ANCIENT INDIA

(SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2024)

 PREHISTORIC PERIODS IN INDIA

STONE AGE
o The stone age is the prehistoric period, i.e., the period before the development of the script,
therefore the main source of information for this period is the archaeological excavations.
o Robert Bruce Foote is the archaeologist who discovered the first palaeolithic tool in India, the
Pallavaram handaxe.
o On the basis of geological age, the type and technology of stone tools, and subsistence base, the
Indian stone age is classified primarily into three types-
▪ Palaeolithic age (old stone age): Period – 500,000 – 10,000 BCE
▪ Mesolithic age (late stone age): Period – 10,000 – 6000 BCE
▪ Neolithic age (new stone age): Period – 6000 – 1000 BCE

PALAEOLITHIC-SITES
Palaeolithic Age
o The term Palaeolithic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865.
o Palaeolithic Age spanned from 500,000 years ago {when tool making members of Homo erectus
had arrived} till 10,000 BC.
o It is divided into three periods viz. lower Palaeolithic, middle Palaeolithic and upper
Palaeolithic ages. The transition from each of these phases to successive phases was slow and
marked by increased fineness in the stone tools and technology of the time as follows:
▪ Lower Palaeolithic age tools – Handaxe and cleaver
▪ Middle Palaeolithic ager tools – Flakes
▪ Upper Palaeolithic tools – Flakes and blades
Further, this division is not uniform around the world because of several factors such as time
lag, climatic vagaries, great distances, numerous geographical and physical barriers etc. Palaeolithic
age finally ended with the end of Ice Age in about 10,000 BC.
Cultures in Lower Palaeolithic era
o Soan Culture: Extensive deposits of pebble tools and choppers found in the Soan river (a
tributary of Indus) valley in Pakistan along with some other similar sites in nearby area are
collectively called Soan culture or Sohan culture.
o Madrasian Culture: Father of Indian Pre-history Robert Bruce Foote had discovered hand
axes near Chennai and called it Madrasian culture. Foote was a geologist of the Geological Survey
of India.
o Nevasan Culture: Some Middle Palaeolithic era flake tools, scrappers, borers etc. were found
at Nevasa site (Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra) in the valley of river Godavari and are
called Nevasan culture.
o Acheulian culture: Most of the sites in India including those in peninsular India, Deccan,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, East and North East have been categorized in Acheulian
culture.
Cultures in Middle Palaeolithic era
Important Middle Palaeolithic Sites in India included Luni valley, around Didwana, Budha
Pushkar in Rajasthan; Valleys of the Belan, Son river, Narmada river and their tributaries in central
India {including Bhimbetka} and some sparse sites in Chota Nagpur plateau, Deccan plateau and
Eastern Ghats.
o Tools used were flakes, blades, pointers, scrapers and borers.
o The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner.
o There was a decrease in the use of hand axes with respect to other tools.

IMPORTANT MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC AGE SITES

▪ Belan valley in UP
▪ Luni valley (Rajasthan)
▪ Son and Narmada rivers
▪ Bhimbetka
▪ Tungabhadra river valleys
▪ Potwar Plateau (between Indus & Jhelum)
▪ Sanghao cave (near Peshawar, Pakistan)

Cultures in Upper Palaeolithic era

o The most opulent archaeological evidence of this period comes from the Belan and Son valleys
in the northern Vindhyas , Chota Nagpur plateau in Bihar , upland Maharashtra, Orissa and from
the Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh.
o The upper palaeolithic age coincided with the last phase of the ice age when the climate became
comparatively warmer and less humid.

MESOLITHIC PERIOD (MIDDLE STONE AGE)

