CONDOLEEZZA HADISON

BHU/23/01/03/0029

ANATOMY

BIOLOGY 102 TERM PAPER

Assignment: Answer All Questions.

1. a) What are invertebrates?

b) List five (5) major phyla of invertebrates?

c) Write a two-page Biology of any three (3) of the Phyla covered in BIO 102

under

the following headings:

i) Four (4) characteristics of the Phyla

ii) Explain what their circulatory system is like? Open or Closed?

iii) Explain their Respiratory system. The organs they use.

iv) Describe their Nervous system

v) Include a colour picture of the animal described for each Phylum.

2. a) What do we mean by vectors in Biological terms?

b) Differentiate between a Vector and a Pathogen (with an example of each)

c) Write a short paragraph on Arthropod Vector Borne diseases in general.

d) Choose one arthropod vector borne disease and discuss its transmission.

e) Show a diagram of its life cycle.

ANSWER:

1.a) Invertebrates are animals that lack a vertebral column, or backbone. This

group includes a vast array of species, such as insects, arachnids, , crustaceans,

corals, sponges, and worms. Invertebrates make up the majority of animal species

on Earth and are incredibly diverse in terms of form, function, and habitat.

Invertebrates according to biologists is any animal that lacks a vertebral column, or

backbone, in contrast to the cartilaginous or bony vertebrates. More than 90

percent of all living animal species are invertebrates. Examples of invertebrates are

Insects: Butterflies, ants, beetles, bees Arachnids: Spiders, scorpions, ticks,

mitesMollusks: Snails, clams, squids, octopuses Crustaceans: Crabs, lobsters,

shrimp, barnacles Cnidarians: Jellyfish, corals, sea anemones Echinoderms:

Starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers Annelids: Earthworms, leeches Poriferans:

Sponges Nematodes: Roundworms.

1.b) 1. Arthropod: This is the largest phylum and includes Insects, arachnids (

Spiders, scorpions) , myriapods (centipedes, millipedes), and crustaceans ( Crabs,

lobsters, shrimp).

2. Mollusca: This phylum includes Snails, slugs, clams, oysters, squids, and

octopus.

3. Annelida: This phylum comprises segmented worms such as earthworms,

leaches, and polychaetes.

4. Criteria: This group includes Jellyfish, corals, sea anemones, and hydras.

5. Echinodermata: This phylum includes Starfish, sea urchins, sand dollars, and sea

cucumbers.

1c -ANNELIDA

-MOLLUSCA

- CHORDATA
1ci) Annelida Segmented Bodies: Annelids have bodies divided into repeated

segments, which often contain bristle-like structures called setae or chaetae.

Structure: They possess a true coelom, a fluid-filled body cavity completely lined

by mesoderm. Circulatory System: Annelids have a closed circulatory system

where blood is contained within vessels. Symmetry: Their bodies are bilaterally

symmetrical, meaning they can be divided

into mirror-image halves along one plane:

Mollusca: have a mantle, a significant body part that secretes the shell (if present)

and forms the mantle cavity. Foot: They possess a muscular foot used for

locomotion and anchoring. : Many mollusks have a radula, a tongue-like organ

with tiny teeth used for feeding. Mass: The internal organs are contained within a

visceral mass, which includes the digestive, reproductive, and excretory systems.

Chordata: Chordates have a notochord, a flexible, rod-like structure that provides

support, at some stage in their life cycle. Hollow Nerve Cord: They possess a

nerve cord located dorsally (on the back side), which usually develops into the

spinal cord and brain. Slits: Chordates have pharyngeal slits or pouches at some
stage in their development, used for filter-feeding or as gills. Post-Anal Tail: They

have a tail extending beyond the anus, present at least during some part of their

development.

Cii) Annelida Circulatory System: Annelids have a closed circulatory system,

meaning that the blood is contained within vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries)

throughout the entire circulation process. The blood circulates through the body in

a loop and is pumped by a series of hearts or contractile vessels. This system

allows for efficient transport of nutrients, gases, and waste products.

