the basic structures of cells how to use a microscope chromosomes cell division and cell differentiation levels of organization of living things [3] ‘the process of human reproduction sexual maturity and secondary sexual characteristics family planning and birth control B heredity and variation role of DNA in heredityAlex and Louis are identical twin brothers. Alex has a daughter, Sophie. They look very much alike. Sophie cannot distinguish between Alex She is not clear whether Alex or Louis is her and Louis. father. ® 1. Alex and Louis are identical twins. Are they exactly the same? How can they be distinguished scientifically? (®D 2. How is a baby born? What is the process of human reproduction? )) 3. How do your parents pass their features to you?CD Allanswers CB TE The panda model shown on the left is made up of toy bricks. How about a real panda? What is it made up of? ) Cells as the basic unit of ing things Fig. 4.1 Thispandamodel lll living things are made up of cells. Some living things, such as ismade up of toy bricks. Amoeba and bacteria, are made up of one cell only. They are called unicellular organisms. Amoeba (150X) Bacterium (20 000%) Fig. 4.2. Examples of unicellular organisms Other living things such as animals and plants are made up of more 7 than one cell. They are called multicellular organisms. The human & sixon=102= 1000 000000000 body, for example, is made up of about 100 trillion cells. The different types of cells in the human body have different sizes, shapes and functions. © g (4400X) 4.3 Examples of cells in the human body —_@) are the basic unit of living things. col evecll 2380-388 unicellular organism ARB ‘ed blood ce A. rmultialular organism 3-00 9) muscle cod PVE 3@ TE © Allanswers Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity B Basic structures of cells In Unit 3, we have learned that living things can be classified into two large groups, animals and plants. Do animal cells and plant cells have the same structure? Let us learn more in this section. Examining animal cells and plant cells Some photomicrographs of different animal cells and plant cells are shown below. Photomicrographs are photographs taken through a microscope. Observe them carefully and discuss with your classmates the questions that follow. Animal,cells, (from human,body), a EPA Mouth epithelial cells (300%) Body fat cells (200X) Skin cells (400X) Plant.cells, Leaf cells of a pond weed (300X) Leaf cells of a crop plant (400X) Leaf cells of moss (400X) D 1. Do you notice any structures common to all the animal cells? @ 2 Do you notice any structures common to all the plant cells? (D3. Are there similarities between the animal cells and plant cells? yQ Photomicrograph HABER cpthelol 82 weed 8 44 Drawing of an animal cell, Drawing of a plant cell @ TE 1. Al jal cells Various types of animal cells have some common basic structures. Each animal cell is surrounded by a thin layer called the cell membrane. Inside the membrane is a jelly-like substance called cytoplasm. Surrounded by cytoplasm, there is a nucleus. cytoplasm 5 Mouth epithelial cells in humans (600%) Plant cells Similar to. an animal cell, a plant cell also consists of a cell membrane, a nucleus and cytoplasm. In addition, a plant cell has a rigid cell wall outside the cell membrane. There is usually a large vacuole in the cytoplasm. Some cells in green plants also contain chloroplasts. cellwall chloroplasts }- vacuole nucleus Fig. 4.7 _Plantcells containing chloroplasts (600%) ‘ellmembeane 8B cellwall IME ‘ytoplasm mas vacuole 7 rucleus A008 Chloroplast 2808@ TE © Allanswers Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity Func: Each basic structure of ns of the basic structures of cells a cell has its own function. Table 4.1 below lists the function of each structure. Bas 5 Cell membrane A® A® Ag 2 * * Nucleus Cytoplasm Cell wall Vacuole Chloroplast Table 4.1 of cells CEA ©... 1, Why are animal cells, usually irregular in shape while plant cells are usually regular in shape? 2. Why do plant cells have extra green structures that are not found in animal cells? addition to these SEEEEEEEEEE qe Checkpoint 4.1 Functions of the basic structures Both animal cells and plant cells have a SERRE ESSSEEN( B)eeEREEEeEEEEE and insea Controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell Contains genetic materials which control the activities of the cell ‘The medium where chemical reactions take place Protects, supports and gives shape to a plant cell Contains mainly water and stores dissolved minerals Site where photosynthesis takes place in order to make food er AY nant BP vv onceis eS pee Reser structures, plant cells also. have a and a large —__C A In Some cells in green plants also contain —__()__. Checkpoint FA ous The diagram below shows the drawings of a plant cell and an animal cell. Label the structures in the space provided. ® @ @) o @ © o @ genetic material i840 Photosyhess 2st(Eames 7) The discovery of cells Robert Hooke (1653-1703), a British scientist, first discovered cells. He developed a microscope and used it to observe slices of cork from a tree. Hooke noted that the cork was made up of many small boxes". He called these boxes ‘cells rmcroscope A light microscope JARO electron microscope MF HEA CD Allanswers CB TE Observing cells with a microscope 1. The microscope Cells are too small to be seen with the naked eye. We can only observe them by using a microscope. A microscope can produce magnified images of small objects. The microscopes commonly used in the school laboratory are light microscopes (Fig. 4.8). They can magnify the image of an object up to several hundred times Electron microscopes (Fig. 4.9) are more powerful than light microscopes. They can magnify the image of an object by up to several million times. They are usually used in the research laboratory. > Fig. 4.8 Alight microscope C An electron microscope used in the school laboratory Used in the research laboratory }0. Hair and scalp seen under an electron microscope: We can use a__D. to observe cells. akedeye fa cork scalp iz r css z A 2 om@ TE Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity Before we use a microscope in the laboratory, let us first learn the different parts of the microscope and their functions eyepiece > the ons closest to our ‘eye when we look through the microscope: magnifies the image of tne object coarse adjustment knob > used for making large adjustments in focusing fine adjustment knob > used for making small adjustments in focusing objective > the lens nearest to the object; magnifies the nage ofthe object ti arm li e >» the part we use to carry > hols the objct ade) themeroscope rom onthe stage one place to another diaphragm stage * aauststneamountot > theplace where the oe object shel for viewing mirror base > reflect ight onto the 4 object a » the bottom stand of the microscope Active learning 20 model > (Microscope) ED The microscope should be put on a flat surface and should not be placed too close to the edge of the bench. BD We should hold the arm with one hand and support the base with the other hand when carrying a microscope. © The proper way to hold amicroscope ‘eyepiece HE dlaphragm 528 fine adjusimenthnob GRE base HE ‘objective $08 ior BIER am 8 Bip couseadjustment ned HAIG stage Mend@ TE A microscope has different eyepieces and objectives. Each of them has a magnification marked on its body. For example, an eyepiece or an objective marked with a magnification of 10X means that it magnifies the image ten times the size of the object. From Fig. 4.12 and Fig, 4.13 below, you may notice that: * the longer the eyepiece, the lower the magnification, * the longer the objective, the higher the magnification. Y Fig. 4.12 Eyopieces with different magnifications Fig. 4.13 Objectives with differant magnifications The magnification of a microscope can be calculated as follows yen 5X 4x 20x 10x 10X 100x 15x 40x 600X 4.2 Different combinations of eyepiece and objective and the resulting magnification mmagnifeation BOX10 @ TE Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity af Experiment 4.1 Using a microscope Material and apparatus microscope 1 table lamp English newspaper slide 1 scissors pair adhesive tape Procedure 1. Place the microscope near a light source (e.g. a lamp or near a window). Caution Never use direct sunlight as alight source. This can cause permanent damage to your eye. 2. Choose a low-power eyepiece and rotate a low-power objective into position. objective 3. Look through the eyepiece with both eyes open. Adjust the mirror to obtain the most suitable brightness. [>= Some microscopes have a builtin light source land have no mirror. You can simply switch on the light for observation 4. Cut a piece of newspaper (about 1.cm * 1 cm) with a ggheswetape letter ‘p’ printed on it. Stick it onto a slide using adhesive tape slideot Place the slide on the stage. Move the letter ‘p’ to the centre of the hole in the stage. Hold the slide in place with the clips. Look from the side. Turn the coarse adjustment knob carefully to lower the objective (or to raise the stage) until the objective is just above the slide. [> Caution Do net lt the objective hit the slide. Look through the eyepiece with both eyes open. Turn the coarse adjustment knob in the opposite direction slowly. Stop turning when you can see a clear image of the letter. 8. Turn the fine adjustment knob up and down until you can obtain the sharpest image. stage adjustment knob coarse adjustment knob12 © Allanswers Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity _~ 9. Draw what you see and write the magnification in the space provided. (a) Is the image formed by the microscope magnified or diminished? (b) Is the image formed by the microscope upright or inverted? 10. Observe the slide again. Image of the letter ‘p’ {Saneeeee, +) (a) Which direction does the image move when you move the slide to the left? @ (b) Which direction does the image move when you move the slide towards yourself? @ Active learning Useful video > (Using a microscope) Below are the key steps in using a microscope: 1. Place the microscope near a light source. 2. Use a low-power eyepiece and a low-power objective. 3. Adjust the mirror to obtain the most suitable brightness. 4. Place the slide on the stage and hold it in place using the clips. 5. Turn the coarse adjustment knob until the objective is just above the slide. 