MODULE 5

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

SECTION A

1.What is phonology?
Phonology refers to the rules governing the structure and sequence of speech sounds.The
phonological system of a language includes an inventory of sounds and their features. An
example of phonology is the study of different sounds and the way they come together to form
speech and words - such as the comparison of the sounds of the two “p’’sounds in “pop-up.”
Phonological development refers to forming and using speech sounds to clearly communicate
language.As more sounds of a language are acquired, language becomes clearer, and
pronunciation, fluency, and intonation all improve.

2.What term refers to phonemes?

As adults , we analyze the speech stream into phonemes, the smallest sound units that signal a
change in meaning , such as the difference between the consonant sounds in “pa” and “ba” .
Phonemes are not the same across all languages. For example ,“ra” and “la” are distinct sounds
to English speakers but sound the same to speakers of Japanese.

3.What is semantics and give examples?

Semantics ,it involves vocabulary –the way underlying concepts are expressed in words and
word combinations. More specifically, it is the study of meanings through the relationships of
words, how they are used, and how they are said. When the children first use a word ,it often
does not mean the same thing as it does to adults. Children must refine the meanings of thousand
of words and connect them into elaborate network of related terms
Eg:To call someone an angel doesn't mean they inhabit heaven.
Semantics leads us to believe they have a lovely disposition.It influences our reading
comprehension as well as our comprehension of other people's words in everyday conversation.
Semantics play a large part in our daily communication, understanding, and language learning
without us even realizing.Once mastery of language develops ,children combine words and
modify them in meaningful ways.

4.What term refers to syntax?

Syntax : The rules by which the words are arranged into sentences. Example: One rule of syntax
is that an article such as “the” must come before a noun, not after: “Read the book,” not “Read
book the.”

5. Morphology

The term morphology is Greek and is a makeup of morph- meaning ‘shape, form’, and -ology
which means ‘the study of something'. Morphology can be defined as the use of grammatical
markers indicating number, tense, case, person, gender, active or passive voice, and other
meanings (the endings -s and -ed are examples in English.

6. Infinite generativity
An individual's ability to generate an infinite number of meaningful sentences using a finite set
of words and rules, which makes language a highly creative enterprise is called infinite
generativity. It is the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite
set of words and rules. Infinite generativity is something that all human languages share.
phonology. The sound system of a language, including the sounds that are used and how they
may be combined.

7. Morphemes

Morphemes are small markers that change the meaning of sentences, as in “John’ s dog” and “he
is eating.” morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language. A morpheme is not
necessarily the same as a word. The main difference between a morpheme and a word is that a
morpheme sometimes does not stand alone, but a word, by definition, always stands alone. The
field of linguistic study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology.
8. Pragmatics

Pragmatics refers to the rules for engaging in appropriate and effective communication. To
converse successfully, children must take turns, stay on the same topic as their conversational
partner, and state their meaning clearly. They also must figure out how gestures, tone of voice,
and context clarify meaning.

9. Language acquisition device

Linguist Noam Chomsky first convinced the scientific community that children assume much
responsibility for their own language learning. Focusing on grammar Chomsky reasoned that the
rules for sentence organization are too complex to be directly taught to or discovered by even a
cognitively sophisticated young child. Children and adults alike readily produce and understand
an unlimited range of sentences, often ones that they have never said or heard before. To account
for this extraordinary facility with language, Chomsky proposed that all children have a
language acquisition device, an innate system that permits them as soon as they acquired
sufficient vocabulary to combine words into grammatically consistent, novel utterances and to
understand the meaning of the sentence they hear. According to Chomsky LAD is a universal
grammar, a built in storehouse of rules that apply to all human languages.

10. LAD

Linguist Noam Chomsky first convinced the scientific community that children assume much
responsibility for their own language learning. Focusing on grammar Chomsky reasoned that the
rules for sentence organization are too complex to be directly taught to or discovered by even a
cognitively sophisticated young child. Children and adults alike readily produce and understand
an unlimited range of sentences, often ones that they have never said or heard before. To account
for this extraordinary facility with language, Chomsky proposed that all children have a
language acquisition device, an innate system that permits them as soon as they acquired
sufficient vocabulary to combine words into grammatically consistent, novel utterances and to
understand the meaning of the sentence they hear. According to Chomsky LAD is a universal
grammar, a built in storehouse of rules that apply to all human languages.
11. Babbling

Babbling is a stage in child development and a state in language acquisition during which
an infant appears to be experimenting with uttering articulate sounds, but does not
yet produce any recognizable words. Babbling begins shortly after birth and progresses through
several stages as the infant's repertoire of sounds expands and vocalizations become more
speech- like. Infants typically begin to produce recognizable words when they are around 12
months of age, though babbling may continue for some time afterward. Babbling can be seen as
a precursor to language development or simply as vocal experimentation. The physical structures
involved in babbling are still being developed in the first year of a child's life. This continued
physical development is responsible for some of the changes in abilities and variations of sound
babies can produce.

12. Cooing

Cooing is a stage of infants’ prelinguistic speech development and consists of the production of
single syllable, vowel-like sounds. Emerging between 6 and 8 weeks of age, cooing is a stage of
prelinguistic speech that is characterized by infants’ first noncrying verbal behavior. Consisting
of brief, vowel-like utterances, such as “oo,” or “aa” sounds, or consonant-vowel combinations
such as “goo,” cooing provides vocal practice and entertainment to infants, and aides in the
development of motor control over vocalizations Cooing is a spontaneous vocalization behavior
that infants typically engage in when they are in a comfortable state, and is also used by infants
as a non crying means to communicate to caregivers . As infants grow older their vocalizations
change in both pitch and intensity. At about 3 or 4 months of age, cooing develops into a wide
array of repetitive sounds, vowels and consonants, called babbling, which is the next stage in the
prelinguistic period.

13. Phonological development

Phonological development is a complex process that depends on the child’s ability to attend to
sound sequences, produce sounds, and combine them into understandable words and phrases.
Between 1 and 4 years, children make great progress at this task. In trying to talk like people
around them, they draw on their impressive capacity to distinguish the phonemic categories of
their native language, which is well developed by the end of the first year.

14. Fast-mapping
Children can connect a new word with an underlying concept after only a brief encounter, a
process called fast-mapping. It is the process of rapidly learning a new word by contrasting it
with a familiar word. This is an important tool that children use during language acquisition. The
hypothesized mental process whereby a new concept is learned based only on minimal exposure
to a given unit of information.

15. Underextension
When young children first learn words, they often do not use them just as adults do. They may
apply words too narrowly, an error called underextension. Underextension occurs when a
categorical term (a word used to describe a group of things) is used in language improperly by
only using it for one object instead of all objects that belong in that category. This often occurs in
children when they are initially acquiring and developing language. Children will frequently not
apply a new word to objects that it should be applied to.

16. Metacognition
Metacognition refers to the knowledge and regulation of one’s own cognitive processes, which
has been regarded as a critical component of creative thinking. The term comes from the root
word meta, meaning "beyond", or "on top of". Metacognition can take many forms; it includes
knowledge about when and how to use particular strategies for learning or problem-solving.

17.Overextension

A more common error between 1 and 2 and half years of childhood called Overextension where
applying a word to a wider collection of objects and events than is appropriate. For example, a
toddler might use the word "car" for buses, trains,trucks, and fire engines.

18. Metalinguistic awareness

The ability to think about language as a system is called Metalinguistic awareness. Around age 4
children know that word labels are arbitrary and not part of the objects to which they refer. By
the age 5 children have a good sense of the concept of “word”. Between ages 4 and 8 children
make great strides in phonological awareness. Phonological awareness strongly predicts reading
progress. Then literacy promotes further metalinguistic development by enabling language to
become an object of thought that can be analyzed and dissected.Around age 8 children can judge
the grammatical correctness of a sentence even if its meaning is false or senseless.