Mollusca Open or Closed Circulatory System: Open Circulatory System: Most

mollusks, including bivalves (clams, oysters) and many gastropods (snails, slugs),

have an open circulatory system. In this system, the blood (or hemolymph) is not

always contained within vessels. Instead, it flows freely through cavities called

hemocoels, bathing the organs directly.

Closed Circulatory System: Cephalopods (such as squids and octopuses) have a

closed circulatory system. In these mollusks, the blood is contained within vessels,

similar to the circulatory system of annelids, allowing for more efficient oxygen

and nutrient transport to support their active lifestyles.

Chordata Closed Circulatory System: All chordates, including vertebrates (fishes,

amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals), possess a closed circulatory system. In

this system, the blood circulates within a network of blood vessels (arteries, veins,

and capillaries) and is pumped by a heart. This efficient system supports their more

complex and active metabolic

Cii) Annelida Respiratory System: Annelids use their skin for respiration, a process

known as cutaneous respiration Skin: Annelids like earthworms breathe through

their skin, which must remain moist to allow the diffusion of oxygen and carbon

dioxide. Oxygen from the environment diffuses directly through the moist skin into

the blood vessels beneath, while carbon dioxide diffuses out.

Mollusca Respiratory System: Mollusks have varied respiratory systems depending

on their habitat and class. Gills: Aquatic mollusks, such as clams and squids, use

gills to extract oxygen from water. Gills are specialized organs with a large surface

area for gas exchange. Water flows over the gills, and oxygen is absorbed into the

blood, while carbon dioxide is expelled. Lungs or Mantle Cavity: Terrestrial

mollusks, like snails, often use a lung-like structure in their mantle cavity. Air

enters through an opening called the pneumostome, and gas exchange occurs

within the moist lining of the mantle cavity.

Chordata respiratory System: Chordates have more complex respiratory systems,

typically involving specialized organs. Gills: In aquatic chordates like fish, gills are

the primary respiratory organs. Water passes over the gill filaments, and oxygen is
extracted from the water into the bloodstream, while carbon dioxide is expelled.

Lungs: In terrestrial chordates, such as mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians,

lungs are used for respiration. Air is inhaled through the respiratory tract (nose,

trachea, bronchi), reaching the lungs where gas exchange occurs in the alveoli.

Oxygen enters the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide is expelled during exhalation

Skin: Some amphibians (e.g., frogs) also use their skin for respiration,

supplementing lung breathing, especially in water.

iv) Annelida Nervous System: Annelids have a relatively simple but well-organized

nervous system Brain: A small, bilobed brain (cerebral ganglion) located in the

head region. Ventral Nerve Cord: A pair of nerve cords runs along the length of the

body on the ventral (belly) side, connected to the brain. Segmental Ganglia: Each

body segment has its own segmental ganglia (clusters of nerve cells) connected to

the ventral nerve cord. These ganglia control local functions and movement in each

segment, allowing for coordinated movement.

Mollusca Nervous System: The complexity of the molluscan nervous system varies

greatly among different classes Bivalves (Clams, Oysters): Have a relatively

simple nervous system with three pairs of ganglia (cerebral, pedal, and visceral)

connected by nerve cords. They lack a true brain. Gastropods (Snails, Slugs):

Possess a more complex nervous system with a set of ganglia connected by nerve

cords, including cerebral, pedal, pleural, and visceral ganglia. They have a more
developed head region with sensory organs. Cephalopods (Octopuses, Squids):

Have the most advanced nervous system among mollusks. They have a large brain

encased in a cartilaginous cranium, sophisticated sensory organs (especially well-

developed eyes), and a network of nerves controlling their complex movements

and behaviors. Cephalopods are known for their intelligence and ability to learn

and solve problems.

Chordata Nervous System: Chordates have a highly developed and complex

nervous system. Central Nervous System (CNS): Composed of the brain and spinal

cord. Brain: The control center located in the head, responsible for processing

sensory information, making decisions, and controlling behavior.

Spinal Cord: A long, tubular structure running along the back, protected by the

vertebral column, that transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Consists of nerves and ganglia outside the

brain and spinal cord.

