Introduction

Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit. Resistance is

measured in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω). Ohms are named after Georg Simon
Ohm (1784-1854), a German physicist who studied the relationship between voltage, current and
resistance. He is credited for formulating Ohm's Law.
All materials resist current flow to some degree. They fall into one of two broad categories:
• Conductors: Materials that offer very little resistance where electrons can move easily. Examples:
silver, copper, gold and aluminum.
• Insulators: Materials that present high resistance and restrict the flow of electrons. Examples:
Rubber, paper, glass, wood and plastic
Resistance measurements are normally taken to indicate the condition of a component or a circuit.
• The higher the resistance, the lower the current flow. If abnormally high, one possible cause
(among many) could be damaged conductors due to burning or corrosion. All conductors give off
some degree of heat, so overheating is an issue often associated with resistance.
• The lower the resistance, the higher the current flow. Possible causes: insulators damaged by
moisture or overheating.
Many components, such as heating elements and resistors, have a fixed-resistance value. These
values are often printed on the components' nameplates or in manuals for reference. When a
tolerance is indicated, the measured resistance value should be within the specified resistance
range. Any significant change in a fixed-resistance value usually indicates a problem. “Resistance"
may sound negative, but in electricity it can be used beneficially. Examples: Current must struggle
to flow through the small coils of a toaster, enough to generate heat that browns bread. Old-style
incandescent light bulbs force current to flow through filaments so thin that light is generated.
Resistance cannot be measured in an operating circuit. Accordingly, troubleshooting technicians
often determine resistance by taking voltage and current measurements and applying Ohm's Law:
E = I x R That is, volts = amps x ohms. R stands for resistance in this formula. If resistance is
unknown, the formula can be converted to R = E/I (ohms = volts divided by amps). Examples: In
an electric heater circuit, as portrayed in the two illustrations below, resistance is determined by
measuring circuit voltage and current, then applying Ohm's Law. (1)
(1) [Link]

Abstract:
The flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing force similar in many respects to
mechanical friction. This opposition, due to the collisions between electrons and between electrons
and other atoms in the material, which converts electrical energy into another form of energy such
as heat, is called the resistance of the material. The unit of measurement of resistance is the ohm,
for which the symbol (Ω) is, the capital Greek letter omega. The circuit symbol for resistance
appears in Figure with the graphic abbreviation for resistance (R).

Fig 1.1
The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area is determined by the following
four factors:
1. Material
2. Length
3. Cross-sectional area
4. Temperature
The chosen material, with its unique molecular structure, will react differentially to pressures to
establish current through its core. Conductors that permit a generous flow of charge with little
external pressure will have low resistance levels, while insulators will have high resistance
characteristics. As one might expect, the longer the path the charge must pass through, the higher
the resistance level, whereas the larger the area (and therefore available room), the lower the
resistance. Resistance is thus directly proportional to length and inversely proportional to area.

As the temperature of most conductors increases, the increased motion of the particles within the
molecular structure makes it increasingly difficult for the “free” carriers to pass through, and the
resistance level increases. At a fixed temperature of 20°C (room temperature), the resistance is
related to the other three factors by

where rho (Greek letter ρ) is a characteristic of the material called the resistivity, L is the length of
the sample, and A is the cross-sectional area of the sample. The units of measurement substituted
into are related to the application. For circular wires, units of measurement are usually defined as
in previous section. For most other applications involving important areas such as integrated
circuits (2)
(2) [Link]
Research question
What is the effect of the length of a conductor on its electric resistance?

Hypotheses

There are many factors that influence the electrical resistance in wires, going through a current in
circuits. The length of the wire and the cross-sectional area are two very important variables. The
flow of charge through wires is often compared to the flow of water through pipes. The resistance
to the flow of charge in an electric circuit is analogous to the frictional effects between water and
the pipe surfaces as well as the resistance offered by obstacles that are present in its path. The total
length of the wires will affect the amount of resistance. The longer the wire, the more resistance
that there will be. There is a direct relationship between the amount of resistance encountered by
charge and the length of wire it must traverse. After all, if resistance occurs as the result of
collisions between charge carriers and the atoms of the wire, then there is likely to be more
collisions in a longer wire. More collisions mean more resistance.

The cross-sectional area of the wires will affect the amount of resistance. Wider wires have a
greater cross-sectional area. Water will flow through a wider pipe at a higher rate than it will flow
through a narrow pipe. This can be attributed to the lower amount of resistance that is present in
the wider pipe. In the same manner, the wider the wire, the less resistance that there will be to the
flow of electric charge. When all other variables are the same, charge will flow at higher rates
through wider wires with greater cross-sectional areas than through thinner wires. Another formula
that will be used is the resistance formula which will

To work out the cross-sectional area of the wire, the formula

Ohm’s law deals with the relationship between voltage, current and resistance. Voltage is the
difference in electrical potential energy. For example, if you have a simple circuit with a battery
powering a lamp, the electrons will move from the negative side of the battery, through the lamp
and then to the positive side. The voltage or the difference in electrical potential energy, between
the positive and negative ends of the battery would be the amount labelled on the battery because
the charge was used to move the electron around the circuit. A good analogy for voltage is a
waterfall. The water at the top of the waterfall is similar to the negatively charged electrons and
the water at the bottom of fall is similar to the discharged electrons. As the water flows from the
top of the fall to the bottom it loses all of it gravitational potential energy just like the electrons
losing their charge when they travel around the circuit. Current is the total amount of charge
passing through a conductor over a period of time. The water analogy for current would be how
fast the water is flowing or how much water is passing through a bit of river over a period of time
Ohm’s law can be summarized with

Since the results of the experiment will be recorded using a voltmeter and ammeter, the
resistance will have to be calculated using ohms’ law re-arranged (3)

(3) [Link]
[Link]

Independent Variable is the length of wire. The experiment will work with 5 sets of copper
wires, starting from the length of 10 cm, added with 10cm the lengths of each wire will be
measured in cm with a 30 cm ruler with an uncertainty of ±0.05cm

Dependent Variable is the resistance of the wire. Each wire will be measured with an
ohmmeter of a multimeter with an uncertainty of ±0.01Ω accurately by clipping the probes of the
ohmmeter to the edges of the Copper wires that are to be

Control Variables are the material, the cross-section area and the temperature of the wire.
These are kept the same by not changing the wire during the experiment, by keeping the current
small and opening the switching between readings. The voltage will keep the same and the
current would change depending on the voltage.

Tools

1- Digital multimeter
2- Props
3- Copper wire at least 200cm
4- Ruler
5- Scissors
6- Sandpaper
Safety precaution
1- Put on safety goggles, lab coats, gloves and masks for safety.
2- Handle all materials carefully.
3- Have a clear and clear working space for the experiment.
4- Do not consume any of the materials used, and keep them away from the eyes.
5- Complete all trials in the same area/room, at the same time of the day, using the same
materials.
6- Clean up the lab area after the experiment.

Method

1- Gather materials and set up the circuit as shown in the experiment diagram above
2- Set the multimeter into ohmmeter, and connect the red probe to the output that says COM and
the black probe to the output that has the mAVΩ label.
3- Get 150cm of copper wire and scrap or rub it with sandpaper in order to make it conductive.
4- Cut the wire with scissors into 5 separate wires with measurements of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50cm.
5- Measure each wire by putting the points of both probes to the edges of the wires, and measure
them four times/trials each.
6- Record the resistance reading from the multimeter of each of the 5 wires