19.Telegraphic Speech
Telegraphic speech is the condensed or abbreviated speech in which only the most central words,
carrying the highest level of information, are spoken. Nouns and verbs are typically featured,
whereas adjectives, adverbs, articles, and connective parts of speech are omitted.This speech of
children roughly between the ages of 18 and 30 months. This is usually in the form of two-word
expressions up to the age of about 24 months.

20. Bilingualism

Bilingualism refers to learning two languages and sometimes more than two.Children can
become bilingual in two ways:
1. By acquiring both languages at the same time in early childhood
2. By learning a second language after mastering the first.
Bilingual children are advanced in cognitive development and metalinguistic awareness—
advantages that provide strong justification for bilingual education programs in schools.

21.Social smiling

A social smile is reciprocal, meaning your baby smiles in response to someone else's smile. It's a
sign that several different parts of the brain are maturing. It says he's able to see short distances,
make sense of an object (in this case a smiling face), and produce his own smile in return. A
social smile also boosts bonding, since it's one of the first forms of communication between
parent and child.

22.Stranger anxiety
It is the distress and apprehension experienced by young children when they are around
individuals who are unfamiliar to them. Stranger anxiety is a normal part of cognitive
development: Babies differentiate caregivers from other people and display a strong preference
for familiar faces. Stranger anxiety usually begins around 8 or 9 months of age and typically lasts
into the 2nd year. Also called fear of strangers.

23.Primary emotions

Primary emotions are Happiness, Interest, Surprise, Fear, Anger, Sadness and Disgust. Primary
emotions are universal in humans and other primates and have a long evolutionary history of
promoting survival.

24.Self-Conscious Emotions

Besides basic emotions, humans are capable of a second, higher-order set of feelings, including
shame, embarrassment, guilt, envy, and pride. These are called self-conscious emotions because
each involves injury to or enhancement of our sense of self. For example, when we are ashamed
or embarrassed, we have negative feelings about our behavior or accomplishments, and we want
to retreat so others will no longer notice our failings.we feel guilt when we know that we have
harmed someone and we want to correct the wrongdoing and repair the relationship. In con-
trast, pride reflects delight in the self's achievements, and we are inclined to tell others what we
have accomplished and to take on further challenges.

25.What is emotional self regulation?

Emotional self-regulation or emotion regulation is the ability to respond to the ongoing demands
of experience with the range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently
flexible to permit spontaneous reactions as well as the ability to delay spontaneous reactions as
needed. It can also be defined as extrinsic and intrinsic process responsible for monitoring,
evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions. Emotional self-regulation belongs to the broader
set of emotion regulation processes, which includes both the regulation of one's own feelings and
the regulation of other people's feelings.

26. Emotional display rules

All societies have emotional display rules that specify when, where, and how it is appropriate to
express emotions. In addition to regulating internal emotional states, children must learn to
control what they communicate to others.

SECTION B

1.What are the components of language?

Components of language (berk-360) Language consist of several subsystems that have to do with
sound, meaning, overall structure and everyday use . The components are phonology, semantics,
grammar,,pragmatics.
PHONOLOGY
The first component phonology refers to the rules governing the structure and sequence of
speech sounds.The phonological system of a language includes an inventory of sounds and their
features.Rules which specify how sounds interact with each other. Phonology is one of several
aspects of language. It is related to other aspects such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and
pragmatics.
An example of phonology is the study of different sounds and the way they come together to
form speech and words - such as the comparison of the sounds of the two “p’’sounds in
“pop-up.” Phonological development refers to forming and using speech sounds to clearly
communicate language.As more sounds of a language are acquired, language becomes clearer,
and pronunciation, fluency, and intonation all improve
SEMANTICS
The second component is Semantics ,it involves vocabulary –the way underlying concepts are
expressed in words and word combinations. More specifically, it is the study of meanings
through the relationships of words, how they are used, and how they are said. When the children
first use a word ,it often does not mean the same thing as it does to adults. Children must refine
the meanings of thousands of words and connect them into elaborate networks of related terms.
Eg:To call someone an angel doesn't mean they inhabit heaven..
Semantics leads us to believe they have a lovely disposition. It influences our reading
comprehension as well as our comprehension of other people's words in everyday conversation.
Semantics play a large part in our daily communication, understanding, and language learning
without us even realizing..Once mastery of language develops ,children combine words and
modify them in meaningful ways
GRAMMAR
Grammar is the third component ,it consist of two parts
a) Syntax : The rules by which the words are arranged into sentences. Example: One rule of
syntax is that an article such as “the” must come before a noun, not after: “Read the book,” not
“Read book the.”
b) Morphology: The term morphology is Greek and is a makeup of morph- meaning ‘shape,
form’, and -ology which means ‘the study of something'.
It is the use of grammatical markers indicating the number, tense ,case, person ,gender, active
and passive voice
It was first named by August Schleicher a German linguistic
PRAGMATICS
Finally ,pragmatics refers to the rules for engaging in appropriate and effective communication
.The term pragmatics was coined in the 1930s by psychologist and philosopher Charles
Morris.Pragmatics was developed as a subfield of linguistics in the 1970s.To converse
successfully ,children must take turns, stay on the same topic as their conversational partner ,and
state their meaning clearly. They must also figure out how gestures ,tone of voice ,and context
clarify meaning.As society indicates how language should be spoken ,pragmatics involves
sociolinguistic knowledge. Children must acquire certain interaction rituals ,such as verbal
greetings and leave takings.They must adjust their speech to mark important social relationships
,such as differences in age and status.

2.Elaborate on language components

Components of language
Language consist of several subsystems that have to do with sound, meaning, overall structure
and everyday use . The components are phonology, semantics, grammar,,pragmatics.
PHONOLOGY
The first component phonology refers to the rules governing the structure and sequence of
speech sounds.The phonological system of a language includes an inventory of sounds and their
features.Rules which specify how sounds interact with each other..Phonology is one of several
aspects of language. It is related to other aspects such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and
pragmatics. An example of phonology is the study of different sounds and the way they come
together to form speech and words - such as the comparison of the sounds of the two “p’’sounds
in “pop-up.” Phonological development refers to forming and using speech sounds to clearly
communicate language.As more sounds of a language are acquired, language becomes clearer,
and pronunciation, fluency, and intonation all improve
SEMANTICS
The second component is Semantics ,it involves vocabulary –the way underlying concepts are
expressed in words and word combinations. More specifically, it is the study of meanings
through the relationships of words, how they are used, and how they are said. When the children
first use a word ,it often does not mean the same thing as it does to adults. Children must refine
the meanings of thousands of words and connect them into elaborate networks of related terms.
Eg:To call someone an angel doesn't mean they inhabit heaven..
Semantics leads us to believe they have a lovely disposition.It influences our reading
comprehension as well as our comprehension of other people's words in everyday conversation.
Semantics play a large part in our daily communication, understanding, and language learning
without us even realizing..Once mastery of language develops ,children combine words and
modify them in meaningful ways
GRAMMAR
Grammar is the third component ,it consist of two parts
a) Syntax : The rules by which the words are arranged into sentences. Example: One rule of
syntax is that an article such as “the” must come before a noun, not after: “Read the book,” not
“Read book the.”
b) Morphology: The term morphology is Greek and is a makeup of morph- meaning ‘shape,
form’, and -ology which means ‘the study of something'.
It is the use of grammatical markers indicating the number, tense ,case, person ,gender, active
and passive voice
It was first named by August Schleicher a German linguistic
PRAGMATICS
Finally ,pragmatics refers to the rules for engaging in appropriate and effective communication
.The term pragmatics was coined in the 1930s by psychologist and philosopher Charles
Morris.Pragmatics was developed as a subfield of linguistics in the 1970s.To converse
successfully ,children must take turns, stay on the same topic as their conversational partner ,and
state their meaning clearly. They must also figure out how gestures ,tone of voice ,and context
clarify meaning.As society indicates how language should be spoken ,pragmatics involves
sociolinguistic knowledge. Children must acquire certain interaction rituals ,such as verbal
greetings and leave takings.They must adjust their speech to mark important social relationships
,such as differences in age and status.

