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Key learning points
Types of Faults
lmpedance in per unit value
Representing the electrical network as an
equivalent diagram
Concept of base MVA for equivalent circuits
Symmetrical components-principle and
applications
Earthing and earth fault protection
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What is a fault?
A fault is essentially an abnormal occurrence in
an electrical network
A fault causes abnormal variations in system
parameters
Most faults are caused by/or will lead to
insulation failure
lnsulation failure between different phases of a
system is called a short circuit
When it happens between a phase and earth, it
is an earth fault
Faults may also lead to open circuits
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Possible faults
Cable Faults - Most common due to both external like
moisture, digging, etc., as well as fault currents being
carried
Transformer faults - Not always common but economics
rule the decision on the capacity of standby transformers
Busbar Faults - Catastrophic but duplication is more
followed in EHV substations.
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Active vs. Passive
Active fault types (solid and incipient)
Solid
Immediate, complete breakdown of insulation causing:
High fault currents / energy
Danger to personnel
High stressing of all network equipment due to heating and
electromechanical forces and possibility of combustion
Dips on the network voltage affecting other parties
Faults spreading to other phases
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Active vs. Passive
Active fault types (solid and incipient)
Incipient
A fault that takes a long time to develop into a breakdown of
insulation caused by:
Partial discharge currents
These faults normally become solid faults in time
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Active vs. Passive
Passive fault types
These are not real faults but conditions that will
cause faults due to cumulative effects, such as:
Overloading (over heating insulation)
Overvoltage (over stressing insulation)
Under frequency
Power swings (damages generators)
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(A) Phase-to-ground (E) Three Phase-To-ground
(B) Phase-to-Phase (F) Phase-to-Pilot *
(C) Phase-to-Phase-to-ground (G) Pilot-to-ground *
(D) Three Phase * In mines
Types of three
Types of three
-
-
phase faults
phase faults
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Transient and permanent faults
Transient faults - do not damage insulation permanently
(eg. Tree branches on O/H line), re-closing will be
successful
Permanent - the insulation has broken down permanently
requiring repair to restore insulation levels (re-closing will
fail)
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Symmetrical vs. Asymmetrical
Symmetrical faults - balanced faults with sinusoid
wave equal about axis
Asymetrical faults - displays a DC offset which
decays
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Symmetrical vs. Asymmetrical
Symmetrical represents the steady state fault
conditions while asymmetrical is experienced during
commencement of faults
The amount of offset in asymmetrical depends on the
X/R (power factor) and decays to steady state
The First peak can be as high as 2.55 times the
steady state level.
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Magnitudes of fault currents
Normally impedance decides the value of fault currents -
But impedance can not be reduced below a certain value
Ground currents can be limited by grounding the neutral
of the source and choosing suitable grounding method
(more on this in a later module)
Phase fault currents cannot be normally controlled
lf it must be done for any reason, it is possible by addition
of current limiting reactors
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Fault current calculation
Essentially calculation involves knowing the
system impedance in the fault loop
Start from the fault point and follow the path of
fault current back to source and from source to
the point of fault
Voltage/lmpedance gives fault current
Remember:
The system may have several voltage transformations
lmpedances cannot be arithmetically added
They all must be referred to a common voltage
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What is lmpedance?
Vectorial sum of resistance and reactance
of a system expressed in ohms
Obtained by vectorial addition and given
by the formulae
jX R Z + =
2 2
X R Z + =

Z
R
Cos
1
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Calculating system impedance
All calculations use vectorial relationships
System reduced by formulae for series and
parallel combinations
Fault current magnitude is determined by the
system voltage and the system impedance at that
point on the source side.
A fault at the generator terminal is always
extremely high
The limiting impedance is that of the generator and is
very low
Fault Current = V/Z
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Per unit values
lt is advantageous to consider electrical
parameters in per unit values for
calculations
Per Unit expresses various parameters in
terms of the stated rating
Example: A motor running at its rated
current of 100 amps is said to be operating
at 1.0 pu current
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Questions
lf the motor is overloaded by 10% what is
the new per unit value of current?
A circuit with a rated voltage of 250V
experiences a voltage drop of 25 Volts.
