RESEARCH METHODS

AIMS && HYPOTHESES

The aim of a study is what you want to find out. When writing a project it is important that this is very specific A hypothesis states what your prediction is. There are two types of hypotheses. A null hypothesis where you state there will be no change. It is what you assume to be true until you can prove otherwise. The alternative hypothesis is the prediction you (usually) are trying to prove

This type of hypothesis is one which predicts the direction of the difference or in terms of correlational analysis predicts either a positive or negative correlation A directional hypothesis is also called a one tailed hypothesis

A non directional hypothesis on the other hand predicts a difference between two variables but not the direction or in terms of correlational analysis it does not predict either a positive or negative correlation. A non directional hypothesis is also called a two tailed hypothesis

One-tailed hypothesis: a directional hypothesis

Two-tailed hypothesis: One in which no direction is predicted

PILOT STUDY
y

A pilot study is an initial run-through of the procedures to be used in an investigation; it involves selecting a few people and trying out the study on them. It is possible to save time, and in some cases, money, by identifying any flaws in the procedures designed by the researcher. A pilot study can help the researcher spot any ambiguities (i.e. unusual things) or confusion in the information given to participants or problems with the task devised

Questionnaires or surveys or often subject to a pilot study. This enables the researcher to establish how easily questions are understood, how long the questionnaire takes to complete, etc. Modifications can then be made to produce a final questionnaire for the main study. A little time invested early on in the design of a study or questionnaire pays off in terms of the main study being well thought through

EXPERIMENT TYPES

LAB EXPERIMENTS

Advantages
 It is easier to replicate (i.e. copy) a laboratory experiment  They allow for precise control of extraneous and independent variables  They allow cause and effect relationships to be established

This type of experiment is conducted in a well-controlled environment not necessarily a laboratory and therefore accurate measurements are possible The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and using a standardised procedure
Disadvantages
The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural behaviour that does not reflect real life, and results cannot be generalised to the population Demand characteristics may bias the results and become confounding variables

FIELD EXPERIMENTS

Advantages
 Behaviour in a field experiment is more likely to reflect life real because of it natural setting, i.e. higher ecological validity than a lab experiment  There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as participants may not know they are being studied

These are conducted in the everyday (i.e. natural) environment of the participants but the situations are still artificially set up The experimenter still manipulates the IV, but in a real-life setting (so cannot really control extraneous variables)

Disadvantages
There is less control over extraneous variables that might bias the results. This in turn makes the experiment harder to replicate They may be more expensive and time consuming than lab experiments

Advantages

NATURAL EXPERIMENTS

Natural experiments are conducted in the everyday (i.e. natural) environment of the participants but here the experimenter has no control over the IV as it occurs naturally in real life, e.g. Hodges and Tizard's research (1989) which compared the long term development of children who have been adopted, fostered or returned to their mothers with a control group of children who had spent all their lives in their biological families

 Behaviour in a natural experiment is more likely to reflect life real because of it natural setting, i.e. very high ecological validity  There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as participants may not know they are being studied  Can be used in situations in which it would be ethically unacceptable to manipulate the independent variable

Disadvantages
There is less control over extraneous variables that might bias the results. This in turn makes the experiment harder to replicate They may be more expensive and time consuming than lab experiments

Experiment: An investigation in which the independent variable is manipulated (or changed) in order to cause a change in the dependent variable. There are three types: 1. Lab study: This type of experiment is conducted in a well-controlled environment 2. Field study: Field experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. natural) environment of the participants but the situations are still artificially set && IV still manipulated 3. Natural study: Natural experiments are conducted in the everyday (i.e. natural) environment of the participants but here the experimenter has no control over the IV

OTHER EXPERIMENTS

CASE STUDY

Advantages
 Highly detailed data is collected.  The data is high in Ecological Validity  It is often the only suitable method. E.g. Teaching a Chimpanzee to speak. (Gardner and Gardner 1969)  It is the only suitable method when researching very rare cases. E.g. a Case of Multiple Personality. Thigpen and Cleckley (1954)

This method involves studying one individual or one social group in detail Case studies are often used when looking at people who have gone through an unusual experience or they are used when looking at exceptional cases e.g. looking at an individual with a rare mental disorder It can be used to look at a broad range of traits as opposed to a small number of traits that can easily be looked at in a laboratory

Disadvantages

It lacks generalisability to the rest of the population due to a very small and unrepresentative sample. No cause and effect can be legitimately established. Very difficult to replicate. Low reliability Time Consuming and Expensive Problems with a participants memory distortions when re past events. Validity problems More potential for observer bias due to the subjective nat the method. Can lead to subject attrition (Loss of Participants)

Correlation measures the relationship between 2 varia

CORRELATION

Advantages

Correlation measures the relationship between 2 variables to see if there is a trend or a systematic pattern In Psychology the pairing of two variables would usually be a particular individual s score in 2 variables E.g Stress Score and Caffeine intake. Stress is not determined by caffeine intake so there can be no cause and effect from a correlation Correlation can be plotted out on scatter grams

 Precise information about the degree of the relationship can be established by the correlation coefficient  No manipulation of behaviour is required  Establishing a relationship between the 2 variable may imply that there could be a cause and effect relationship. Further experimental research can b conducted to establish cause and effect

Disadvantages
No cause and effect can be established. E.g. there may be a positive correlation between caffeine intake and stress scores, but the correlation does not indicate that caffeine is causing the stress.