3. Theories of language development

There are two prominent theories of language development.

INTERACTIONIST THEORY

Language development emphasizes interactions between inner capacities and environmental

influences. One type of interactionist theory applies the information-processing perspective to
language development. A second type emphasizes social interaction.

Information-Processing Theories: These theories imply that when a response is correct, the
connections that produced it strengthen; when incorrect, they weaken. If the network’s overall
pattern of responses resembles that of children of different ages, researchers conclude that the
network is a good model of human learning and development.

Social Interactionist Theories: According to the social interactionist perspective, native capacity,
a strong desire to understand others and to be understood by them, and a rich language
environment combine to help children discover the functions and regularities of language.

NATIVIST THEORY

This theory regards language as a uniquely human accomplishment, reasoning that the rules for
sentence organization are too complex to be directly taught to or discovered by even a
cognitively sophisticated young child. Rather, Chomsky proposed that all children have a
language acquisition device (LAD) —an innate system that permits them, once they have
acquired sufficient vocabulary, to combine words into grammatically consistent, novel utterances
and to understand the meaning of sentences they hear
4. Discuss nativist theory of language development

Linguist Noam Chomsky proposed a nativist theory that regards language as a uniquely human
accomplishment, etched into the structure of the brain. Focusing on grammar, Chomsky reasoned
that the rules for sentence organization are too complex to be directly taught to or discovered by
even a cognitively sophisticated young child. Rather, Chomsky proposed that all children have a
language acquisition device (LAD) —an innate system that permits them, once they have
acquired sufficient vocabulary, to combine words into grammatically consistent, novel utterances
and to understand the meaning of sentences they hear.

According to Chomsky within the LAD is a universal grammar, a built-in storehouse of rules
common to all human languages. Young children use this knowledge to decipher grammatical
categories and relationships in any language to which they are exposed. Because the LAD is
specifically suited for language processing, children master the structure of language
spontaneously, with only limited language exposure. In this way, the LAD ensures that language,
despite its complexity, will be acquired early and swiftly. Children have a remarkable ability to
invent new language systems, providing some of the most powerful support for this perspective.

5. Prelinguistic development

From the very beginning, infants are prepared to acquire language. During the first
year, sensitivity to language, cognitive and social skills, and environmental supports pave
the way for the onset of verbal communication. Receptivity to language Newborns are
especially sensitive voice and prefer speech — to the pitch range of the human especially
their mother’s voice and their native tongue — to other sounds, perhaps because of
repeated exposure to their mother speaking during pregnancy

As adults , we analyze the speech stream into phonemes, the smallest sound units that
signal a change in meaning , such as the difference between the consonant sounds in “pa”
and “ba” . Phonemes are not the same across all languages . For example , “ra” and “la” are
distinct sounds to English speakers but sound the same to speakers of Japanese. This tendency
to perceive as identical a range of sounds that belong to the same phonemic class is called
categorical speech perception. Newborns like adults are capable of it. And humans other
primates and chinchillas-- as well as categorize not only speech but also non speech sounds.
These findings indicate that unique to linguistic input. Rather, it is a categorical perception
property of the auditory system, and human languages take advantage is not of it. Young
infants are sensitive to a much wider range of speech categories than exists in their own
language. As they listen actively to the talk of people around them, they on meaningful
sound variations Between . focus 6 and 8 months, they start to organize speech into the
phonemic categories of their own language that — is, they stop attending to sounds that will
not be useful in mastering their native tongue or, in the case of bilingual exposure, sounds
not part of both languages they are about to learn.

At 8 months, however, Englishlearning infants no longer make this visual distinction.

But 8month FrenchEnglish olds from bilingual homes continue to separate the two languages
visually — a discrimination that helps them learn two languages at once . As older infants
focus intently on language regularities , they soon recognize familiar words in spoken
passages, listen longer to speech with clear clause and phrase boundaries, and divide the
speech stream into wordlike units . They also extend their sensitivity to speech structure to
individual words. Using phoneme sequences and stress patterns, 7montholds can distinguish
sounds that typically begin words from those that do not .

In the second half of the first year , infants have begun to detect the internal structure
of sentences and words — information that will be vital for linking speech units with their
meanings Children are vigilant second half of statistical analyzers of sound patterns ; in the
the first year, they can distinguish adjacent syllables that frequently occur together.
Research suggests that infants first use these statistical learning abilities to locate words in
speech. Then they focus on the words, detecting regular patterns of syllable stress .
Furthermore, babies of this age are budding At 7 months, rule learners . they can distinguish
an ABA from an ABB pattern the structure of short, nonsenseword sequences eventually
help them grasp basic syntax . Clearly, infants acquire a great deal of language in — a
capacity that may specific knowledge before they start to talk around 12 months of age .
 Certain feature Around 2 months, babies begin to make cooing vowellike noises ,
called because of their pleasant “oo” quality. Gradually, consonants are added, and around 6
months appears, in which infants repeat consonantbabbling vowel combinations, often in long
strings such as “bababababa” and “nanananana.” Babies everywhere (even those who are
deaf) start babbling at about the same age and produce a similar range of early sounds.
But . In hearing for babbling to develop further, infants must hear human speech impaired
babies, these speech like sounds are delayed and limited in diversity of sounds produced
over time And a deaf infant not exposed to sign language will stop babbling entirely Early
sensitive period in which exposure to speech is essential for the brain to develop the
necessary organization for normal speech processing . At birth, infants are prepared for some
aspects of conversational behavior. For example, newborns initiate interaction through eye
contact and terminate it by looking away .

By 3 to 4 months, infants start to gaze in the same general direction adults are looking
— a skill that becomes more accurate at 10 to 11 months. Around this time, babies become
sensitive to adults’ precise direction of gaze, suggesting that they realize that others’ focus
provides information about their communicative intentions (to talk about an object) or other
goals (to obtain an object) Indeed, 12montholds look where an adult is looking only when
the adult’s eyes are open. And 12to 14montholds are more likely to engage in gaze following
when no obstacles block an adult’s line of sight to an object. Around their first birthday visual
gaze , babies realize that a person’s signals a vital connection between the viewer and his or
her surroundings, and they want to participate. This joint attention in which the child attends
to the same object or event as the caregiver who often labels it, contributes greatly to early
language development .

Around the first birthday babies extend interaction skill their joint attention and
social they point toward an object or location while looking back toward the caregiver in
an effort to direct the adults attention and influence their behavior. One year olds interpret
pointing to indicate the location of a hidden toy only when the adult also makes eye
contact not when the adults look down at his finger Infant pointing leads to two
communicative gestures. The first is the protodeclarative, in which the baby points to,
touches, or holds up an object while looking at others to make sure they notice. In the
second, the person to do protoimperative , the baby gets another something by reaching,
pointing, and often making sounds at the same time. Besides using communicative gestures
to serve their own goals, 12 olds adapt these gestures to the needs of others. Already, the
cooperative processes essential for effective communication — modifying knowledge —
messages to suit others’ intentions and are under way. Soon toddlers integrate words with
gestures, using the gesture to expand their verbal message, as in pointing to a toy while
saying “give” Gradually, gestures recede, and words become dominant. Toddlers’ use of
preverbal gestures growth in the second and third years . And the earlier toddlers form
word predicts faster early vocabulary gesture combinations and the greater number they use,
the sooner they produce two utterances(telegraphic speech) word at the end of the second
year and the more complex their sentences at age 3½ . Clearly gesture is at the cutting
edge of early language development, serving as a steppingstone to more advanced
construction .