6. Turn the coarse adjustment knob in the opposite direction until you see a clear image. 7. Turn the fine adjustment knob to obtain the sharpest image. The image observed is —___DB-_ (magnified diminished) and —___}___ (upright/inverted) under the microscope. imines torghe TES InvertedCD Allanswers CB TE - ° ; Checkpoint 4,2 ———— For 1. Common magnifications of the eyepieces and objectives of a microscope used in a school laboratory are: Magnifications of eyepieces: 5X, 10X and 15X Magnifications of objectives: 4X, 10X and 40x (a) What is the lowest magnification of the microscope? —__C_ (b) What is the highest magnification of the microscope? —__C@_____ 2. The letter below is observed under the microscope. Which of the following images will be produced? A B. c bd. TAF 4. 3. The following are the steps of using a microscope. Arrange them in the correct order. (a) Choose a low-power eyepiece and a low-power objective. (b) Place the slide on the stage and hold it in place with the clips. () Tum the fine adjustment knob to obtain the sharpest image. (d) Adjust the mirror to obtain the most suitable brightness. (e) Turn the coarse adjustment knob until you see a clear image. Ge Gs Ds > Correct orde 13@ TE © Allanswers Cel, Human Reproduction and Heresty 2. Making biological drawings When observing cells with a microscope, you often need to draw a diagram to record your observation. Remember the following tips when you make biological drawings. Tips for making biological drawings . Different parts of the drawing should be in correct proportion. ea Use a sharp HB pencil to draw and erase with a rubber. Never draw in pen. Hog Leave enough space to label all features. Draw label lines with a ruler. Make sure the lines do not cross each other. Use single solid lines. The lines should be smooth and clear. cell membrane nucleus: DO NOT shade the diagram. Use dots that are close together to cytoplasm represent an area darker in colour. An ox eye cell (400X}———[] Give a title to the drawing and write the magnification (e.g, 400X). What's wrong with this drawing? There are four mistakes in the following biological drawing of an ox eye cell. Circle the mistakes and make a correct drawing in the space provided. eytoplesm = ‘cell membrane (400x) biological drawing “Sn 14@ TE Observing animal cells and plant cells You will now do experiments to observe animal cells and plant cells under a microscope. In the experiments, you will try to identify their basic structures and make biological drawings of the cells you observe. Experiment 4.2 Observing ox eye cells with a microscope Material and apparatus jiabihsnaabatanSarireseeauassasaseansseeesaas Caution microscope 1 oxeye 1 + Wear protective gloves as animal slide 1 watch glass 1 a ee + After the experiment, clean the coverslip 1 methylene blue solution bench with disinfectant and wash forceps pair tissue paper ‘your hands thoroughly with soap, Procedure 1. Gently touch the comea of an ox eye with a slide to collect some ox eye cells. wateh glass 2. (a) Add a drop of methylene blue solution to the ox eye cells on the slide. The solution stains the cells and makes them easier to observe. (b) Place a cover slip over the solution with a pair of forceps. First, place one edge of the cover slip on the slide. Then, slowly lower the cover slip onto the slide, (c)_ Use a piece of tissue paper to absorb any excess methylene blue solution. tissue paper ‘methylene \ blue “~, sure no air bubbles are tapped, buble trapped psy comeo 8 Imetilen Biv solution RE excess solution 15@ TE © Allanswers Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity > Tp The optimal magnification to observe ‘ox eye cells is about 400%. Observe the slide under the microscope. f& 4, Make a biological drawing of two to three cells you have observed. Pay attention to the tips you learned about drawing and labelling on p.14. Pe it Ua aed Fs Observing onion skin cells with a microscope Material and apparatus —-—S microscope 1 forceps pair logine solution slide 1 scissors pair tissue paper cover stip 1 onion scale leaf 1 piece Procedure 1. Collect a piece of onion scale leaf from your onion scale leat teacher. Use a pair of scissors to cut the scale leaf into the size of about 1 cm * 1 em. > Von FF Use a pair of forceps to peel off a piece of skin from the inside surface of the small onion scale leaf. Inside surface of the onion scale leafQ@ Allanswers OD TE > 3. (a) Spread the piece of onion skin on a slide. Add a drop of iodine solution. (b) Place a cover slip over the onion skin with a pair of forceps. First, place one edge of the cover slip on the slide. Then, slowly lower the cover slip onto the slide. Make sure no air bubbles are trapped. (c)_ Use a piece of tissue paper to absorb any excess iodine solution. Ussue paper \ get pe ‘edna > See sotation 7 Tp The optimal magifction to observe onion skin cells is about 150K. 5. Make a biological drawing of two to three cells you have observed. Pay attention once again to the tips you learned on p.14. lodine solution 38 7@ TE Q All Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity A \to wit ornoreiscuss DNAs role Red blood cells have no ‘chromosomes Unlike all other cells in the body, mature red blood. cells do not have a nucleus. Therefore, they have no chromosomes. Active leatning Animation [Structural relationship betwen chromosomes > ang DNA) answers D Genetic materials inside the nucleus of a cell We have learned that inside the nucleus, there are genetic materials which control the activities of the cell. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic material inside the nucleus, Do you know what DNA is? It is often described as the ‘book of life’. This is because it contains all instructions needed for the cells to carry out activities so that our bodies can function, grow and reproduce. DNA also determines what features we receive from our parents. 1. Chromosomes and DNA Inside the nucleus of a cell, there are threadtlike structures called chromosomes. Chromosomes are made up of DNA and proteins. The DNA coils up and wraps around the proteins. . ‘chromosome cal } nucleus protein DNA Fig. 4.14 DNA coils around proteins to forma chromosome. «= OD stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. * Inside the nucleus, there are —_)_, which are made up of DNA coiling around some proteins. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) RESUS RRR protein omosome Set 18CD Allanswers CB TE Chromosomes in human body cells Do you know how many chromosomes a human body cell contains? Are there any differences between the chromosomes in male body cells and female body cells? Try to find these out in the following activity. r Es z A 2 F = o~ Studying the chromosomes in human body cells Carefully study the chromosomes found in a male body cell and those found in a female body cell below. Male body cell Female body cell 1. How many chromosomes are there in a human body cell? 2, The chromosomes occur as pairs. How many pairs of chromosomes are there in a human body cell? __C 3. Compare the 23rd pair of chromosomes (in the orange box) in the male body cell and that in the female body cell. What is the difference between them? @ 19® TE © Allanswers Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity A « The sox calls speeme andl ova) are the exceptions. They contain only 23 chromosomes, ‘We wil learn more about them In Section 4.3 + Autosomes are the chromosomes other than the +. soxchromasomes Every cell in the human body contains 23 pairs of chromosomes (or 46 chromosomes). There are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes determine whether a baby is male or female. In females, the sex chromosomes are a pair of X chromosomes (XX). In males, the sex chromosomes are one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (XY). ‘Chromosomal disorders Sometimes, a baby may be born with additional ‘or missing chromosomes. This results in chromosomal disorders. Down syndrome is one ‘example, with an extra chromosome 21 ° Checkpoint 4.3 1, Write the key term with (a) __chromosomes _. ) —__ (e)-peeEeeeE GD EEEEHEE @ —_@ 2. Which of the following AL XY B. XXX 9 autosome BRE Sexchromosome {2X8 20 Each human body cell has ___pairs of chromosomes, ‘of which one pair is the sex chromosomes. e-Cheekpoint Fas the description below. The first one has been done thread-like structures inside the nucleus of a cell : the genetic material and the ‘book of life’ : the two chromosomes that determine the sex of a baby : the 22 pairs of chromosomes other than the sex chromosomes represents the sex chromosomes of a normal female? C. Xx D. xYY 3 Downsyndiome iBEEKK Et(es 7) ‘What is cancer? Normally, ces in the body divide in an orderly way. However, when cell division gets out of control, cancer may result. Cancer cells continue to divide. They can spread to other parts of the body. © Acancer call (2000X) Active ler Animation > (Cell division) cell division 8521 daughter cell #0 Q@ Allanswers OD TE B Cell division and growth All living things grow. When they grow, the number of cells in their bodies increases by cell division. During cell division, a cell divides into two new cells called daughter cells. The daughter cells absorb nutrients and become larger. When they reach a certain size, they may divide again. As a result of repeated cell divisions and the increase in size of cells, living things grow bigger. cell membrane @ Before cell division, the genetic. ‘materials in the nucleus make an Identical copy of themselves. cytoplasm © The cytoplasm divides into two, @) @ wosnughter cats arefomes bach contaninga nucleus © The aaughner cas absorb rutents 8 and grow bigger. * Cells can undergo to form new cells, * Living things grow by increasing the CB and of cells. 