Cerebral Cortex

Structure of Cerebral Cortex

The two large cerebral hemispheres that envelop the brain stem are the most recent
part of the nervous system to evolve and they are more highly developed in man than in
any other organism. The cerebral cortex is the thick layer of nerve cell bodies covering
the cerebrum in Latin the world cortex means “bark.” If you look at a preserved brain,
the cortex layer appears gray because it consists largely of nerve cell bodies and
unmyelinated fibers; hence the term “gray matter”. The inside of the cerebrum beneath
the cortex is composed mostly of myelinated axons and appears white.(A live brain
appears slightly pinkish because of the blood supply.) it is the cerebral cortex that all
complex mental activity takes place.

The cerebral cortex of a primitive mammal such as the rat is small and relatively smooth.
As we ascend the phylogenetic scale towards the highly mammals, the amount of cortex
relative to the amount of total brain tissue increase accordingly and the cortex become
progressively more wrinkled and convoluted so that its actual surface is far greater than
it would be if a were a smooth between the cortex the cortical development of a
species, its position on the phylogenetic scale and the complexity of it behavior. Two
thirds of the cortex of the human brain is buried in the fissures. If the cortex tissue in
the average human brain were spread flat, it would cover more than two square feet.

There are indications that the development of the cerebral cortex can be influenced by
the organism’s early experience. A rat raised in an enriched environment (in a large cage
with playmates and all kinds of equipment to climb on and investigate) develops a
heavier and thicker cerebral cortex than a rat raised alone in a bare cage and such a rat
will learn more readily (Rosenzweig and others, 1972)

Our clearest knowledge of the cortex has to do with functions related to specific areas
of the brain. Functions that can be mapped are localized functions, the place where they
appear on a of the cortex are called projection areas of the cortex will produce specific
kinds of motor response (those involving sensation, feeling awareness).
Tumors that exert pressure on these projection areas disturb the response. When these
areas are destroyed by disease or injury, the same functions are altered or obliterated.
Yet we would be making an error in loge if we assumed that these functions are
controlled by these areas alone. Even though an areas is essential to a function. It may
not be sufficient to cortex that a function.

Before examining some illustrations of localization of function, we need a few

landmarks by which to describe areas of to cerebral hemispheres. The two hemispheres
are symmetrical one on the right and ones on the left, with a deep division between
them, running from front to rear. So our first classification is the division into right and
left side hemispheres. For the most part functions of the right side of the body are
controlled by the left hemispheres is divided into four lobes; the frontal, parietal,
occipital, and temporal. The frontal lobe is separated from the parietal lobe by the
central fissure, running down from the part of the cerebrum near the top of the head
sideways towards the ears. The suffices for our purpose to know that the parietal lobes
is at the rear of the brain behind the central fissure, white the occipital lobe is at the
brain. The temporal lobe is well set off by a deep fissure at the side of the brain the
lateral fissure.

Cortical Areas and their functions

Motor Area: The motor area, which controls all movement of the body, lies just of the
central fissure, hall of the body being represented by each side. When stimulated
electrically parts are injury, the areas cause movement in the extremities, when these
parts are injured, the same extremities are paralyzed. The body is represented in
approximately upside down form, movement of the lobes being mediated by the part
near the top of the head, and tongue and mouth movement by the part near the
bottom of the area toward the side of the brain. Movement on the right side of the
body originate through stimulation of the motor area of the left hemispheres,
movement on the left side through stimulation of the right hemisphere.
Body-Sense Area: In the parietal lobe, separated from the motor area by the central
fissure, lies an area that if stimulated electrically gives rise to sensory experience, as
though a part of the body were being touched or moved. Heat, cold, pain and the sense
of body movement are all represented in this area. The lower extremities of the body
are represented highly on the area of the opposite hemisphere, the face, low.

Visual Area: At the very back of each cerebral hemisphere, in the part of the occipital
lobe know as the striate area, lie centers important in vision knowledge of the
functioning of the visual cortex has come through studies of the electrical response of
single cells in the cortex chilly in cells and monkey either understand and mobile or
lightly anesthetized (Hubel and Wiesel 1965). When slits of light are presented in
different position in the animal’s visual field the response from cells within the visual
cortex differs in orderly ways.

Auditory Area: the auditory area is found on the surface of the temporal love at the side
of each hemisphere. There is some spatial distribution, one part being to high tones and
a different part sensitive to low tones. Both ears are represented in the auditory areas
on bothe sides, so that the loss of one temporal lobe has very little effect upon hearing.

The relation between the auditory projection area and behavior is illustrated by an
experiment in which monkeys with electrodes implanted in their auditory cortex were
trained to press a key in response to a tone. When the tone was turned on the animal
required approximately 200 milliseconds to respond, when , however, direct electrical
stimulation of the auditory cortex was substituted for the tone, the response to acoustic
and cortical stimulation presumably refers the time required for the nerve impulse to
reach the auditory cortex. The fact that recordings of action potentials in the auditory
cortex also show a 15-millisecond delay following onset of the tone supports this
assumption (miller, moody, and Stebbins, 1969).

Language Area: although most functions are localized equally in both cerebral
hemispheres, speech, in most cases, is controlled by the left hemisphere, as early as
1861, the neurologist Paul Broca examined the brain of a patient with speech loss and
found damage in an area of the left hemisphere just above the lateral fissure in the
frontal lobe. This region, known as Broca’s area, is involved in the production of speech
sounds that is in the control of the tongue and haws in speaking. In the frontal lobes, are
involved in the ability to write and to understand written words. Although the
psychological functions involved in linguistic abilities are complicated and no precisely
located, in most cases the brain regions concerned with spoken or written language are
located in the left hemisphere. Thus, a person who suffers a stroke that damages the left
hemisphere is more likely to show language impairment than one whose damage is
confined to the right hemisphere. This is usually the case for right handed individuals
because their left hemisphere is almost always dominant. Some left handed people have
speech centers locations in the right hemisphere or equally divided between the two;
but most left handed people apparently have “normal” left hemisphere speech centers.

Association Area: The many large areas of the cerebral cortex that are not directly
concerned with sensorimotor process have been called associated areas. They are
distinguished from the primary projection areas in that they integrate inputs from more
than one sensory channel and also function in learning, memory and thinking.
Human beings who have suffered damage to the frontal lobes can perform normally on
many intellectual tasks, but they do show a deficit similar to that of the monkeys when
delay is involved or when it is necessary to shift frequently from one method of woeking
on a problem to another method.