ANAPHY DIDACTICS REVIEWER

Defini on:

• Anatomy - structure of the body.

- Study of the structures and shape of the body and body parts and their rela onships to one
another.

• Greek words: tomy- to cut, ana-apart

• Physiology - deals with the processes or func ons of living things.

• study of how the body and its parts work or func on

• Greek words: physio- nature, ology- study

1. Systemic anatomy - study of body systems

2. Regional anatomy - is the study of the organiza on of the body by areas. Within each region, such as
the head, abdomen, or arm, all systems are studied simultaneously.

3. Surface anatomy - is the study of external features. Such as bony projec on which serve as landmarks
for looking deeper structures.

4. Anatomical Imaging - involves in using imaging machines such as: X-rays; MRI; Ultrasound and other
technologies to create pictures of internal structures.

Structural and Func onal Organiza on

1. Chemical - interac on atoms and their combina ons into molecules. - its func on is related
in mately to its structure. - 98 % of the body is composed of only six elements- oxygen, carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus.

2. Cell - are basic living units, building blocks of the body.

- compo (3) trillion cells of many types such as blood cells and muscle cells.
- specialized cell parts called organelles.

3. Tissue - is a grouped of closely associated cells specialized to perform par cular func ons:
 Four Primary ssue types
i. Epithelial
ii. Connec ve
iii. Muscle
iv. Nervous
4. Organ - is composed of two or more ssue types that together perform one or more common
func ons. Example: urinary bladder, skin, stomach

5. System - a group of organs classified as unit because of common func on or set of func ons.

 Eleven body systems:

i. Respiratory, Circulatory, Diges ve, Endocrine, Urinary, Nervous, Sense, Muscular,
Skeletal, Lympha c and Immunity, Integumentary.

6. Human Body - is a complex of systems that are mutually dependent on one another.
• body systems working together with great precision and complexity make up the living organism.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

1. Organiza on: - living things are highly organized.

• parts of an organism have specific rela onship to each other and the parts interact to perform
specific func on.

• All organisms are composed of one or more cells. Cells in turn are composed of highly
specialized organelles which depend on the precise func on of large molecules. Disrup on of
this organized state can result in loss of func on and death.

2. Metabolism is the ability to use energy to perform vital func ons such as growth, movement and
reproduc on.

- all chemical processes that take place within the body.

3. Responsiveness - ability to sense changes in the environment and make the adjustments that help
maintain its life.

• Movement towards food or water and away from danger or poor environmental condi on.

• Adjustment to internal environment:

Body temperature increase in a hot environment - sweat glands produce sweat that reduce
temperature.

4. Growth - increase in size of all or part of the organism. Increase in cell number, cell size or the
number of substances surrounding cells.

Example: bone larger as the number of bone cells increases and surrounded with bone matrix.
5. Development - includes the changes an organism undergoes through me; it begins with
fer liza on and ends through death. It may include growth but it also involves differen a on.

Differen a on - is change of cell structure and func on from generalized to specialized.

Example: fer liza on - generalized cells become specific cell types such as skin, bone, muscle or
nerve cells.

6. Reproduc on - is the forma on of new cells or new organisms.

HOMEOSTASIS

- an appropriate internal environment or steady state.

• Temperature within the body must be maintained within narrow limits and a balanced
concentra on of nutrients, oxygen and other gases and various chemical compounds must be
maintained at all mes.

• Homeosta c Mechanisms - the self- regula ng control systems that maintain homeostasis, are
remarkably sensi ve and efficient.

• Homeostasis must be maintained even though condi ons may con nuously change in the
external environment.

• Stressor - is a s mulus that disrupts homeostasis and causes stress in the body. When
homeosta c mechanisms are unable to compensate for stress and restore the steady state,
stress may lead to a malfunc on which can cause disease and even death.

How the Homeosta c Mechanism Work?

 Feedback system- consist of a cycle of events. Informa on about a change.

 Feedback system like a thermostat of air condi oning unit.

 . Response of regulator counteracts the inappropriate change thus restoring appropriate state.
 Types of Feedback system

1. Nega ve Feedback system - response of the regulator is to reverse the s mulus.

 a control system uses nega ve feedback to bring the condi on back within normal
limits.
 Many homeosta c mechanisms in the body are nega ve feedback systems: regula on of
temperature, glucose sugar in blood.

Three Components of nega ve Feedback System

1. Receptor - monitors the value of the variable such as blood pressure

2. Control center - part of the brain, establishes the set point around which the variable is
maintained.

3. Effector such as the heart, can change the value of the variable. Blood pressure depends in
part on contrac on (bea ng) of the heart, as heart rate increases, blood pressure increases
and as the heart rate decreases BP decreases.

2. Posi ve feedback systems - varia on from the steady state sets off a series of events that
intensify the changes.

 are not homeosta c and are rare in healthy individuals.

