Chapter 4, microbiology

a typical bacterium like Escherichia coli has one circular DNA molecule that's not too heavy. It's
made up of about 5 million building blocks (base pairs) and can tell the cell how to make around
2,000 proteins. Human cells, on the other hand, have way more DNA, about 3 billion base pairs,
and can make roughly 100,000 proteins.
Another difference is that bacteria are like solo players with a single set of instructions
(chromosome), while our cells play in pairs (diploid) with two copies of instructions, sometimes
having one gene being more dominant, and another gene just tagging along as recessive. If a
gene is broken in bacteria, it's like a missing skill, but in our cells, it can still work if the other
gene is okay.
This text talks about the size and role of DNA in bacteria and humans, and the difference
between their genetic setups.
Mutations

Mutations are changes in DNA that can lead to different amino acids in proteins and altered
traits. There are three types of mutations:
● Base Substitution: This happens when one base replaces another during DNA
replication, often due to errors or chemicals. If it results in a different amino acid, it's a
"missense mutation." If it causes premature protein synthesis to stop, it's a "nonsense
mutation."
● Frameshift Mutation: This occurs when bases are added or deleted, shifting the
reading frame, leading to the wrong amino acids and inactive proteins.
● Transposon Mutations: Transposons or insertion sequences are added to DNA,
causing significant changes in genes.
Mutations can be caused by chemicals, radiation, and viruses. Chemicals can change base
pairings, resembling normal bases, or distort DNA sequences. X-rays and ultraviolet light
damage DNA in various ways. Certain viruses, like Mu, can lead to high mutation rates.
Conditional lethal mutations are of medical interest and occur under specific conditions.
In essence, mutations are changes in DNA, and they can happen for different reasons, leading to
altered proteins and traits

Transfer of dna within bacterial cells

Transposons are like genetic messengers in bacteria. They copy their DNA and move it to
different spots on the bacterial chromosome or to plasmids. This transfer of genetic information
can be crucial in spreading antibiotic resistance.
In bacteria, there's another way genes move around. It's like a well-orchestrated dance. Genes
can go from a quiet spot where they don't do much to an active place where they get things
done (like making proteins). This process causes changes in things like the antigens on
bacteria's surface, which can help them dodge the immune system.
So, transposons and gene rearrangements are two ways bacteria can shuffle their genetic cards,
sometimes to become more resistant to antibiotics or avoid the immune system. When a gene is
moved in this way, the cell doesn't lose the original DNA. Instead, it keeps a copy of the gene and
puts it in a new place. However, when the DNA of the second gene is inserted, the DNA of the
first gene is removed and broken down. This way, the cell is always rearranging its genetic
material, making space for new instructions while getting rid of the old ones. It's like a
continuous genetic makeover.

TRANSFER OF DNA BETWEEN BACTERIAL

CELLS

Genetic information can move between cells in three main ways: conjugation, transduction, and
transformation. When we look at this from a medical standpoint, there are two crucial things to
note. Firstly, antibiotic resistance genes primarily spread from one bacterium to another through
conjugation. Secondly, certain harmful exotoxins are carried by bacteriophage genes and
transferred through transduction. This movement of genetic material can have significant
implications in medicine, especially concerning antibiotic resistance and the spread of harmful
toxins.

Conjugation

Conjugation is like bacterial mating, where one cell passes its DNA to another (Figure 4–2). This
process is directed by an F (fertility) plasmid (F factor), which carries the necessary genes for
conjugation. The key player is pilin, which creates a sort of connection tube called a sex pilus.
Mating starts when the pilus of the donor male bacterium (F+) with the F factor attaches to the
recipient female bacterium (F–), which lacks this F factor. They get pulled into direct contact.
After some DNA cutting, one DNA strand from the F factor is transferred to the recipient cell
across a bridge. Then, the missing strand is rebuilt in both cells, creating a complete F factor
plasmid. The recipient is now an F+ male cell, ready to pass on the plasmid.
It's important to note that, in this case, only the F factor (plasmid) gets transferred, not the entire
bacterial chromosome