6. Phases of phonological development

Phonological development is a complex process that depends on the child’s ability to attend
to sound sequences, produce sounds, and combine them into understandable words and
phrases. Between 1 and 4 years, children make great progress at this task. In trying to talk
like people around them, they draw on their impressive capacity to distinguish the phonemic
categories of their native language, which is well developed by the end of the first year.
They also adopt temporary strategies for producing sounds that bring adult words within
their current range of physical and cognitive capabilities

In the early phase children’s first words are influenced in part by the small number
of sounds they can pronounce. The easiest sound sequences start with consonants, end with
vowels, and include repeated syllables, as in “Mama,” “Dada,” bye and “nighnigh” (for
“night-- bye,” night”). Sometimes young speakers use the same sound to represent a variety
of words, making their speech hard to understand.

By the middle of the second year, children move from trying to pronounce whole
syllables and words to trying to. pronounce each individual sound within a word month. As
a result, they can be heard experimenting with phoneme patterns. One 21 old pronounced
“juice” as “du,” “ju,” “dus,” “jus,” “sus,” “zus,” “fus,” “tfus,” “jusi,” and “tfusi” within a
single hour At first, children produce and trying to minimal words, pronounce its consonant
focusing on the stressed syllable vowel combination (“du” or “ju” for “juice”). Soon they add
ending for “please”), and add unstressed syllables (“maedo” for “tomato”). Finally, they
produce the full word with a correct stress pattern, although they may still need to refine
its sounds. Children’s errors are similar across a range of Different languages. But rate of
phonological progress depends on the complexity of a language’s sound system and the
importance of certain sounds for conveying meaning. Over the preschool years, children’s
pronunciation improves greatly. Maturation of the vocal tract and the child’s active
problem solving efforts are largely responsible, since children’s phonological errors are
resistant to adult correction.

Although phonological development is largely complete by age 5 , a few syllable

stress patterns signaling subtle differences in meaning are not acquired until middle
childhood or adolescence. For example, when shown pairs of pictures and asked to
distinguish the “greenhouse” from the “green house,” most children recognized the correct
label by third grade and produced it between fourth and sixth grade . Changes in syllabic
stress when certain abstract words take on endings (“humid” to “humidity,” “method” to
“methodical”) are not mastered until adolescence These late attainments are the word s, in
that hard to probably affected by the semantic complexity of understand words are also
more difficult to pronounce. Even at later ages, working simultaneously on the sounds and
meaning of a new word may overload the cognitive system, causing children to sacrifice
pronunciation temporarily until they better grasp the word’s meaning.

7. Explain the development of phonology

Phonological development is a complex process that depends on the child’s ability to attend to
sound sequences, produce sounds, and combine them into understandable words and phrases.
Between 1 and 4 years, children make great progress at this task. In trying to talk like people
around them, they draw on their impressive capacity to distinguish the phonemic categories of
their native language, which is well developed by the end of the first year. They also adopt
temporary strategies for producing sounds that bring adult words within their current range of
physical and cognitive capabilities.
Phonology is one of several aspects of language. It is related to other aspects such as
phonetics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics. An example of phonology is the study of
different sounds and the way they come together to form speech and words - such as the
comparison of the sounds of the two “p’’sounds in “pop-up.” Phonological development refers to
forming and using speech sounds to clearly communicate language. As more sounds of a
language are acquired, language becomes clearer, and pronunciation, fluency, and intonation all
improve.
Phonological development can be considered in terms of both perception and production
of speech sounds. Historically, the development of speech sounds has been characterized in
terms of the development of articulation abilities, with recent attention being paid to the notion
that a larger set of rules and linguistic representations may also govern how individuals acquire
speech sounds.Research has demonstrated that infants are aware of speech sounds long before
they are able to produce them. It is in this early period that infants typically begin to demonstrate
recognition of single words. Infants begin to explore and experiment with their vocal tracts from
birth. The earliest sounds that are produced are reflexive vocalizations, such as sneezing and
breathing. As the infant matures, sounds include cooing and laughter, with an increased variety
of consonant and vowel like sounds. As the child acquires more and more words, systematic
patterns of sounds often emerge known as phonological processes. By early school age, most
phonological processes have resolved in typical development, as the child’s productions more
closely match the adult form. However, some children demonstrate lingering phonological
processes that impact intelligibility.

8. Semantic development
Gradual acquisition of words and the meanings they carry. First words are usually produced at
around the first year of birth. It is a slow but a gradual process in which a child, perhaps, learns a
couple of words a week. Some social words like bye-bye, hello, etc., object words, and command
words are initially learnt. On average, children say their first word around 12 months. By age 6,
they understand the meaning of about 10,000 words (Bloom, 1998). To accomplish this feat,
children learn about five new words each day.
 Preschoolers are most successful at figuring out new word meanings when several kinds
of Information are available for development: gradual acquisition of words and the meanings
they carry -First words are usually produced around the first year of birth. As these achievements
reveal, children’s comprehension, the language they understand, develops ahead of production,
the language they use.
Comprehension – it requires only that children recognize the meaning of a word. But for
production, children must recall, or actively retrieve from their memories, not only the word but
also the concept for which it stands. Still, the two capacities are related. The speed and accuracy
of toddlers’ comprehension of spoken language increase dramatically over the second year. And
toddlers who are faster and more accurate in comprehension tend to show more rapid growth in
words understood and produced as they approach age 2. Quick comprehension frees space in
working memory for picking up new words and for the more demanding task of using them to
communicate.
Researchers have discovered that children can connect a new word with an underlying
concept after only a brief encounter, a process called fast-mapping. Even 15- to 18-month-olds
comprehend new labels remarkably quickly, but they need more repetitions of the word’s use
across several situations than preschoolers, who process speech-based information faster and are
better able to categorize and recall it.

9.Discuss the pattern of semantic development.

Gradual acquisition of words and the meanings they carry. First words are usually produced at
around the first year of birth. It is a slow but a gradual process in which a child, perhaps, learns a
couple of words a week.
Birth–1 year :Prefers to listen to m other’s voice and to native language and analyzes speech
stream for words and syllable stress patterns.Begins to comprehend words, and recognizes
familiar words.Uses communicative gestures.
1–2 years :Says first words and Vocabulary grows to several hundred words. 3–5 years :Coins
words to fill in for words not yet mastered.Understands metaphors based on concrete,sensory
comparisons.
6–10 years: At school entry the child understands the meaning of about 10,000 words and
Acquires meanings of new words from context and from definitions. Appreciates the multiple
meanings of words, as indicated by metaphors and humor.
11 years– adulthood :Comprehends over 40,000 words, including many abstract terms and
Understands subtle, nonliteral word meanings, as in sarcasm, irony, and proverbs. To explain
semantic development, Eve Clark ,Proposed Lexical contrast theory .It assumes two principles
govern vocabulary growth :conventionally ,children’s natural desire to acquire words and word
meaning of their language community ; and contrast ,which explains how new word meanings
are added. According to Clark, children assume that the meaning of each word they hear is
unique. Therefore when they hear a new label,they try to figure out its meaning by contrasting it
with words they know and assigning it to a gap in their vocabulary.