What is the voltage drop in pu terms?
What will be per unit voltage of the circuit
now (in per unit)?
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Facts learnt
lt will be clear from the previous slide that
per unit values can be used in calculations
easily and relative values in different
systems can be easily compared on a
common basis
Per unit values are only ratios and
therefore dimensionless
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Percentage values
Per unit values are often expressed in
Percentage terms for ease of calculation
Percentage value = Per unit value X 100
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lmpedance per unit value
lmpedance is expressed in ohms
Sometimes it is more convenient to express it in
per unit values
Multiple voltages and equipment capacities
Per unit impedance is the voltage drop when
rated current is passed through an equipment
expressed as a fraction of the rated voltage:
(lUDWHG*Z)/VUDWHG
Usually pu values are calculated to a single
reference voltage in kV and base MVA value
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Per unit impedance in Fault
calculations
Assuming that there is no other impedance
in the circuit, the fault current can be
calculated as:
Rated current/pu impedance
Fault power kVA = Rated kVA/pu impedance
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Question
A transformer with a per unit impedance of
0.05 develops a short circuit on its
secondary terminal.
Transformer rating is 1000 kVA and rated
current (secondary) is 1400 amps
What will be the fault current and fault
kVA?
Assume there is no other impedance on
the HV side.
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Calculation of short circuit kVA
Find the per unit impedance of all the
circuit elements (name plate, calculation)
Convert all per unit values to a base KVA
Represent all the impedances in the form
of an equivalent diagram
Reduce to a single p.u impedance Z based
on circuit theorems
Fault kVA = Base kVA/Zpu
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Reduction of impedance
diagram
The equivalent diagram of a large network will be
complex
Needs to be reduced to a single infinite source and a
single equivalent impedance
Requires the use of standard mathematical tools
Superposition principle
Thevenins Principle
Norton's principle
Other procedures
Series - parallel circuits reduction
Delta star conversion
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Concept of base MVA
System parameters must be referred to a base MVA and
a common voltage
To be done prior to the calculation
Choose a proper base MVA
Transformer and generator impedances usually given in
pu or % values for their rated MVA
pu and % impedances are independent of voltage
Cables and line data available as ohmic values
Must be converted to pu values at the selected base
MVA and the operating voltage
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Conversion of impedance
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Calculations using p.u impedances
Let us say that there are 2 transformers in series in a
system 66/33 kV and 33/6 kV
Ratings are 10 MVA and 5 MVA and pu impedances are
0.08 pu and 0.06 pu respectively
Find their combined impedance and the fault kVA at the 6
kV terminals of the latter transformer
Note:
Even though the transformers are in series, pu impedances
cannot be added directly
A base MVA of 10 can be assumed
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Question to participants
There are 2 transformers working in
parallel (ratings of 33/11 kV, 10 MVA 0.1pu
and 33/11 kV, 6 MVA 0.06 pu)
What will be the fault kVA on the 11 kV
busbar?
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Fault contribution by motors
Any motor stores a certain amount of energy in its magnetic circuit
This is in the form of magnetic flux
Responsible for back emf
When there is a short circuit anywhere in the system, the motor
behaves like a source
Back emf drives a current into the fault
Lasts for a few cycles in induction machines and longer in
synchronous machines
A motor can contribute to initial symmetrical short circuit current and
hence to the peak value of the short circuit current
The effective impedance is the inverse of l
VWDUW
/l
5DWHG
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Limitations
The simple approach outlined above is useful for:
Small radial systems with a few sources
Small cable lengths whose impedance can be
neglected
Too complex for large systems
Not precise enough for assessing transient
performance
Usually done using software tools for large
systems
Most system planning tools will provide a fault
calculation module
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Fault calculations-Unbalanced
faults
Three phase faults are said to be
symmetrical
The fault impedances in all the three phases
are roughly equal
A phase-to-phase or a phase-to-earth fault
is not symmetrical as the impedance of the
fault in the three phases is unequal
A technique is needed to resolve these
types of faults
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Analysis of asymmetrical
quantities-1
Any set of three-phase quantities can be
expressed as the vectorial sum of:
A symmetrical three-phase component having the
same phase sequence as the three phase system,
called the direct or positive sequence component
represented by the suffix 1 or d
A symmetrical three-phase component with an
opposite phase sequence, called the inverse or
negative phase sequence component represented by
the suffix 2 or i
And..