Some F+ cells go a step further by having their F plasmid merge with the bacterial DNA. This
gives them the ability to transfer the entire bacterial chromosome to another cell, earning them
the name Hfr (high-frequency recombination) cells (Figure 4–3).
During this transfer, the single DNA strand that moves into the recipient F– cell carries a part of
the F factor at the front, followed by the bacterial chromosome, and then the rest of the F factor.
The process takes about 100 minutes to fully transfer the bacterial DNA. However, often, not the
entire donor chromosome is transferred because the connection between the cells can break.
The genes from the donor that get transferred can vary because the F plasmid can integrate at
different spots in the bacterial DNA. The genes adjacent to the leading part of the F factor are
the first and most frequently transferred. This new DNA can join the recipient's genetic material,
becoming a permanent part of it.

Transduction

Transduction involves cell DNA being moved by a bacterial virus known as a bacteriophage
(phage) (Figure 4–4). While the virus grows inside the cell, it can pick up a piece of bacterial
DNA and carry it into a new cell during infection.
Inside the new cell, the phage DNA can blend with the cell's DNA, leading to the cell acquiring a
new characteristic. This process, called lysogenic conversion, can turn a harmless organism into
a harmful one. Certain toxins like diphtheria, botulinum, cholera, and erythrogenic toxin (from
Streptococcus pyogenes) are actually carried by bacteriophages and can be transferred through
transduction.
In essence, transduction is a way for bacterial viruses to carry and spread genetic material,
sometimes leading to significant changes in the recipient cell

There are two types of transduction: generalized and specialized.

● Generalized Transduction: In this type, the virus can carry a segment from any
part of the bacterial chromosome. After the phage infection, the cell's DNA gets broken
into pieces, and some of these fragments, the same size as the viral DNA, are picked up
by the virus. This happens at a rate of about 1 in every 1000 virus particles. So, the
transferred genetic material can be from various parts of the bacterial chromosome.
● Specialized Transduction: This happens when the bacterial virus DNA that's
integrated into the cell's DNA gets excised, taking along an adjacent part of the cell's
DNA. Since many lysogenic (temperate) phages integrate at specific spots in the bacterial
DNA, the transferred cellular genes are usually specific to that particular virus.
In summary, generalized transduction picks up random bits of bacterial DNA, while specialized
transduction carries specific bacterial genes linked to the integrating virus

Transformation

Transformation is the direct transfer of DNA from one cell to another. This can happen in two
ways:
● Natural Transformation: In nature, when bacteria die, they can release their DNA,
which may be picked up by nearby recipient cells. This process isn't well-documented in
causing diseases.
 ● Laboratory Transformation: In controlled settings, scientists can extract DNA
from one type of bacteria and introduce it into genetically different bacteria. When purified
DNA is put into the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell, it's called transfection. This is commonly
used in genetic engineering.
The use of transformation in experiments has provided valuable insights into DNA. Back in 1944,
it was demonstrated that DNA from encapsulated smooth pneumococci could change
nonencapsulated rough pneumococci into encapsulated smooth organisms. This marked the first
evidence that DNA is the genetic material, a significant discovery

Recombination

After DNA is transferred from the donor to the recipient cell through one of the previously
mentioned processes, it can become part of the host cell's chromosome through recombination.
There are two types of recombination:
● Homologous Recombination: This type involves two pieces of DNA that have
significant matching regions. They pair up and exchange parts through processes like
breaking and rejoining.
● Nonhomologous Recombination: Here, there's little or no need for matching
regions between the DNA pieces.
Different genetic loci control these two recombination types, suggesting that different enzymes
are at play. Although it's known that various enzymes like endonucleases and ligases are
involved, the precise sequence of events in recombination remains uncertain.