑉
𝐸2 = 22 (6.04)𝑒𝑉 = 24.16𝑒𝑉

7. A 100-watt sodium lamp radiates its power. Calculate the electric 8. Define Poynting Vector. If the upper atmosphere layers of earth
and magnetic field strength at a distance of 5 meter from the lamp receive 1360 Watt/m2 energy from the sun, what are the peak
values of electric and magnetic field at the layer?
Ans: Given- 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦/𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 100𝑊, 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑟 = 5𝑚
Ans: Poynting Vector – Net energy flowing per unit cross-sectional
So the magnitude of Poynting vector
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 100𝑊 100𝑊 1 area per second in the form of em wave is called Poynting Vector.
S= /𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = = It is given by- 𝑆⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗⃗ & its unit is Joule/sec/m2 or Watt/m2
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 4𝜋𝑟 2 4𝜋(5)2 𝜋
1
⟹ 𝑆 = 𝐸𝐻 = Given- S = 1360 Watt/m2
𝜋 𝐸⃗⃗ ×𝐵
⃗⃗ 𝐸𝐵 2
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠
But
𝐸
=√
𝜇𝑜
= 376.6 𝑜ℎ𝑚 So the magnitude of Poynting vector, S= = =
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝑐
𝐻 𝜀𝑜
𝐸𝑜 𝐸𝑜2
𝐸 376.6 But 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ⟹ 𝑆 =
Therefore 𝐸 𝐻 × = ⟹ 𝐸 = 10.95𝑉/𝑚 √2 2𝜇𝑜 𝑐
𝐻 3.14
Now from the above eq. ⟹ 𝐸𝑜 = √2𝜇𝑜 𝑐𝑆 = √2 × 4𝜋 × 3 × 108 × 1360 = 1.012 𝑘𝑉/𝑚
𝐸 10.95 𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 −
𝐻 = = = 0.0291 𝐴 − 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛/𝑚 𝐸𝑜 1012
376.6 376.6 𝐵𝑜 = = = 3.37 × 10−6 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2
𝑐 3 × 108

1
9. If the earth receives 2 cal/min/cm2 solar energy, what are the 10. What is skin depth? Write the necessary formula for the skin
amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields of radiation? depth for conducting and non-conducting media. Calculate skin
2×4.2×104 depth for silver at 108 Hz frequency. Given for silver 𝝁 = 𝝁𝟎 ,
Given- Energy, S= 2 cal/min/cm2=
60
𝐽𝑚−2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 N/A2, 𝝈 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 mhos/m.
From Poynting theorem we have, S = EH Ans: Skin depth is defined as the distance travelled by the em wave
2 × 4.2 × 104 inside a medium after which the amplitude of the electric field reduces
⟹ 𝐸𝐻= = 1400 to 1/e times of its original value.
60
𝐸 𝜇𝑜 Skin depth for conducting medium is given by
But =√ = 376.6 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝐻 𝜀𝑜 𝟐 𝟏
𝐸 𝜹=√ =√
Therefore 𝐸 𝐻 × = 1400 × 376.6 𝝁𝝈𝝎 𝝁𝝈𝝅𝒇
𝐻
⟹ 𝐸 = 726.2 𝑉/𝑚 Skin depth for non-conducting medium is given by
2 𝛆
1400 𝜹= √
Now from the above eq. 𝐻 = 726.2 = 1.928 𝐴 − 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛/𝑚 σ 𝝁
Given- 𝜇 = 𝜇0 , 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 N/A2,
So now the amplitudes are, 𝐸𝑜 = 𝐸√2 = 726.2√2 𝜎 = 3 × 107 mhos/m. f =108 Hz
𝐸𝑜 = 1026.8𝑉/𝑚 Skin depth for good conductors is given as
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
And 𝐻𝑜 = 𝐻√2 = 1.928√2 𝜹=√ =√ =√
𝝁𝝈𝝎 𝝁𝝈𝝅𝒇 𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 × 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝐻𝑜 = 2.726𝐴 − 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛/𝑚
𝜹 = 0.0917×10-4m.
11. Light of wavelength 5893 Ǻ is reflected at nearly normal 12. Two plane glass surfaces in contact along one edge are
incident from a soap film of refractive index 1.42. What is least separated at the opposite edge by a thin wire. If 20 interference
thickness of the film that will appear (a) Dark and (b) Bright? fringes are observed between these edges, in sodium light of
Ans: Given- 𝜆 = 5893𝐴𝑜 = 5893 × 10−10 𝑚, 𝜇 = 1.42 wave length 5890 Ǻ in normal incidence, find the diameter of
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑛 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑟 = 0 the wire.
(a)𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 − 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 2𝑛
𝜆 Ans: Given- 𝜆 = 5890𝐴𝑜 = 5890 × 10−10 𝑚, 𝒙𝑛 = 20 × 𝜔
2 𝜆
𝑛𝜆 5893 × 10−10 𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝜔=
⇒𝑡= = −10
= 2075 × 10 𝑚 2𝜇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑟 + 𝜃)
2𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 2 × 1.42 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜃~0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃~𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑟 = 0
𝜆
(b) 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 − 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1) 𝜇 = 1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
2 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
(2𝑛 − 1)𝜆 5893 × 10−10 −10
𝜔 = 2𝜇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑟+𝜃) = ⟹ 𝜔𝜃 = 2
⇒𝑡= = = 1037.5 × 10 𝑚 2𝜃
4𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 4 × 1.42
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠
𝑡 = 𝒙𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝒙𝑛 𝜃
𝜆
𝑡 = 𝒙𝑛 𝜃 = 20 𝜔 𝜃 = 20 × = 10 × 5890 × 10−10 𝑚
2
𝑡 = 5890 × 10−9 𝑚
13. In Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of 4th& 12th 14. Newton's rings are observed by keeping spherical surface
dark rings are 0.4cm & 0.7cm respectively. Deduce the of 100 cm radius on a plane glass plate. If the diameter of
diameter of 20th dark ring. 15th bright ring is 0.590 cm & diameter of 5th bright ring is
Ans: 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛: 𝐷4 = 0.4𝑐𝑚 &𝐷12 = 0.7𝑐𝑚 0.336 cm. what is the wavelength of light used?
𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠, Ans: 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 − 𝑅 = 100𝑐𝑚, 𝐷215 = 0.590𝑐𝑚,
𝐷 2 𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷2 𝑛 = 4𝑝𝜆𝑅 𝐷2 5 = 0.336𝑐𝑚, 𝑝 = 10
⇒ 𝐷2 12 − 𝐷2 4 = 4 × 8 × 𝜆𝑅 Now we know that
𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝐷 2 20 − 𝐷2 4 = 4 × 16 × 𝜆𝑅 𝐷 2 𝑛+𝑝 −𝐷 2 𝑛 (0.590)2 −(0.336)2
𝜆= = = 5880Ao
𝐷212 − 𝐷2 4 4 × 8 × 𝜆𝑅 1 4𝑝𝑅 4×10×100
⇒ = =
𝐷2 20 − 𝐷2 4 4 × 16 × 𝜆𝑅 2
𝐷2 20 = 2 × (𝐷212 − 𝐷 2 4 ) − 𝐷2 4
= 2 × [(0.7)2 − (0.4)2 ] − (0.4)2 = 0.82
⇒ 𝐷20 = 0.0906𝑐𝑚
15. What must be the minimum number of lines per cm in a 16. A light of wavelength 6000Ao falls normally on a straight
half inch width grating to resolve the wave lengths 5890 Ǻ slit of width 0.1mm. Calculate the total angular width and
and 5896 Ǻ? linear width of the central maxima, as observed on a
Ans: Given- λ = 5890Ao , λ + dλ = 5896Ao ⟹ dλ = 6Ao screen placed 1m away.
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ,
1
𝑛 = 1, 𝑁𝑔 =? Ans: Given : 𝜆 = 6000𝐴𝑜 = 6000 × 10−10 𝑚, D=1m
2
𝑥 = 0.1𝑚𝑚 = 0.1 × 10−3 𝑚
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠
𝜆 𝑁𝑔 The angular half width of the central maxima is given by
= 𝑛𝑁 = 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 = =
𝜆 6000×10−10 𝑚
= 6 × 10−3 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
𝑑𝜆 2 𝑥 0.1×10−3 𝑚
2𝜆 2 × 5890
⟹ 𝑁𝑔 = = 𝑙𝑝𝑖 = 1964 𝑙𝑝𝑖 ⇒ 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 2 𝜃 = 12 × 10−3 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
𝑛𝑑𝜆 6 If D is the distance of the screen from the slits.
1964 𝑦
⟹ 𝑁𝑔 = 2.54 = 773 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒/𝑐𝑚 Now 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝜃𝐷 = 6 × 10−3 × 1𝑚
𝐷
∴ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 2𝑦 = 2 × 6 × 10−3 × 1𝑚 = 1.2 𝑐𝑚

2
17. Find the value of acceptance angle, numerical aperture & 18. A step index fiber has core & cladding refractive indices 1.466
critical angle for an optical fiber of core and cladding refractive & 1.460 respectively. If the Wavelength of light is 0.85m is
indices 1.50 & 1.45 respectively. propagated through the fiber of core diameter 50µm, find the
normalized frequency and number of modes supported by the
Ans: Given - 𝑛1 = 1.50, 𝑛2 = 1.45 fiber.