2@ TE Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity The right cells for the job In multicelluar organisms, there are many different types of cells. Each type carries out a particular job. For example, in our bodies, there are hundreds of different types of cells. Some cells are specialized for carrying messages, some for movement, and some for carrying oxygen around the body, etc. These different types of specialized cells all come from stem cells. Stem cells can differentiate into different types of cells. Cells become specialized to perform a particular function. The process of cells becoming specialized is called cell differentiati stem cells nerve cells muscle cells red blood cells, Fig. 4.16 Stem cells can differentiate into different types of cells. Some examples of specialized animal cells and specialized plant cells, and their functions are shown in Fig, 4.17 and Fig. 4.18 on the next page. Note that there is a variety of shapes and sizes of cells. The shape and size of the cell are closely related to its function. specalize FS cll differentiation BRR (t stem cell 2800 22 aioreniane (0Q Allanswers CD TE Nerve cells They are long and have many branches. This enables them to carry messages throughout the body. Fat cells They store so much fat that the nucleus is pushed to the cell membrane. The large store of fat helps the body keep warm. Skin cells They are flat and close together. This makes them a good protective layer for the body. Fig. 4.17 Examples of specialized animal celis and their functions Leaf cells They contain many chloroplasts for the plant to carry out photosynthesis Transporting cells They are long and tube-shaped. They transport water, nutrients and minerals throughout the plant. . Root hair cells They increase the surface area ‘of the root in contact with the soil, so that more water and minerals can be absorbed. a Fig. 4.18 Examples of specialized plant cells and their functions Cells can —__. different functions. into different types to performNOISNALX4 24 @ TE Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity B Levels of organization of living things Have you seen an orchestral performance? In an orchestra, each member plays his or her own instrument. However, for the performance to be successful, the members must work together. Fig. 4.19 Tohave a successful performance, the members in an orchestra must work together. Like an orchestra, multicellular organisms are highly organized. The different types of specialized cells in an organism must perform their individual functions. At the same time, they all work together to ensure the organism functions well and stays alive. Different levels of organization There are several different levels of organization in multicellular organisms. Fig. 4.20 below shows an example of the levels of organization in humans. > > > @ — ep — 2! heart muscle Be heart muscle heart Circulatory Pe the human body cell tissue system 20 An example of levels of organization in humans tissue HS cleulatory stem SERA organ BE stem tkF'n uni 301 Book 14 you have theadyleorned about vesclr and non-vascular plants leat ‘stem TE Tissues Tissues are groups of similar cells working together. Examples of human tissues are: * muscle tissue (for movement) * nerve tissue (for carrying messages in the body) * bone tissue (for support) Examples of plant tissues are * vascular tissue (for transporting water, nutrients and minerals) * epidermal tissue (for protection) Organs Individual tissues do not work alone. They group together to form an organ. For example, the heart is an organ that consists of heart muscle tissue, blood tissue and nerve tissue. All of these tissues work together and enable the heart to pump blood around the body. Fig. 4.21 below shows examples of organs in the human body. lung heart fa ‘stomach skin Fig. 4.21 Examples of organs in the human body In plants, the organs include the flower, leaf, stem and root. The stem is an organ consisting of vascular tissue and epidermal tissue. 4.22. Examples of organs in plants tissue 28 pliemaltisue BAAR organ BE Stomach wer FF 5 5 = cs NOISNALX4 25NOISNALX4 26 @ TE Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity Systems A group of organs that work together is called a system. The stomach, intestines and liver are involved in digestion. These and several other organs together make up the digestive system. Other examples Importance of cll organization of systems in the human body include the breathing system, the Cell organization is reproductive system, the nervous system and the circulatory system. essential for an organism to function well. Different types of cells are well organized so as to Complete a variety of tasks, for example, breathing, reproguction, digestion of food, excretion, ete Niadiokimerciae mf Fig. 4.23 Some systems in the human body Different systems in our bodies work together to support our lives and keep us healthy. ‘The levels of organization of multicellular organisms include: (Cell}ee (Tissue Joe (Crgan)ew( System)ee (Organism) system Ht eproductivesystem ‘258 it Imestine Clgestive system FH(CARAR nervous system HEE breathing system FRR creulatory system BRR,Q@ Allanswers OD TE Identifying the organs in different systems within the human body Your teacher will show you a human torso. With your teacher's help, identify the organs found in different systems within the body. Observing tissues of the liver and lungs The following photos show a pig’s liver and pig’s lungs, and photomicrographs of their tissues. Observe carefully and find out the differences between these two kinds of tissues. Pig's lungs: Lung tissue (50%) (QB 1. Discuss how the pig’s liver tissue is different from the pig’s lung tissue. (QD 2 Search the Internet to learn more about the functions