Sensory Nerves: Carry sensory information from the body to the

CNS .Motor Nerves: Transmit commands from the CNS to the muscles and glands.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls involuntary functions like heart rate,

digestion, and respiratory rate. Sympathetic Division: Prepares the body for "fight
or flight" responses. Parasympathetic Division: Promotes "rest and digest"

activities.

Phylum: ANNELIDA

Earthworm pic.1.1
Phylum: Mollusca Garden Snails fig 1.2
Phylum: CHORDATA

Frog fig 1.3

2a) In biology, a vector is an organism or a vehicle that transmits pathogens or

genetic material from one host to another. Vectors can play a critical role in the

spread of diseases and in genetic engineering.

2b) Example: Malaria Vector: Anopheles Mosquito Role as a Vector: The

Anopheles mosquito acts as a vector for the malaria parasite (Plasmodium

falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, etc.). When an infected mosquito bites a human, it

injects the malaria parasites into the bloodstream. The mosquito itself does not

cause malaria but transmits the parasite.

Pathogen: Malaria Parasite (Plasmodium)Nature: The malaria parasite

(Plasmodium) is the pathogen responsible for causing malaria. Infection Process:

Once inside a human host, the malaria parasite infects liver cells and red blood

cells, causing cycles of fever, chills, and other symptoms characteristic of malaria.

Differentiation Vector: The Anopheles mosquito is the carrier or vector that

transmits the malaria parasite (Plasmodium) from one person to another. Pathogen:

The malaria parasite (Plasmodium) is the microorganism that causes the disease

malaria by infecting and multiplying within human cells. In summary, the

Anopheles mosquito is the vector responsible for transmitting the malaria parasite

(Plasmodium), which is the pathogen causing malaria in humans. Understanding

this distinction is crucial for developing effective control measures and treatments

for malaria.

2c) Arthropod vector-borne diseases are infectious diseases transmitted to humans

and animals by arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, flies, and fleas. These vectors

play a critical role in the transmission cycle by acting as carriers of pathogens that

cause diseases like malaria, dengue fever, Lyme disease, and Zika virus.

Transmission typically occurs when a vector bites an infected host, acquiring the

pathogen. Subsequently, the pathogen multiplies within the vector. When the

infected vector bites a new host, it transmits the pathogen into the bloodstream,

initiating infection. The spread of arthropod vector-borne diseases is influenced by

various factors including vector abundance, behaviour, environmental conditions,

and human activities. Effective control strategies often focus on reducing vector

populations, implementing preventive measures such as insecticide-treated nets,

and developing vaccines where possible to mitigate the impact of these diseases on

public health. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2022).

Arthropod Vector-Borne Diseases.

2d)Lyme DiseaseTransmission:Lyme disease is caused by the bacterium Borelli

burgdorferi and is transmitted primarily through the bite of infected black-legged

ticks, also known as deer ticks (Ixodes scapulars in North America and Ixodes

ricinus in Europe).
Vector: Ticks are the vectors responsible for transmitting Lyme disease. These

arachnids acquire the Borrelia burgdorferi bacteria by feeding on infected reservoir

hosts, which can include small mammals like mice and deer.

Transmission Process:Bite: When an infected tick bites a human, it inserts its

mouthparts into the skin to feed on blood. During this feeding process, the tick

may transmit the bacteria into the bloodstream of the human host.

Attachment Time: Transmission typically occurs after the tick has been attached

and feeding for at least 36-48 hours. It's important to remove ticks promptly to

reduce the risk of transmission.

Geographical Distribution: Lyme disease transmission is most common in wooded

and grassy areas where ticks thrive and where there is close contact between

humans and infected ticks.

Prevention: Preventive measures include wearing protective clothing (long sleeves,

pants), using insect repellents containing DEET, conducting tick checks after

outdoor activities, and promptly removing ticks using tweezers.

Symptoms: Symptoms of Lyme disease can include a characteristic bull's-eye rash

(erythema migrans), fever, headache, fatigue, and joint pain. If untreated, Lyme

disease can lead to more serious complications affecting the heart, nervous system,
and joints. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2022). Lyme

Disease Transmission.

2e).

Lyme Disease life cycle disease diagram.