10.Grammatical Development

Children’s grammar requires that they use more than one word in an utterance. First Word
Combinations occur sometimes between 1 ½ and 2 ½ years, as productive vocabulary reaches
200 to 250 words. Children transition from word gesture combinations to joining two words.
Between 1/2 and 2 1/2 years, children combine two words to express a variety of meanings.
These first sentences are called telegraphic speech because they leave out smaller, less important
words. Early two-word combinations probably do not reflect adult grammatical rules.As children
generate three-word sentences, their first use of grammatical rules is piecemeal, applied to only
one or a few verbs.They refine and generalize structures gradually. English-speaking children
add grammatical morphemes in a consistent order that is a product of both structural and
semantic complexity. Once children acquire a regular morphological rule, they overregularize, or
extend it to words that are exceptions, more often for rarely used irregular words. Over time,
expressions based on auxiliary verbs, such as negatives and questions, are mastered. Between
ages 3 1/2 and 6, a variety of complex constructions are added. Certain forms, such as the
passive voice and infinitive phrases, continue to be refined in middle childhood.
During the school years, mastery of complex constructions improves. Older children also apply
the passive voice to a wider range of nouns and verbs. Preschoolers comprehend the passive best
when the subject of the sentence is an animate being and the verb is an action word. Over the
school years, children extend the passive form to inanimate subjects .

11.Discuss the pattern involved in pragmatic development

Language is a tool that children and adults use to act in and explore the social world; to create,
develop, and sustain social relationships; and to engage with others in culturally meaningful
activities. Thus, pragmatic development involves children’s acquisition of communicative
competences, that is, learning how to use language, to communicate and understand others
appropriately and effectively in a widening range of social contexts and activities while assuming
increasingly complex social roles.

Acquiring Conversational Skills.

Young children are already skilled conversationalists. In face-to face interaction, they make eye
contact, respond appropriately to their partner’s remarks, and take turns. With age, the number of
turns over which children can sustain interaction and their ability to maintain a topic over time
increase, but even 2-year-olds converse effectively.

In early childhood, additional conversational strategies are added. In the turnabout, the speaker
not only comments on what has just been said but also adds a request to get the partner to
respond again. Because 2-years olds cannot generate many words in each turn, they seldom use
turnabouts, but children do so increasingly over the next few years).Between ages 5 and 9 , more
advanced conversational strategies appear, such as shading, in which a speaker initiates a change
of topic gradually by modifying the focus of discussion.Effective conversation also depends on
understanding illocutionary intent-What a speaker means to say, even if the form of the utterance
is not perfectly consistent with it.By age 3, children comprehend a variety of requests for action
not directly expressed as requests:“I need a pencil” or “Why don’t you tickle me?”

Dialogues with caregivers about storybooks are particularly effective (Hoff, 2010). They expose
children to great breadth of language knowledge, including how to communicate in a clear,
coherent narrative style—a skill that undoubtedly contributes to the association between joint
storybook reading and literacy development .Finally, the presence of a sibling enhances young
children’s conversational skills.

Communicating Clearly .
To communicate effectively, we must produce clear verbal messages and recognize when
messages we receive are unclear so we can ask for more information. These aspects of language
are called referential communication skills. Children’s ability to evaluate the adequacy of
messages they receive also improves with age. Around age 3, preschoolers start to ask others to
clarify ambiguous messages. At first, children recognize when a message provides a poor
description of a concrete object . Only later can they tell when a message contains
inconsistencies.

Narratives – conversations with adults about past experiences contribute to dramatic gains in
children’s ability to produce well – organized, detailed, expressive narratives, when asked to
relate a personally important event, 4-Years –olds typically produce brief renditions called
leapfrog narratives, jumping from one event to another in a disorganized fashion. Between 4 ½
and 5 , children start to produce chronological narratives placing events in temporal sequence
and building to a high point: “We went to the lake. We fished and waited.Paul waited, and he got
a huge catfish.” Around age 6, chronological narratives extend into classic narratives, in which
children add a resolution: “After Dad cleaned the catfish, we cooked it and ate it all
up!”.Preschoolers’ limited working memories are partly responsible for their restricted
narratives. In addition, young children often presume more shared knowledge than their listener
has, so they offer little orienting information about events, such as time, place, and participants.

Preschoolers’ narratives also contain few evaluations —comments about how and why events
took place or about their own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and intentions.During middle
childhood, orienting information, detailed descriptions, and connectives that lend coherence to
the story (“next,” “then,” “so,” “finally”) increase. And evaluative comments rise steadily in
middle childhood and adolescence . When parents use the elaborative strategy to help young
children construct narratives, preschoolers produce more organized, detailed, and evaluative
personal stories .

12. Advantages of bilingualism

Throughout the world ,many children grow up bilingual, learning two languages and sometimes
more than two is referred to as bilingualism .Children can become bilingual in two ways one by
acquiring both languages at the same time in early childhood or by learning a second language
after mastering the first.
Children of bilingual parents who teach them both languages in infancy and early childhood
separate the language systems from the start. Preschoolers acquire normal native ability in the
language of their surrounding community and good-to-native ability in the second language
,depending on their exposure to it. Children who learn two languages in early childhood acquire
each according to a typical timetable. When school-age children acquire a second language after
mastering the first, they take five to seven years to attain the competence of native-speaking
agemates.Bilingual children sometimes engage in code switching between the two
languages.Code switching is producing an utterance in one language that contains one or more
“guest” words from the other .Children may engage in code switching because they lack the
vocabulary to convey a particular thought in one language ,so they use the other.
Bilingual adults frequently code switching to express cultural identity ,and children may
follow suit. Opportunities to listen to code switching may facilitate bilingual development
Compared to their monolingual age mates , bilingual children have somewhat smaller
vocabularies in each language. The bilingual children scored lower only in English words
likely to be used at home ,where they heard and spoke their other language.

ADVANTAGES

● A large body of research shows that children who become fluent in two languages are
advanced in cognitive development.
● Brain-imaging research reveals that individuals who acquire two languages earlier and to
greater proficiency develop denser neuronal connections in language areas of the left
hemisphere .
● Bilingual children outperform others on tests of selective attention, inhibition, of
irrelevant information, analytical reasoning , concept formation, and cognitive
flexibility
● They are also advanced in certain aspects of metalinguistic awareness , such as detection
of errors in grammar, meaning , and conventions of conversation. ● And children transfer
their phonological awareness skills in one language to the other , especially if the two
languages share phonological features and letter-sound correspondences , as Spanish and
English do.
● These capacities , as noted earlier , enhance reading achievement.
Two way bilingual programs ,in which children with limited proficiency in English who speak a
common native language and children who are fluent in English are assigned in equal numbers
to the same classroom. Teaching is aimed at helping all children become fluent in both
languages and at increasing cross-cultural understanding . The goal is to foster the linguistic
,cognitive, and cultural enrichment of the entire nation. Bilingual children are advanced in
cognitive development and metalinguistic awareness— advantages that provide strong
justification for bilingual education programs in schools.
13. Development of emotional expression

Because infants cannot describe their feelings, determining exactly which emotions they are
experiencing is a challenge. Although vocalizations and body movements provide some
information, researchers have relied most on facial expressions. Infants do show signs of fear-
drawing back and refusing to crawl. Blind infants express emotions through finger movements,
parents become more interactive. Cross-cultural evidence reveals that people around the world
associate photographs of different facial expressions with emotions in the same way . These
findings inspired researchers to analyze infants’ facial patterns carefully to determine the range
of emotions they display at different ages. Depending on the situation, a smile might convey
joy, embarrassment, contempt, or a social greeting. In line with the dynamic systems perspective
, emotional expressions vary with the person’s developing capacities, goals, and context. Basic
emotions are Happiness , Interest, Surprise, Fear, Anger, Sadness and Disgust. Basic emotions
are universal in humans and other primates and have a long evolutionary history of promoting
survival
Baby's earliest emotional life consists of little more than two global arousal states :
-Attraction to pleasant stimulation
-Withdrawal from unpleasant stimulation
Only gradually do emotions become clear, well organized signals. The dynamic system
perspective helps us to understand how this happens : Children coordinate separate skills
into more effective, emotionally expressive systems as the central nervous system develops
and the child's goals and experiences change. Sensitive, contingent caregiver
communication, in which parents selectively mirror aspects of the baby's diffuse emotional
behaviour, help infants construct emotional expressions that more closely resemble those of
adults. With age, face, gaze, voice, and posture start to form organized patterns that vary
meaning fully with environmental events. Gradually, emotional expressions become
well-organized and specific—and therefore provide more precise information about the
baby’s internal state. Four basic emotions—happiness, anger, sadness, and fear—have
received the most research attention.