of the liver and the lungs. NOISN3LX4 27NOISNALX4 28 @ TE © Allanswers Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity asa a) Observing different organs of a potted plant Your teacher will temporarily remove a potted plant from the soil. Observe the different organs of the plant as listed below. Be careful not to damage the plant when you observe. After the activity, your teacher may try to put the plant back into the soil and allow it to grow again there. rena Flower Leaf Stem Root Draw a labelled diagram to show the different organs of the plant, Qo Checkpoint 4.4 — Fs 1. Arrange the following levels of organization in the order of increasing complexity. Organ Cell Organism Tissue System, Oo 2, To which system in the human body does each organ below belong? A. digestive system circulatory system breathing system B. digestive system breathing system circulatory system C. circulatory system breathing system nervous system D. circulatory system reproductive system nervous systemCD Allanswers CB TE 4,3, ) Human reproduction In Unit 3, we learned that reproduction is one of the vital functions of all living things. Living things produce offspring to ensure the continuity of species. In this section, we will focus on human reproduction. Fig. 4.24 Reproduction Human sex cells ensures the continuity of every species. Humans reproduce by sexual reproduction. This involves the fusion of a male sex cell called sperm and a female sex cell called ovum (plural: ova) or egg. Let us examine sperms and ova first. Experiment 4.4 Experiment video Fa Examining prepared slides of sperms and ova Material and apparatus microscope 1 prepared slide of sperms 1 preparedsslide of ovat Procedure Tip Refer to p.14 for the tips of making biological drawings. a prepared slide of ova. Observe each of them through a 1. Your teacher will give you a prepared slide of sperms and f microscope and record your observations below. z= 5B Appearance (Make a biological drawing of a sperm) (Make a biological drawing of an ovum) Qa @ Size Q Q Shape Qa Qa 2. Based on the features of a sperm and an ovum, which cell do you think has the following function? a) Canmovebyitself____® ____(b) Hasafoodstore _C__ spring dete sperm #F senuareprodicton #ILER — ovumvegs # fusion Bee ETE By GS 29@ TE © Allanswers Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity 1. Sperms The sperm has a head and a tail. It looks like a tadpole. There is a nucleus inside the head. The nucleus carries the genetic materials of the male parent. The tail enables the sperm to swim 0.05 mm head ucteus > carries the genetic materials of the male tail rent = > beats toallow the sperm to swim Fig. 4.25 Ahuman sperm Fig. 4.26 Structure of a human sperm (100%) 2. Ova The ovum has a spherical shape. It is much larger than a sperm. Itis surrounded by a jelly coat, The nucleus of the ovum carries the genetic materials of the female parent. The cytoplasm contains food substances. Unlike the sperm, the ovum cannot move by itself. cell membrane cytoplasm » contains food substances nucleus ey » carries the gonetic Jelly coat —— materials of the female parent Fig. 4.27 Ahuman ovum Fig. 4.28 Structure of ahuman ovum (600x) Male sex cells are called —____ and female sex cells are called Jelly coat Og RN spherical 358 30Chromosomes ina sperm TE |. | Chromosomes in human sex cells In Section 4.1, you observed the chromosomes in human body cells. You learned that: * in every human body cell, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes: 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. * in female body cells, the sex chromosomes are XX while those in male body cells are XY. How about the chromosomes in human sex cells? Do they differ from those in the body cells? The photomicrographs below show the chromosomes in a sperm and the chromosomes in an ovum. (Chromosomes in an ovum 4.29 Chromosomes in @ sperm andan ovum, A 9,429 0) above ony shows the vomesomes in the sperms containing @ ¥ chromosome Sperms and ova are formed from father’s sperm-producing cells, and mother’s ovum-producing cells respectively. During their formation, each pair of autosomes and the pair of sex chromosomes separate As a result, each sex cell has 23 chromosomes. * In females, each ovum contains 22 autosomes and one X chromosome. * In males, all the sperms contain 22 autosomes. Among all sperms, half in number contain an X chromosome and half in number contain a Y chromosome. r g A F Fs A = Es z a Es Cm 31@ TE © Allanswers Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity The table below summarizes the number of chromosomes in human body cells and sex cells. Ir aor) Corea Rec} Body cell | Sex cell (ovum) No. of chromosomes 46 (in 23 pairs) 23 46 (in 23 pairs) 23 No. of autosomes 44 22 44 22 ‘Sex chromosomes xy half in number: X XX x half in number: ¥ ‘Surnmary of the number of chromosomes in human body cells and sex cells: In humans, a sperm and an ovum each carries 23 chromosomes. | | a —?