 Posi ve implies that when a devia on from a normal value occurs, the response of the
system is to make the devia on even greater.
 Posi ve feedback therefore usually creates a cycle leading away from homeostasis and
in some cases results in death. Example: Inadequate delivery of blood to heart muscles
causing less contrac on capacity leading to decrease Cardiac output and distribu on of
blood.
 BODY BASIC PLAN

 DIRECTIONAL Terms – refer to the body in the anatomic posi on, regardless of its actual
posi on.

 used to describe the posi on of structures in rela on to other structures or body parts.

 Example: Neck is superior to the chest but inferior to the head

 Anatomic Posi on - refers to a person standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper
limbs hanging to the side and the palms of the hands facing forward

Direc onal Terms

Direc onal terms describe the posi ons of structures rela ve to other structures or loca ons in the
body.

Superior or cranial - toward the head end of the body; upper (example, the hand is part of the
superior extremity).

Inferior or caudal - away from the head; lower (example, the foot is part of the inferior extremity).

Anterior or ventral - front (example, the kneecap is located on the anterior side of the leg).

Posterior or dorsal - back (example, the shoulder blades are located on the posterior side of the body).

Medial - toward the midline of the body (example, the middle toe is located at the medial side of the
foot).

Lateral - away from the midline of the body (example, the li le toe is located at the lateral side of the
foot).

Proximal - toward or nearest the trunk or the point of origin of a part (example, the proximal end of
the femur joins with the pelvic bone).

Distal - away from or farthest from the trunk or the point or origin of a part (example, the hand is
located at the distal end of the forearm).
Common Names Anatomic Names Common Names Anatomic Names
Anterior: Posterior:
Cephalic (Head) Cephalic (Head)
Forehead Frontal Base of skull Occipital
Eye Orbit Base of neck Nuchal
Nose Nasal Skull Cranial
Mouth Oral Shoulder blade Scapular
Ear O c Spinal column Vertebral
Cheek Buccal Loin Lumbar
Chin Mental Between hips Sacral
Neck Cervical Bu ock Gluteal
Collar bone Clavicular Perineum Perineal

Thoracic (Thorax) Point of shoulder Acromial

Chest Pectoral Point of elbow Olecranon
Breastbone Sternal Back of hand Dorsum
Breast Mammary Hollow behind Popliteal
knee
Abdomen Abdominal Calf Sural
Navel Umbilical Sole Plantar
Pelvis Pelvic Heel Calcaneal
Hip Coxal Wrist Carpal
Groin Inguinal Palm Parmal
Genital Pubic fingers Digital
Thigh Femoral Hand Manual
Kneecap Patellar Ankle Talus
Leg Crural Top of foot Dorsum
Arm pit Axillary Toes Digital
Arm Brachial Foot Pedal
Elbow Cubital
Forearm Antebrachial
 BODY PARTS AND REGIONS

1. Upper Limbs: divided into the

 Arm - extends from the shoulder to the elbow
 Forearm - extends from the elbow to the wrist.
 wrist -
 hand.

2. Lower limb: divided into

 Thigh - extends from the hip to the knee
 Leg - extends from the knee to the ankle
 ankle
 foot

3. Central region: consist of head, neck and trunk

4. Trunk - divided into:
a. Thorax (chest)
b. Abdomen (region between the thorax and pelvis)
c. Pelvis (the inferior end of the trunk associated with the
hips)

5. Abdomen: subdivided superficially 4 Quadrants: by two imaginary lines- one

horizontal and one ver cal that intersect the navel.
a. Right upper quadrant
b. Le upper quadrant
c. Right Lower quadrant
 d. Le Lower Quadrant

• Abdomen - subdivided into nine regions by four imaginary lines. 2

horizontal and 2 ver cal lines:

Nine Regions of the Abdomen

1. Epigastric
2. Right and le hypochondriac
3. Umbilical
4. Right and Le Lumbar
5. Hypogastric
6. Right and le iliac

PLANES

• imaginary flat surfaces that divide the body into specific parts.

Three
1. Sagi al plane - runs ver cally through the body, divides the body into right and le parts.
Mid-sagi al (or median) plane passes through the body axis and divide the body into two.
2. Transverse (cross) plane - or horizontal plane runs parallel to the surface of the ground and
divides the body into superior and inferior parts.
3. Frontal or coronal plane - runs ver cally from right to le and divides the body into anterior
and posterior parts.
 SECTIONING

• Sec oning of organs to reveal internal structures

1. Longitudinal sec on - A cut through the long axis of the organ.
2. Transverse or cross sec on - a cut at a right angle to the long axis.
3. Oblique sec on - if a cut is made across the long axis at other than a right angle.

BODY CAVITIES

• THE SPACE WITHIN THE BODY., contain internal organs.