Happiness
Happiness—expressed first in blissful smiles, later through exuberant laughter—contributes to
many aspects of development. When infants achieve new skills, they smile and laugh,
displaying delight in motor and cognitive mastery. As the smile encourages caregivers to be
affectionate and stimulating, the baby smiles even more. Happiness binds parent and child into a
warm, supportive relationship that fosters the infant’s developing competencies. During the
early weeks, newborn babies smile when full, during REM sleep, and in response to gentle
touches and sounds, such as stroking of the skin, rocking, and the mother’s soft, high-pitched
voice.By the end of the first month, infants smile at dynamic, eye-catching sights, such as a
bright object jumping suddenly across their field of vision. As infants attend to the parent's face,
and the parent talks and smiles, Babies knit their brows, open their mouths to coo, and move
their arms and legs excitedly, gradually becoming emotionally positive. Between 6 to 10 weeks,
the parent's communication evokes a broad grin called the social smile.Social smiling becomes
better organized and stable and babies learn to use it to evoke and sustain pleasurable
face-to-face interaction . Laughter, which appears around 3 to 4 months, reflects faster
processing of information than smiling. But as with smiling, the first laughs occur in response to
very active stimuli, such as the parent saying playfully, “I’m gonna get you!” and kissing the
baby’s tummy. As infants understand more about their world, they laugh at events with subtler
elements of surprise, such as a silent game of peekaboo .Around the middle of the first year,
infants smile and laugh more when interacting with familiar people, a preference that
strengthens the parent–child bond. Between 8 and 10 months, infants more often interrupt their
play with an interesting toy to relay their delight to an attentive adult . And like adults, 10- to
12-month-olds have several smiles, which vary with context— a broad, “cheek-raised” smile in
response to a parent’s greeting; a reserved, muted smile for a friendly stranger; and a
“mouth-open” smile during stimulating play . By the end of the first year, the smile has become
a deliberate social signal.

Anger and Sadness

Newborn babies respond with generalized distress to a variety of unpleasant experiences,
including: hunger, painful medical procedures, changes in body temperature , and too much or
too little stimulation.From 4-6 months into the second year, angry expressions increase in
frequency and intensityOlder infants also react with anger in a wider range of situations:
- when interesting object or event is removed.
- an expected pleasant event does not occur
- their arms are restrained
- the caregiver leaves for a brief time or they put down for a nap.

Sadness
Sadness also occurs in response to pain , removal of an object, and brief separation , they are
less common than anger. Sadness occurs when infants are deprived of a familiar, loving
caregiver or when caregiver -infant communication is seriously disrupted.

Fear

Fear rises during the second half of the first year into the second year Infant's most frequent
expression of fear is to unfamiliar adults, a response called stranger anxiety. Many infants and
toddlers are quite wary of strangers, although the reaction does not always occur. It depends on
several factors Temperament, Past experiences with strangers and the Current situation When
an unfamiliar adult picks up the infant in a new setting, stranger anxiety is likely. But if the
adult sits still while the baby moves around and a parent remains nearby, infants often show
positive and curious behavior . The stranger’s style of interaction—expressing warmth, holding
out an attractive toy, playing a familiar game, and approaching slowly rather than
abruptly—reduces the baby’s fear.
Cross-cultural research reveals that infant-rearing practices can modify stranger anxiety.The
rise in fear after age 6 months keeps new mobile babies’ enthusiasm for exploration in check.
Once wariness develops, Infants use the familiar caregiver as a secure base to explore,
venturing into the environment and then returning for emotional support. As part of this
adaptive system, encounters with strangers lead to two conflicting tendencies: approach
(indicated by interest and friendliness) and avoidance (indicated by fear). The infant’s behavior
is a balance between the two. Eventually, as cognitive development permits toddlers to
discriminate more effectively between threatening and non threatening people and situations,
stranger anxiety and other fears of the first two years decline. This change is adaptive because
adults other than caregivers will soon be important in children’s development. Fear also wanes
as children acquire a wider array of strategies for coping with it,like emotional self-regulation.

14. Discuss emotional development in children

Because infants cannot describe their feelings, determining exactly which emotions they are
experiencing is a challenge. Although vocalizations and body movements provide some
information, researchers have relied most on facial expressions. Infants do show signs of fear-
drawing back and refusing to crawl. Blind infants express emotions through finger movements,
parents become more interactive. Baby’s earliest emotional life consists of little more than two
global arousal states :
-Attraction to pleasant stimulation
-Withdrawal from unpleasant stimulation
Only gradually do emotions become clear, well organized signals. The dynamic system
perspective helps us to understand how this happens : Children coordinate separate skills into
more effective, emotionally expressive systems as the central nervous system develops and the
child's goals and experiences change.

15.Development of emotional self regulation

Emotional self-regulation refers to the strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a
comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals.It requires cognitive capacities-:
-attention focusing and shifting, ability to inhibit thoughts and behaviour , - planning or actively
taking steps to relieve a stressful situation. When you remind yourself that an anxiety-provoking
event will be over soon, suppress your anger at a friend’s behavior, or decide not to see a scary
horror film, you are engaging in emotional self- regulation.Emotional self-regulation requires
voluntary effortful management of emotions.This capacity of effortful control improves
gradually as the result of development of prefrontal cortex and the assistance of caregivers who
help children manage intense emotion and teach them strategies for doing so.

SECTION C

1.Define language development, its importance and basic components of language

development?
Language consists of several subsystems that have to do with sound, meaning, overall structure,
and everyday use.Language development entails mastering each of these aspects and combining
them into a flexible communication system. The components are phonology, semantics,
grammar, pragmatics.The first component phonology refers to the rules governing the structure
and sequence of speech sounds.The phonological system of a language includes an inventory of
sounds and their features. Semantics, the second component, involves vocabulary—the way
underlying concepts are expressed in words and word combinations.Grammar, the third
component of language, consists of two main parts:syntax, the rules by which words are arranged
into sentences, and morphology, the use of grammatical markers indicating number, tense, case,
person, gender, active or passive voice, and other meanings (the endings -s and -ed are examples
in English).
Finally, pragmatics refers to the rules for engaging in appropriate and effective communication.
Components of language:
Components of language (berk-360) Language consist of several subsystems that have to do with
sound, meaning, overall structure and everyday use . The components are phonology, semantics,
grammar,,pragmatics.
PHONOLOGY
The first component phonology refers to the rules governing the structure and sequence of
speech sounds. The phonological system of a language includes an inventory of sounds and their
features.Rules which specify how sounds interact with each other..Phonology is one of several
aspects of language. It is related to other aspects such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and
pragmatics.
An example of phonology is the study of different sounds and the way they come together to
form speech and words - such as the comparison of the sounds of the two “p’’sounds in
“pop-up.”
Phonological development refers to forming and using speech sounds to clearly communicate
language. As more sounds of a language are acquired, language becomes clearer, and
pronunciation, fluency, and intonation all improve.
SEMANTICS
The second component is Semantics ,it involves vocabulary –the way underlying concepts are
expressed in words and word combinations.
More specifically, it is the study of meanings through the relationships of words, how they are
used, and how they are said. When the children first use a word ,it often does not mean the same
thing as it does to adults. Children must refine the meanings of thousands of words and connect
them into elaborate networks of related terms.
Eg:To call someone an angel doesn't mean they inhabit heaven..
Semantics leads us to believe they have a lovely disposition.It influences our reading
comprehension as well as our comprehension of other people's words in everyday conversation.
Semantics play a large part in our daily communication, understanding, and language learning
without us even realizing..Once mastery of language develops ,children combine words and
modify them in meaningful ways.
GRAMMAR
Grammar is the third component ,it consist of two parts
a) Syntax : The rules by which the words are arranged into sentences. Example: One rule of
syntax is that an article such as “the” must come before a noun, not after: “Read the book,” not
“Read book the.”
b) Morphology: The term morphology is Greek and is a makeup of morph- meaning ‘shape,
form’, and -ology which means ‘the study of something'.
It is the use of grammatical markers indicating the number, tense ,case, person ,gender, active
and passive voice. It was first named by August Schleicher a German linguistic
PRAGMATICS
Finally ,pragmatics refers to the rules for engaging in appropriate and effective communication
.The term pragmatics was coined in the 1930s by psychologist and philosopher Charles
Morris.Pragmatics was developed as a subfield of linguistics in the 1970s.To converse
successfully ,children must take turns, stay on the same topic as their conversational partner ,and
state their meaning clearly. They must also figure out how gestures ,tone of voice ,and context
clarify meaning.As society indicates how language should be spoken ,pragmatics involves
sociolinguistic knowledge. Children must acquire certain interaction rituals ,such as verbal
greetings and leave takings.They must adjust their speech to mark important social relationships
,such as differences in age and status.