@ ( Checkpoint 4.5 o-Checkpoint FF ous 1. Complete the table below to compare a human sperm and a human ovum. A What is the shape? (@ Q ) Q How is its size compared to | (c) Q «a Q the other sex cell? Can it move or swim? «e) Q wo Q Does it have a food store? (g) Q wy Q 2. Write ‘T' for a true statement and ‘F’ fora false statement. (a) In females, each ovum contains an X chromosome. (b) Each sex cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. hall ee rsa (©) All sperms contain a Y chromosome. (d)_ In males, each body cell contains one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (XY). ] L@ TE ® Human reproductive systems Sperms and ova are produced in the male and female reproductive systems respectively. The structures of these systems are different. 1 Male reproductive system In males, sperms are produced in the testes (singular: testis) which are enclosed in the scrotum. The sperm ducts connect the testes to the urethra. When the sperms travel up the sperm ducts to the urethra, they are mixed with a fluid from the sex glands. This fluid contains nutrients that keep the sperms alive. The sperms and the fluid together form the semen. The semen flows through the urethra to the tip of the penis, where passed out of the body. sex glands urinary bladder > produce fluid which (nota part of the Contains nutrients for the reproductive system) sperms urethra sporm duct Paris semen and > carries sperms from the urine out of the body testes tote urethra penis tests esspoimsand ejects semen the des eee female reprocuctve sytem airing sex iereourse scrotum FS beg a kn which holes te tester Fig: 4.30 Frontview ofthe ate reproductive system sexglands sperm duct testis Fig: 4.34. Sie view of the male reproductive system tes 8, wrt Rens sechoene HORE scrotum I secglnd 125808 sexvatinecourse {238 sperm duct RARE semen He@ TE © Allanswers Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity 2. Female reproductive system In females, ova are produced in the ovaries. Usually only one ovum is released into the oviduct each month. This is called ovulation. The ovum is then moved through the oviduct to the uterus, The uterus opens to the vagina. oviduct > carries the ovum from the ovary to the uterus uterus > the place where a foetus grows, and develops before its birth ovary > produces ova and sex hormones 7 > receives the penis during sexual intercourse; a baby passes through here at birth .32. Front view of the female reproductive system uterus vagina Fig. 4.33. Side view of the female reproductive system @xto ‘Sperms are produced in the —______ of males. Ova are produced in the __C._ of females. ovary Mateus FE ovulation #298 vagina PR oviduct PEQ@ Allanswers OD TE Identifying the different structures in the human male and female reproductive systems Your teacher will show you human male and female torsos. Identify the different structures of the male and female reproductive systems. (© Amate human torso © Aferate human torso ( Checkpomt 4.6 Peeler J los ) 1. Which of the following statements about the male reproductive system is INCORRECT? A. The testes produce sperms | B. The sex glands produce a fluid which controls the size of sperms. | C. The scrotum holds the testes. | D. The urethra carries semen and urine out of the body. a3 | 2. Which of the following statements about the female reproductive system is INCORRECT? | A. The uterus is where a foetus grows and develops. | B, The vagina receives the penis during sexual intercourse. | CC. The oviducts also carry urine out of the body. | D. The ovaries produce ova a ] 35@ TE Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity vagina penis ‘Sperms swim up the uterus, and then enter the oviducts. Penis ejects semen into the vagina, ‘34 The husband inserts his penis into the ‘vagina of his wife during sexval intercourse. Process of human reproduction 1. Fertilization A new life begins when a sperm fuses with an ovum, During sexual intercourse, the husband inserts his erect penis into the vagina of his wife. Semen containing millions of sperms is ejected into the vagina. The sperms swim up through the uterus into the oviducts. If an ovum is present in the oviduct, one of the sperms may fuse with the ovum to form a zygote (also called a fertilized ovum). This process is called fertilization. If there is no ovum in either of the oviducts, there is certainly no fertilization. All the sperms will die in two to three days. TTS Only the head of the sperm enters ‘the ovum while ts tall remains ‘outside, The nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the ‘ovum to form a zygote. After ovulation, an ovumis released into the oviduct. (Sexual intercourse > {and fertilization) 85 Sperms swim towards the oviducts and fertilization takes place sexualintercourse #258 fertilization SMR erect i808 aygote BF {ertzed ovum SAH@ Allanswers We know that the sperm and the ovum each carries 23 chromosomes (one set of chromosomes). We may use ‘N’ to denote one set of chromosomes. When the sperm and the ovum fuse together during fertilization, the zygote formed has 46 chromosomes, that is, 2N (iwo sets of chromosomes). father @ . — zz: mother, Po ae 46 chromosomes (2N) ie i 23 chromosomes (N) Fig, 18 The zygote formed from fertilization carries 46 chromosomes {two sets of chromosomes). . D_____ occurs when a sperm fuses with an ovum to form a __ z usually takes place in the —__D___ of the female body. * The sperm and the ovum each carries —__ chromosomes. The zygote formed after fertilization carries — OB chromosomes. Number of chromosomes is kept constant from generation to generation If each parent passed two sets of chromosomes (2N} to their offspring, the offspring would have 4N chromosomes and then the next generation would have 8N and so on. By halving the number of chromosomes during the formation of sex cells (i.e. Nin each sex cel), the number of chromosomes is kept constant at 2N from generation to generation. 