o The term Mesolithic is derived from two Greek words – ‘meso’ and ‘lithic’.
o In Greek ‘meso’ means middle and ‘lithic’ means stone. Hence, the Mesolithic stage of
prehistory is also known as the ‘Middle Stone Age’.
o Both Mesolithic and Neolithic phases belong to the Holocene era. In this era, there was a rise
in temperature, the climate became warm which resulted in melting of ice and also brought
changes in flora and fauna. We live in this era, but scientists argue that human impacts like
climate change, and increasing rate of extinction place us into new epoch: Anthtropocene.
Characteristic Features of the Mesolithic Era
o The people of this age lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering initially but later on
they also domesticated animals and cultivated plants, thereby paving the way for agriculture.
o The first animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog.
o Sheep and goats were the most common domesticated animals.
o The Mesolithic people lived in semi-permanent settlements along with occupying caves and
open grounds.
o The people of this era believed in life after death and hence they buried the dead with food
items and other goods.
o The characteristic tools of this era were microliths – the miniature stone tools usually made of
crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony or chert, both of geometrical and non-geometrical shapes.
They were not only used as tools but were also used to make composite tools, spearheads,
arrowheads, and sickles after hafting them on wooden or bone handles. These microliths enabled
the Mesolithic man to hunt smaller animals and birds.
o The Mesolithic men started to wear clothes made of animal skin.
o The Mesolithic people were art lovers and initiated rock art. The subject matter of these
paintings was mostly wild animals and hunting scenes, dancing and food collection were also
depicted in such paintings. These rock paintings give an idea about the development of religious
practices and also reflect the division of labour on the basis of gender.
o The first human colonization of the Ganga Plains happened during this period.
IMPORTANT MESOLITHIC SITES
o Bagor in Rajasthan is one of the biggest and best-documented Mesolithic sites in India.
o Bagor is on River Kothari where microliths along with animal bones and shells have been
excavated.
o Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh provides the earliest evidence for the domestication of animals.
o There are about 150 Mesolithic rock art sites across India, with a rich concentration in Central
India such as Bhimbetka caves (Madhya Pradesh), Kharwar, Jaora and Kathotia (M.P),
Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Odisha), Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala).
o Microliths have also been found in some valleys of River Tapi, Sabarmati, Narmada, and
Mahi.
o Langhnaj in Gujarat and Biharanpur in West Bengal are also important Mesolithic sites.
Bones of wild animals (rhinoceros, blackbuck, etc.) have been excavated from Langhnaj.
Several human skeletons and a large number of microliths have been recovered from these
places.
o Though pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites, they have been found in Langhnaj (Gujarat)
and in the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (U.P).

NEOLITHIC PERIOD (NEW STONE AGE)

o The term Neolithic is derived from the Greek word ‘neo’ which means new and ‘lithic’ meaning
stone. Thus, the term Neolithic Age refers to the ‘New Stone Age’.
o It is also termed as ‘Neolithic revolution’ since it introduced a lot of important changes in
man’s social and economic life. The Neolithic age saw man turning into a food producer from
food gatherer.

Characteristic Features of the Neolithic Age

o The people used microlithic blades in addition to tools made of polished
stones.
o The use of celts was especially important for ground and polished hand axes.
Tools and
They also used tools and weapons made of bones – such as needles,
Weapons
scrapers, borers, arrowheads, etc.
o The use of new polished tools made it easier for humans to cultivate, hunt
and perform other activities in a better manner.
o The people of the Neolithic age cultivated land and grew fruits and corn
Agriculture like ragi and horse gram (kulati).
o They also domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats.
o With the advent of agriculture, people were required to store their food grains
as well as to cook, eat the product, etc. That’s why it is said that pottery
appeared in this phase on a large scale.
Pottery o The pottery of this period was classified under greyware, black-burnished
ware, and mat impressed ware.
o In the initial stages of the Neolithic age, handmade pottery was made but later
on, foot wheels were used to make pots.
o The people of Neolithic age lived in rectangular or circular houses which
were made of mud and reeds.
o Neolithic men also knew how to make boats and could spin cotton,
Housing wool, and weave cloth.
and Settled o The people of the Neolithic age led a more settled life and paved the way for
Life the beginning of civilization.
o The neolithic people did not live far away from the hilly areas. They inhabited
mainly the hilly river valleys, rock shelters and the slopes of the hills since
they were entirely dependent on weapons and tools made of stone.
IMPORTANT NEOLITHIC SITES
Koldihwa and o This site provides evidence of circular huts along with crude hand made
Mahagara (lying pottery.
south of o There is also evidence of rice, which is the oldest evidence of rice, not
Allahabad) only in India but anywhere in the world.
Mehrgarh o The earliest Neolithic site, where people lived in houses built of sun-
(Balochistan, dried bricks and cultivated crops like cotton and wheat.
Pakistan)
Burzahom o The domestic dogs were buried along with their masters in their graves;
(Kashmir) people lived in pits and used tools made of polished stones as well as
bones.
Gufkral o This neolithic site is famous for pit dwelling, stone tools and
(Kashmir) graveyards in houses.
Chirand (Bihar) o The neolithic men used tools and weapons made of bones.
Piklihal,
Brahmagiri, o The people were cattle herders. They domesticated sheep and goats. Ash
Maski, mounds have been found.
Takkalakota,
Hallur
(Karnataka)
Belan Valley o located on the northern spurs of the Vindhyas and middle part of
Narmada valley – All the three phases i.e., palaeolithic, mesolithic and
neolithic ages are found in sequence.