2. Discuss the chief milestones of Language development

There are four major milestones of language development which are phonology, semantics,
grammar and pragmatics.

PHONOLOGY

Phonology, the first component refers to the rules governing the structure and sequence of
speech sounds. If you have ever visited a foreign country where you did not know the language,
you probably wondered how anyone could analyse the rapid flow of speech into organized
strings of words. Yet in English, you easily apply an intricate set of rules to comprehend and
produce complicated sound patterns

● Birth–1 year : Coos, then babbles Organizes speech sounds into phonemic categories of
native language Babbles using sound and intonation patterns of native language
● 1–2 years: Recognizes correct pronunciation of familiar words , Uses systematic
strategies to simplify word pronunciation
● 3–5 years : Improves in phonological awareness, Improves in word pronunciation
● 6–10 years : Extends phonological awareness to all phonemes in words, Masters syllable
stress patterns signalling subtle differences in meaning
● 11 years– adulthood: Masters syllable stress patterns of abstract words

SEMANTICS

Semantics, the second component, involves vocabulary—the way underlying concepts are
expressed in words and word combinations. When young children first use a word, it often does
not mean the same thing as it does to adults. To build a versatile vocabulary, children must refine
the meanings of thousands of words and connect them into elaborate networks of related terms.

● Birth–1 year: Prefers to listen to m other’s voice and to native language Analyses speech
stream for words and syllable stress patterns Begins to comprehend words, and
recognizes familiar words Uses communicative gestures
● 1–2 years: Says first words Vocabulary grows to several hundred words
● 3–5 years: Coins words to fill in for words not yet mastered Understands metaphors
based on concrete, sensory comparisons
● 6–10 years: A t school entry, understands the meaning of about 10,000 words Acquires
meanings of new words from context and from definitions Appreciates the multiple
meanings of words, as indicated by metaphors and humour
● 11 years– adulthood: Comprehends over 40,000 words, including many abstract terms
Understands subtle, nonliteral word meanings, as in sarcasm, irony, and proverbs.

GRAMMAR

Grammar, the third component of language, consists of two main parts: syntax, the rules by
which words are arranged into sentences, and morphology, the use of grammatical markers
indicating number, tense, case, person, gender, active or passive voice, and other meanings

● Birth–1 year: Notices the structure of word sequences, distinguishing ABA from ABB
patterns Develops sensitivity to clause and phrase boundaries
● 1–2 years: Combines two words in telegraphic speech As three-word sentences appear,
gradually adds grammatical morphemes
● 3–5 years: Gradually generalizes grammatical forms Continues to add grammatical
morphemes in a regular order
● 6–10 years: Refines complex grammatical structures, such as the passive voice and
infinitive phrases.
● 11 years– adulthood: Continues to refine complex grammatical structures.

PRAGMATICS

Pragmatics refers to the rules for engaging in appropriate and effective communication. To
converse successfully, children must take turns, stay on the same topic as their conversational
partner, and state their meaning clearly. They also must figure out how gestures, tone of voice,
and context clarify meaning.

● Birth–1 year: Establishes joint attention Engages in vocal exchanges and turn-taking
games
● 1–2 years: Engages in conversational turn taking and topic maintenance
● 3–5 years: Masters additional conversational strategies, such as the turnabout Begins to
grasp illocutionary intent Adjusts speech to listener’s perspective and to social
expectations Asks for clarification of ambiguous messages Produces chronological
narratives
● 6–10 years: Uses advanced conversational strategies, such as shading Refines
understanding of illocutionary intent Communicates clearly in demanding situations, such
as on the telephone Produces classic narratives rich in orienting information and
evaluations
● 11 years– adulthood: Ability to communicate clearly and in accord with social
expectations in diverse situations improves

3. Explain how children develop bilingualism, its advantages and disadvantages

Throughout the world ,many children grow up bilingual, learning two languages and
sometimes more than two. 1. Children can become bilingual in two ways: By acquiring both
languages at the same time in early childhood 2. By learning a second language after
mastering the first. Children of bilingual parents who teach them both languages in infancy
and early childhood separate the language systems from the start Preschoolers acquire normal
native ability in the language of their surrounding community and good to native ability in
the second language depending on their exposure to it. Children who learn two languages in
early childhood acquire each according to a typical timetable. When school age children
acquire a second language after mastering the first, they take five to seven years to attain
the competence of native engage in speaking code switching agemates . Bilingual children
sometimes between the two languages. Code switching : producing an utterance in one
language that contains one or more “guest” words from the other . Children may engage
in code switching because they lack the vocabulary to convey a particular thought in one
language ,so they use the other. Bilingual adults frequently code switching to express
cultural identity ,and children may follow suit. Opportunities to listen to code switching
may facilitate bilingual development Compared to their monolingual age mates , bilingual
children have somewhat smaller vocabularies in each language. The bilingual children
scored lower only in English words likely to be used at home ,where they heard and
spoke their other language.

A large body of research shows that children who become fluent in two languages
are advanced in cognitive development. Brain imaging research reveals that individuals
who acquire two languages earlier and to greater proficiency develop denser neuronal
connections in language areas of the left hemisphere . Bilingual children outperform others
on tests of selective attention, inhibition, of irrelevant information, analytical reasoning ,
concept formation, and cognitive flexibility They are also advanced in certain aspects of
metalinguistic awareness , such as detection of errors in grammar, meaning , and
conventions of conversation. And children transfer their phonological awareness skills in
one language to the other , especially if the two languages share phonological features and
letter sound correspondences , as Spanish and English do. These capacities , as noted
earlier , enhance reading achievement.

Two way bilingual programs ,in which children with limited proficiency in English
who speak a common native language and children who are fluent in English are assigned
in equal numbers to the same classroom. Teaching is aimed at helping all children become
fluent in both languages and at increasing crosscultural understanding. The goal is to foster
the linguistic ,cognitive, and cultural enrichment of the entire nation. Bilingual children are
advanced in cognitive development and metalinguistic awareness — advantages that provide
strong justification for bilingual education programs in schools. The advantage of
bilingualism provide strong justification for bilingual education programs in schools.