37@ TE © Allanswers Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity Implantation After fertilization, the zygote divides many times to form a ball of cells called an embryo. The embryo is moved through the oviduct to the uterus, It then attaches to the uterine lining, This process is called implantation. The woman is now pregnant. ‘The zygote divides and develops into an embryo, ‘Aftor fertilization, a zygote is formed, q The embryo implants into the Uterine ining, uterine lining 4.37 The process of implantation ©xo The process in which the embryo attaches to the uterine lining is called ____C)__. Learn more Test tube babies @ fertiization ‘Some couples are unable to have = children, for example, the husband ‘cannot produce enough sperms or the wife's oviducts are blocked. Scientists have developed a method Called in vitro fertilization (IVF) to help these couples. First, ova are collected from the wife and fertilized in a dish by the husband's sperms, The zygote {grows into an embryo in the dish. itis then put back into the uterus of the mother for implantation and continues to grow. Babies born in this way are grows into called test tube babies. ‘an embryo embryo HEH Ingo tetzotion WE) ATS lining FEN testube baby i EBESE Re oe iF@ TE Development of the embryo After implantation, the embryo begins to develop in the uterus of its mother. It develops inside a bag called the amnion. The amnion is filled with a watery liquid which acts as a cushion to protect the embryo against shock. At the site where the embryo is implanted in the uterine lining, a placenta begins to form. The placenta is attached to the embryo by an umbilical cord. acenta 7 uterine lining ‘umbilical cord embryo amnion 38 Aseven-week-old embryo Fig. 4.39 An embryo develops in the uterus As the embryo grows, it needs to get oxygen and nutrients from its mother, and get rid of carbon dioxide and other wastes. The placenta allows this exchange of materials between the embryo's blood and the mother’s blood. placenta embryos blood A vote watine emye's dood = Bw. mother's blood key: — carbon dioxide and wastes umbilical cord > oxygen and nutrients, 4.40 The relationship between the embryo, the umbilical cord and the placenta amnion #58 exchange of materials SHS placenta et umbiliealcord BR 39QTE Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity The embryo develops into a foetus about eight weeks after fertilization. The foetus has all the major organs formed. The foetus the growth ofthe then continues to develop in the uterus, About 38 weeks after The growth of a foetus fertilization, the foetus is ready to be born. Inside the uterus at different stages can be examined by ultrasound scanning to a foetus just before birth Fig. 4.41 below shows the growth of an embryo from implantation Foetus: 12 weeks etter) Foetus: 8 weeks + all major organs formed + head, neck, arms and legs continue + atms and lags begin to form to develop and are more clearly seen ert ere) Embryo: 5 weeks eee] + arms and legs grow well + may begin to suck thumb + heart beats. + backbone formed Embryo: 1 week a + an embryois about to + ready to be born, implant into the uterine lining }1_ The development of an embryo into a foetus during the 38 weeks before birth foetus HS lresound conning 8@ Allanswers © Through the —__ Ban embryo. gets z oxygen and —___D___ from its mother, and Es gets rid of —__C} and other wastes. g * A baby is ready to be born about —_ Hi weeks after fertilization. 4. Birth of a baby Active learning When the baby is about to be born, it normally changes its position simulation jFoeta development and and lies with its head downwards. Labour (the birth giving process) (© set sing oc begins with a sign of pain in the abdomen. This is because the muscles of the uterus contract strongly. The amnion breaks and the watery liquid flows out to lubricate the vagina. The opening of the uterus becomes wider, The muscles of the uterus contract more strongly and frequently to push the baby out ‘Opening of the uterus ‘Amnion breaks. becomes wider, 0 6 ‘Muscles of the uterus Watery iquid ‘The placentais Baby is pushed contract strongly. flows out. expelledafter the ‘out mith the head baby is born ‘coming out first Fi The birth giving process Alter birth, the baby cries for the first time and takes its first breath, The doctor then clamps and cuts the umbilical cord. Finally, the placenta is expelled from the mother’s body. . 4 Fig. 4.43 Adoctorclamps and During the birth of a baby, muscles of the eu ce contract strongly to push the baby out through the remains will dry up and fal of. ‘The scar leftbehindis the navel labour i abdomen B88 vel BB 41