Three Large Cavi es

1. Thoracic cavity - surrounded by rib cage and is separated from the abdominal cavity by
the muscular diaphragm. It is divided into right and le parts by a median structure called
medias num - par on containing the heart, thymus, trachea, esophagus, and other
structures. The two lungs are located on either side of the medias num.
2. Abdominal Cavity - is bounded primarily by the abdominal muscles and contains the
stomach, intes nes, liver, spleen, pancreas and kidneys.
3. Pelvic cavity - is a small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis and contains the
urinary bladder, part of the large intes ne and the internal reproduc ve organs. The
abdominal and pelvic cavi es are not physically separated and some mes are called the
abdominopelvic cavity.
 THE CELL

- The basic unit of life

- Cytology – study of cells
- 1665 English Scien st Robert Hooke
- Used a microscope to examine cork (plant)
- Hooke called what he saws “CELLS”

CELL HISTORY

Robert Brown:
- Discovered the NUCLEUS in 1833.
Ma his Schleiden:
- German Botanist
- 1838
- ALL PLANTS “ARE COMPOSED OF CELLS”
Theodor Schwann
- Also in 1838, discovered that ANIMALS were made of CELLS.
Rudolf Virchow:
- 1855, German Physician
- “THAT CELLS ONLY COME FROM OTHER CELLS”
- His statement debunked “Theory of Spontaneous Genera on”

THE COMBINED WORK OF SCHLEIDEN, SCHWANN, AND VIRCHOW MAKE UP THE MODERN
CELL THEORY.
The Cell Theory states that:

1. All living things are composed of a cell or cells.

2. Cells are the basic unit of life.
3. All cells come from preexis ng cells.

Cell Diversity
 Cells within the same organism show Enormous Diversity in:
 Size
 Shape
 Internal Organiza on

1. Cell Size
o Female Egg - largest cell in the human body; seen without the aid of a
microscope
o Most cells are visible only with a microscope.

Cells are small for 2 reasons

 Reason 1: Limited in size by the RATIO between their Outer Surface Area and Their
Volume.
A small cell has more SURFACE AREA than a large cell for a GIVEN VOLUME OF
CYTOPLASM
 Reason 2: THE CELL'S NUCLEUS (THE BRAIN) CAN ONLY CONTROL A CERTAIN AMOUNT
OF LIVING, ACTIVE CYTOPLASM.
2. Cell Shape

 Diversity of form reflects a diversity of func on.

 THE SHAPE OF A CELL DEPENDS ON ITS FUNCTION.

3. Internal Organiza on
 Cells contain ORGANELLES.

 Cell Components that PERFORM SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS FOR THE CELL.

CELLULAR ORGANELLES

 THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

 The boundary of the cell.

 Composed of three dis nct layers.

 Two layers of fat and one layer of protein.

 THE NUCLEUS
 Brain of Cell

 Bordered by a porous membrane - nuclear envelope.

 Contains thin fibers of DNA and protein called Chroma n.

 Rod Shaped Chromosomes

 Contains a small round nucleolus

 produces ribosomal RNA which makes ribosomes.

 RIBOSOMES

 Small non-membrane bound organelles.

 Contain two sub units
 Site of protein synthesis.
 Protein factory of the cell
 Either free floa ng or a ached to the Endoplasmic Re culum.
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

 Complex network of transport channels.

 Two types:
 Smooth- ribosome free and func ons in poison detoxifica on.
 Rough - contains ribosomes and releases newly made protein from the cell.

 GOLGI APPARATUS

 A series of fla ened sacs that modifies, packages, stores, and transports materials out of
the cell.
 Works with the ribosomes and Endoplasmic Re culum.

 LYSOSOMES

 Recycling Center
 Recycle cellular debris
 Membrane bound organelle containing a variety of enzymes.
 Internal pH is 5.
 Help digest food par cles inside or outside the cell.

 CENTRIOLES

 Found only in animal cells

 Paired organelles found together near the nucleus, at right angles to each other.
 Role in building cilia and flagella
 Play a role in cellular reproduc on

 CYTOSKELETON

 Framework of the cell

 Contains small microfilaments and larger microtubules.
 They support the cell, giving it its shape and help with the movement of its organelles.
 MITOCHONDRION

 Double Membranous
 It’s the size of a bacterium
 Contains its own DNA; DNA
 Produces high energy compound ATP

 THE CHROLOPLAST

 Double membrane
 Center sec on contains grana
 Thylakoid (coins) make up the grana.
 Stroma - gel-like material surrounding grana
 Found in plants and algae.

 THE VACUOLE

 Sacs that help in food diges on or helping the cell maintain its water balance.
 Found mostly in plants and pro sts

CELL WALL

 Extra structure surrounding its plasma membrane in plants, algae, fungi, and bacteria.

 Cellulose – Plants

 Chi n – Fungi

 Pep doglycan - Bacteria

Review

A. The Discovery of the Cell

1.Robert Hooke

2.The Cell Theory

B. Exploring Cell Diversity

1. Size

2. Shape

3. Internal Organiza on

C. Two types of cells

1. Prokaryote

2. Eukaryote

Eukaryo c

1. Contains a nucleus and other membrane bound organelles.

2. Rod shaped chromosomes
3. Found in all kingdoms except the Eubacteria and Archaebacteria

Prokaryo c

1. Does not contain a nucleus or other membrane bound organelles.

2. Circular chromosome

3. Found only in the Eubacteria and Archaebacteria Kingdoms