4. Discuss the development of emotional expression and self-conscious emotions from

infancy through childhood.
Because infants cannot describe their feelings, determining exactly which emotions they are
experiencing is a challenge. Although vocalizations and body movements provide some
information, researchers have relied most on facial expressions. Infants do show signs of fear-
drawing back and refusing to crawl. Blind infants express emotions through finger movements,
parents become more interactive. Cross-cultural evidence reveals that people around the world
associate photographs of different facial expressions with emotions in the same way. These
findings inspired researchers to analyze infants’ facial patterns carefully to determine the range
of emotions they display at different ages. Depending on the situation, a smile might convey joy,
embarrassment, contempt, or a social greeting. In line with the dynamic systems perspective,
emotional expressions vary with the person’s developing capacities, goals, and context. Basic
emotions are universal in humans and other primates and have a long evolutionary history of
promoting survival.
Baby's earliest emotional life consists of little more than two global arousal states :
-Attraction to pleasant stimulation, Withdrawal from unpleasant stimulation. Only gradually do
emotions become clear, well organized signals. The dynamic system perspective helps us to
understand how this happens : Children coordinate separate skills into more effective,
emotionally expressive systems as the central nervous system develops and the child's goals and
experiences change. Sensitive, contingent caregiver communication, in which parents selectively
mirror aspects of the baby's diffuse emotional behaviour, help infants construct emotional
expressions that more closely resemble those of adults. Gradually, emotional expressions become
well-organized and specific—and therefore provide more precise information about the baby’s
internal state. Four basic emotions—happiness, anger, sadness, and fear—have received the most
research attention.

Self conscious emotions

Besides basic emotions, humans are capable of a second, higher-order set of feelings, including
guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride. These are called self-conscious emotions . We feel
guilt when we know that we have harmed someone and we want to correct the wrongdoing.
When we are ashamed or embarrassed, we have negative feelings about our behavior, and we
want to retreat so others will no longer notice our failings. In contrast, pride reflects delight in
the self ’s achievements, and we are inclined to tell others what we have accomplished and to
take on further challenges Self conscious emotions appear in the middle of the second year, as
18-to-24 month old become firmly aware of the self as a separate, unique individual. Toddlers
show shame and embarrassment by lowering their eyes, hanging their heads, and hiding their
faces with their hands. They show guiltlike reactions, too, like the 22-month-old who returned a
toy she had grabbed and patted her upset playmate. Pride also emerges around this time, and
envy by age 3. As their self -concepts develop, children become increasingly sensitive to praise
and blame. By age 3, self-conscious emotions are clearly linked to self-evaluation. Preschoolers
show much more pride when they succeed in difficult rather than easy tasks and much more
shame when they fail simple rather than hard tasks.
School-age children experience pride in a new accomplishment and guilt over a
transgression even when no adult is present. Quality of adult feedback influences these early
self-evaluative reactions. When parents repeatedly comment on the worth of the child and her
Performance. As children develop inner standards of excellence and good behavior and a sense
of personal responsibility, the circumstances under which they experience self-conscious
emotions change.

5. Discuss the development of emotional understanding from infancy through middle

childhood.

Infancy
Infants have only a limited capacity to regulate their emotional states. When their feelings get
too intense, they are easily overwhelmed. They depend on the soothing interventions of
caregivers—being lifted to the shoulder, rocked, gently stroked, and talked to softly—for
distraction and reorienting of attention. Effective functioning of the prefrontal cortex increases
the baby's tolerance for stimulation. Between 2 and 4 months, caregivers build on this capacity
by initiating face-to-face play and attention to objects. By 4 to 6 months, the ability to shift
attention and engage in self-soothing helps infants control emotion. Babies who more readily
turn away from highly stimulating novel events or engage in self-soothing are less prone to
distress . At the end of first year, crawling and walking enable infants to regulate emotion more
effectively by approaching or retreating from various situations. Infants whose parents “read”
and respond contingently and sympathetically to their emotional cues tend to be less fussy and
fearful, to express more pleasurable emotion, to be more interested in exploration, and to be
easier to soothe.In contrast, parents who respond impatiently or angrily or who wait to intervene
until the infant has become extremely agitated reinforce the baby’s rapid rise to intense distress.
This makes it harder for parents to soothe the baby in the future—and for the baby to learn to
calm herself. When caregivers fail to regulate stressful experiences for infants who cannot yet
regulate them for themselves, brain structures that buffer stress may fail to develop properly,
resulting in an anxious, emotionally reactive child who has a reduced capacity for managing
emotional problems. In second year, gains in representation and language lead to new ways of
regulating emotion.
Temper tantrums tend to occur because toddlers cannot control the intense anger that often arises
when an adult rejects their demands, particularly when they are fatigued or hungry. Toddlers
whose parents are emotionally sympathetic but set limits who distract the child by offering
acceptable alternatives to the prohibited activity, and who later suggest better ways
to handle adult refusals display more effective anger-regulation strategies and social skills during
the preschool years. Patient, sensitive parents also encourage toddlers to describe their internal
states. Then, when 2-year-olds feel distressed, they can guide caregivers in helping them.

Early Childhood
After age 2, children frequently talk about feelings, and language becomes major means of
actively trying to control them. By age 3 to 4, preschoolers verbalize a variety of emotional self
-regulation strategies. Children’s use of strategies { restricting sensory input talking to
themselves or changing their goals means fewer emotional outbursts over the preschool years.
Shifting attention away from sources of frustration continues to be an effective approach to
managing emotion. Three-year-olds who can distract themselves when frustrated tend to become
cooperative school-age children with few problem behaviors.
By watching adult handle their own feelings and respond to those of others preschoolers pick up
strategies for regulating emotion. Adult -child conversations that prepare children for difficult
experiences also foster emotional self –regulation. Warm, patient parents who use verbal
guidance, including suggesting and explaining strategies and prompting children to generate
their own, strengthen children’s capacity to handle stress. Such children are more likely to use
private speech to regulate emotion . In contrast, when parents rarely express positive emotion,
dismiss children’s feelings as unimportant, and
have difficulty controlling their own anger, children have continuing problems in managing
emotion that seriously interfere with psychological adjustment.
As with infants and toddlers, preschoolers who experience negative emotion intensely have
greater difficulty shifting their attention away from disturbing events and inhibiting their
feelings. They are more likely to be anxious and fearful, respond with irritation to others’
distress, react angrily or aggressively when frustrated, and get along poorly with teachers and
peers . Because these emotionally reactive children become increasingly difficult to rear, they are
often targets of ineffective parenting, which compounds their poor self-regulation. Adult–child
conversations that prepare children for difficult experiences also foster emotional self-regulation.
Parents who discuss what to expect and ways to handle anxiety offer techniques that children can
apply. Nevertheless, preschoolers’ vivid imaginations and incomplete grasp of the distinction
between appearance and reality make fears common in early childhood.

Middle Childhood
Between ages 6 and 8 - as they become aware of the difference between feeling an emotion and
expressing it. When alone—although they report experiencing emotions just as intensely—they
abbreviate their emotional expressions, representing them internally, just as they internalize their
private speech .This emergence of a mental level of emotional self-communication helps children
reflect on their emotions and, therefore, manage them. School- age children face new challenges
in regulating negative emotion, prompted by their developing sense of self- worth and expanding
knowledge of wider world. Common fears of the school years include poor academic
performance,
rejection by classmates, the possibility of personal harm threats to parental health, and media
events . School-age children’s fears are shaped in part by their culture. By age 10, most children
shift adaptively between two general strategies for managing emotion-: problem -centered
coping and emotion centered coping. Problem - centered coping : appraise the situation as
changeable, identify the difficulty, and decide what to do about it.
Emotion - centered coping : internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can
be done about an outcome.
School-age children’s improved ability to appraise situations and reflect on thoughts and
feelings means that, compared with preschoolers, they more often use these internal strategies to
manage emotion.
Cognitive development, including gains in planning and inhibition, and a wider range of social
experiences contribute to flexible, effective coping strategies. When emotional self-regulation
has developed well, young people acquire a sense of emotional self –efficacy-feeling of being in
control of their emotional experience. This fosters a favorable self-image and an optimistic
outlook, which help them face further emotional challenges.