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Analysis of asymmetrical
quantities-2
A set of three equal phasors (one for each
supply phase) called the homopolar or zero
sequence component and represented by the
suffix 0 or h
One or more of the above components
may not be present
Extent of asymmetry
Ratio of the negative sequence component to
the positive sequence component (expressed
as a %)
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Use of operator 'a'
When any vector is multiplied by the
operator a, the vector is rotated by 120
electrical degrees in the direction of phase
sequence
Note: ln concept this is similar to operator
j, which rotates a vector by 90 Degrees
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Sequence components
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Sequence components
expressed using operator 'a'
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Sequence components add to
give unbalanced vectors
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Sequence components add to
give unbalanced vectors
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System impedances for analysis
A system does not present equal impedances to
all three sequence components
Passive equipments have equal positive and
negative sequence impedances
Ex: Transformers, lines, cables
Alternators have different positive and negative
sequence impedances
Zero sequence impedance depends on
Type of system (3 wire, 4 wire)
Transformer connection in the path from source
Additional impedance in the neutral-to-earth
connection (for faults involving earth)
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Single phase-to-earth fault
sequence components
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Phase-wise addition
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Sequence components of
phase-to-phase fault b-c
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Sequence components added in
each phase for fault b-c
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Symmetrical components in
fault calculation
Equivalent diagrams are drawn separately
for each sequence
ln a normal system, there is no connection
between the diagrams
For unbalanced faults the different
sequence diagrams are connected
(depending on the type of fault)
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Earth faults
Earth faults are due to insulation failures
The current that will flow depends on the
type of system earthing adopted and the
effectiveness of protection earthing
The current flow will influence
The touch voltage (in the protective earthing)
The time of protection operation
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Types of System earthing and
Earth Fault Magnitude
Unearthed: No current except through the
system capacitance
Solidly earthed: High, only limited by earth
circuit impedance
lmpedance earthed: Mainly dependant on
neutral impedance
Tuned earthed: Extremely low (< 10 amps)
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Quiz
A system with line voltage 5000 V is
required to have the earth fault current
limited to 250 amps. What is the
resistance required to achieve this?
a) 20 Ohms
b) 10 Ohms
c) 11.5 Ohms
d) 23 Ohms
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Effects of electricity on humans
Four main factors determining the seriousness of
shock:
Path of current flow through body
Magnitude of current
Time that current flows for
The bodys electrical resistance
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Dangerous current flows
Extreme danger - through
the heart
Most electrocutions are due
to contact with earth
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Effects of a current flow through
the body
Perception -
tingle - 1 mA
Let go -
10mA
Spasm - 16
mA
Constriction -
70 - 100 mA -
DEATH
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Normal electrocardiogram
a. Cardiac Cycle
b. Partial Refractory (Critical) Phase - resting phase -
small current upsets heart beat
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Resistance of the human body
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Protective earthing for safety against
voltage rise
250 Milliampere Case
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Principle of core-balance
protection
IN+ IL = 0
IF = IL - IN
Spill
current
trips brkr
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Earth fault current and system
type
Connection of system earth and protective
earth are done in different ways
Systems are classified as TN, TT and lT
based on this
The earth fault current depends on the
system type
Protection must be chosen carefully
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TN system
A system having one or more points of the
source directly grounded with the exposed
metal parts being connected to that point
by protective conductors.
Out of these TN-S system is deemed to be
the safest where earth and neutral
conductors are separate
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TN-S system
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TT system
No ground terminal provided by supplier;
installation requires own ground rod
(common with systems overhead supply
lines)
Next slide shows a typical TT system
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TT system
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lT system
Either no ground connection or ground
connection through an lmpedance.
Protective ground connection done in the
installation through its own ground rod
Applicable usually in systems supplied
through portable generators
Next slide shows a typical lT system
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lT system
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