Numerical Aperture, 𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 Ans: 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 − 𝑛1 = 1.466, 𝑛2 = 1.460,
𝑁𝐴 = √(1.50)2 − (1.45)2 𝑑 = 2𝑎 = 50𝜇𝑚 = 50 × 10−6 𝑚, 𝜆 = 0.85𝜇𝑚
V- number is given as
𝑵𝑨 = 0.385 2𝜋𝑎
Acceptance angle = sin−1 (𝑁𝐴) = sin−1 (0.385) 𝑉= 𝜆
√𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑨𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟑° 3.14 × 50 × 10−6
𝑛2 1.45 = × √(1.466)2 − (1.460)2
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = sin−1 ( ) = sin−1 ( ) 0.85 × 10−6
𝑛1 1.50 𝑉 = 24.75
𝑪𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟕) = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟑° Number of allowed modes for SIF are given as
𝑉 2 (24.75)2
𝑁𝑚 = = ≈ 306
2 2
19. Calculate the fiber loss through the optical fiber when the 20. If the fractional difference between the core and cladding
mean optical power launched in to a 10 km length of fiber is refractive indices of a fiber is 0.0135 and numerical aperture is
120 x 10-6 W and the mean optical power at receiver is 4 x 10-6 W. 0.245, find core and cladding refractive indices of the fiber.
Ans: 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 − 𝐿 = 10𝐾𝑚, 𝑃𝑖 = 120 × 10−6 𝑊, Ans: 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 − 𝑁𝐴 = 0.245, ∆= 0.0135, 𝑛1 =? , 𝑛2 =?
𝑃𝑜 = 4 × 10−6 𝑊, ∝=? 𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 = 𝑛1 √2∆
1 𝑃𝑖 1 120 × 10−6
𝛼 = × 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) = × 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) 𝑁𝐴 0.245
𝐿 𝑃𝑜 10 4 × 10−6 ⇒ 𝑛1 = = = 1.476
1 120 × 10−6 √2∆ √2 × 0.0135
𝛼= × 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) 𝑛2
10 4 × 10−6 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝐼 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, ∆=1−
𝑛1
𝛼 = 0.14𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚
⇒ 𝑛2 = 𝑛1 (1 − ∆) = 1.476(1 − 0.0135) = 1.456
21. The critical field at 6K and 8K for NbTi alloys are 7.616 MA/m 22. The critical field for lead is 1.2 × 105 A/m at 8K & 2.4 × 105 A/m
and 4.284 MA/m respectively. Calculate transition temperature at 0K. Find the critical temperature of the material.
and the critical field at 0K. Given- 𝐻𝑐 (𝑇) = 1.2 × 105 A/m, T = 8K,
Ans: Given- 𝐻𝑐 (𝑇) = 7.616 MA/m at T = 6K, 𝐻𝑐 (0) = 2.4 × 105 A/m & 𝑇𝑐 =?
𝐻𝑐 (𝑇) = 4.284 MA/m at T = 8K, 𝑇2
We have, 𝐻𝑐 (𝑇) = 𝐻𝑐 (0) [1 − 2]
𝐻𝑐 (0) =? & 𝑇𝑐 =? 𝑇𝑐
𝑇2 𝑇 8
We have, 𝐻𝑐 (𝑇) = 𝐻𝑐 (0) [1 − ] ⇒ 𝑇𝑐 = = = 11.31𝐾
𝑇𝑐 2 𝐻 (𝑇) 1.2×105
(6)2 √[1 − 𝐻𝑐 (0)] √[1 − 5 ]
at T = 6K, 7.616 MA/m = 𝐻𝑐 (0) [1 − ] ----------(1) 𝑐 2.4×10
𝑇𝑐 2
23. Calculate the population ratio of two states in He-Ne laser
(8)2
at T = 8K, 4.284 MA/m = 𝐻𝑐 (0) [1 − ] ----------(2) that produces light of wavelength 6000Ao at 300K.
𝑇𝑐 2 𝑜 −10
(6)2 Ans: 𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 − 𝜆 = 6000𝐴 = 6000 × 10 𝑚, 𝑇 = 300𝐾
[1− 2 ]
7.616 𝑇𝑐 [𝑇 2 −(6)2 ] 𝑘𝑔
Div eq(1) by (2), we get, = (8)2
= [𝑇𝑐2−(8)2] 𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡, ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝑚 ,
𝑠
4.284 [1− 2 ] 𝑐 𝑚
𝑇𝑐 𝑐 = 3 × 108 ,
𝑠
𝑘 = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾
1.778𝑇𝑐 2 − 1.778 × 64 = 𝑇𝑐 2 − 36 We know that the population ratio is given as
𝑁1
113.79−36 = 𝑒 (𝐸2−𝐸1⁄𝑘𝑇) = 𝑒 (ℎ𝜈⁄𝑘𝑇)
𝑇𝑐 = √ = 10𝐾 𝑁2
0.778 𝑁1 (6.63 × 10−34 ×3 × 108 ⁄1.38×10
−23
×300)
(6)2 (6)2
= 𝑒 (ℎ𝑐 ⁄𝜆𝑘𝑇) = 𝑒
7.616 = 𝐻𝑐 (0) [1 − ] = 𝐻𝑐 (0) [1 − ] = 0.64 × 𝐻𝑐 (0) 𝑁2
𝑇𝑐 2 (10)2 𝑁1
𝐻𝑐 (0) =11.9 MA/m = 𝑒 (80)
𝑁2

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