QUESTIONAIRES
Advantages
 Questionnaires can be highly structured

Often used to find out people s opinions or behaviours They can be highly structured enabling results to be easily analysed using descriptive statistics Questionnaires can be less structured allowing the respondent to give further details

enabling results to be easily analysed usi descriptive statistics.  Easy to analyse and quantify  Easy to replicate  Easy to administer

Disadvantages Lacks flexibility People may give biased answers to create a socially desirable response.

INTERVIEWS

Advantages  Very Detailed  Very Flexible allowing the researcher to explore interesting things that may arise

This involves the researcher asking verbal questions to the participant Interviews range from having no structure e.g. just a topic area established to being very structured e.g. a list of pre-prepared questions

Disadvantages Very Time Consuming Difficult to analyse and quantify Potential for participants to give incorrect responses

OBSERVATION

Advantages
Controlled Observations
 

More controlled enabling more accurate observations Easy to replicate

Naturalistic Observations

This method involves observing people s natural or freely chosen behaviour Observation can take place within an experiment, but the term observational method usually refers to research carried out in a natural environment like a town centre Controlled Observations measure people s natural behaviour, but under contrived conditions. E.g. a laboratory setting Naturalistic Observations involve the recording of people s natural behaviour in a natural setting

 

High in Ecological Validity This method is often the only appropriate and ethical method

Disadvantages
Controlled Observations Validity problems. If the participants know that their behaviour is being observed their behaviour may change. This would mean that their behaviour was unnatural.

Disadvantages
Naturalistic Observations Cause and Effect cannot be established Ethical Concerns. Is this an invasion of privacy?

Psychologists carry out research using experimental and non-experimental methods: 1. Experiments are more scientific, but they lack ecological validity 2. Questioning people can be a useful way to measure opinions 3. An interview would allow more depth than a questionnaire, but a questionnaire is easier to administer 4. The observational method allows observations of naturally occurring behaviour, The presence of an observer can change participants behaviour 5. Case Studies are used when more detail is required or when looking at an unusual case. They are time consuming and lack generalisability 6. A correlation indicates whether there is a relationship between 2 variables, but it does not establish cause and effect

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

INDEPENDENT MEASURES
Different participants are used in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes a different group of participants. This should be done by random allocation, which ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to one group or the other

Advantage
 Avoids order effects (such as practice or fatigue) as people participate in one condition only. If a person is involved in several conditions they man become bored, tired and fed up by the time they come to the second condition, or becoming wise to the requirements of the experiment

Disadvantages
More people are needed than with the repeated measures design (i.e. more time consuming) Differences between participants in the groups may affect results, for example; variations in age, sex or social background. These differences are known as participant variables (i.e. a type of extraneous variable)

REPEATED MEASURES
The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes the same group of participants

Advantage  Fewer people are needed as they take part in all conditions (i.e. saves time)

Disadvantages There may be order effects. Order effects refer to the order of the conditions having an effect on the participants behaviour. Performance in the second condition may be better because the participants know what to do (i.e. practice effect). Or there performance might be worse in the second condition because they are tired (i.e. fatigue effect.

MATCHED PAIRS
Advantage  Reduces participant (i.e. extraneous) variables because the researcher has tried to pair up the participants so that each condition has people with similar abilities and characteristics  Avoids order effects, and so counterbalancing is not necessary

One pair must be randomly assigned to the experimental group and the other to the control group

Disadvantages Very time-consuming trying to find closely matched pairs Impossible to match people exactly, unless identical twins!

Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to the different conditions (or IV groups) in an experiment. There are three types: 1. Independent measures / groups: Different participants are used in each condition of the independent variable 2. Repeated measures: The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable 3. Matched pairs: Each condition uses different participants, but they are matched in terms of certain characteristics, e.g. sex, age, intelligence etc

Sampling Type

Definition

Advantages
Easiest sampling method, very inexpensive.

Disadvantages
Doesn't use a variety of people that represent the population. Can be biased because only people from your own social group are included. Because it is only based on chance there is no way of ensuring it is representative. Can be difficult to implement and therefore expensive.

Opportunity You use the first

Systematic Random

Stratified

Take every 2nd10th etc. Hopefully more person representatives, simple to do, have no bias. Everyone in the target Hopefully more representative population has an and has no bias. equal chance of being selected. The proportions of Very representative and people in the sample therefore the findings of an are equivalent to the experiment using this method population (eg. 50% can be applied to everybody female). more easily.

Complicated to make a sample that represents everybody so could take a long time and be expensive.

VARIABLES

A variable is anything that can vary, i.e. changed or be changed, such as memory, attention, time taken to perform a task etc Variable are given a special names that only apply to experimental investigations. One is called the dependant variable (DV) and the other the independent variable (IV). In an experiment, the researcher is looking for the possible effect on the dependant variable that might be caused by changing the independent variable

Independent variable (IV): Variable the experimenter manipulates (i.e. changes) assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable

Dependent variable (DV): Variable the experimenter measures, after making changes to the IV that are assumed to affect the DV

IV = variable manipulated by the experimenter DV = variable measured by the experimenter

Extraneous variables These are

Confounding variables
These are variables that do actually have an affect on the DV. A confounding variable could be an extraneous variable that has not been controlled