224 Chapter 7 Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches

LG 3 Apply behavior analysis to education. 3 APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS IN EDUCATION

What Is Applied Decreasing Undesirable
Behavior Analysis? Behaviors

Increasing Desirable Evaluating Operant Conditioning and

Behaviors Applied Behavior Analysis

Many applications of operant conditioning have been made outside of

research laboratories in the wider worlds of classrooms, homes, busi-
nesses, psychotherapy, hospitals, and other real-world settings
(Spiegler, 2016). This section describes how teachers can use
applied behavior analysis to improve students’ behavior and learn-
ing.

WHAT IS APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS?

Applied behavior analysis involves applying the principles of
operant conditioning to change human behavior. Three uses of
applied behavior analysis are especially important in educa-
tion: increasing desirable behavior, using prompts and shap-
ing, and decreasing undesirable behavior (Alberto &
Troutman, 2017). Applications of applied behavior analysis
often use a series of steps. These often begin with some gen-
“Once it became clear to me that, by responding correctly to certain eral observations and then turn to determining the specific
stimuli, I could get all the bananas I wanted, getting this job was target behavior that needs to be changed, as well as observing
a pushover.” its antecedent conditions. Behavioral goals are then set, par-
© Jack Ziegler/The New Yorker Collection/[Link]
ticular reinforcers or punishers are selected, a behavior man-
agement program is carried out, and the success or failure of
the program is evaluated (Miltenberger, 2016).

Thinking Back/Thinking Forward INCREASING DESIRABLE BEHAVIORS

Applied behavior analysis can be used as
Six operant conditioning strategies can be used to increase a child’s desirable behav-
part of managing the classroom effectively.
iors: choose effective reinforcers; make reinforcers contingent and timely; select the
Connect to “Managing the Classroom.”
best schedule of reinforcement; consider contracting; use negative reinforcement
effectively; and use prompts and shaping.

Choose Effective Reinforcers Not all reinforcers are the same for every child.
Applied behavior analysts recommend that teachers find out what reinforcers work
best with which children—that is, individualize the use of particular reinforcers. For
one student it might be praise, for another it might be getting to spend more time
participating in a favorite activity, for another it might involve being a hall monitor
for a week, and for yet another it could be getting to surf the Internet. To find out
the most effective reinforcers for a child, you can examine what has motivated the
child in the past (reinforcement history), what the student wants but can’t easily or
frequently get, and the child’s perception of the reinforcer’s value. Some applied
behavior analysts recommend asking children which reinforcers they like best.
Another recommendation is to consider novel reinforcers to reduce the child’s bore-
dom. Natural reinforcers such as praise and privileges are generally recommended
applied behavior analysis Application of the princi- over material rewards such as candy, stars, and money.
ples of operant conditioning to change human behavior. Activities are some of the most common reinforcers that teachers use. Named
Premack principle The principle that a high-­ after psychologist David Premack, the Premack principle states that a high-proba-
probability activity can serve as a reinforcer for a bility activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low-probability activity. The Premack
low-probability activity. principle is at work when an elementary school teacher tells a child, “When you
[Link]/santedu6e Applied Behavior Analysis in Education 225

complete your writing assignment, you can play a game on the computer”
(but only effective if playing games on a computer is more desirable for THROUGH THE EYES OF
the student than writing). The Premack principle also can be used with the STUDENTS
entire class. A teacher might tell the class, “If all of the class gets their
homework done by Friday, we will take a field trip next week.” “Watch Her, Mom”
Make Reinforcers Contingent and Timely For a reinforcer to be effective, One year a third-grade teacher at Salem
the teacher must give it only after the child performs the particular behavior. Church Elementary School in Chesterfield
Applied behavior analysts often recommend that teachers make “If . . . then” County, Virginia, had an especially loud, active
statements to children—for example, “Tony, if you finish ten math prob- group of third-graders. The teacher, Kristen
lems, then you can go out to play.” This makes it clear to Tony what he Blankenship, used a combination of individual
has to do to get the reinforcer. Applied behavior analysts say that it is and group positive reinforcement as a man-
important to make the reinforcer contingent on the child’s behavior. That agement strategy.
is, the child has to perform the behavior to get the reward. If Tony does Not having a cafeteria, students ate their
not complete ten math problems and the teacher still lets him go out to play, lunches in the classroom. While joining her son
the contingency has not been established. for lunch one day, Daniel’s mother pulled Kristen
Reinforcers are more effective when they are given in a timely way, as aside, smiled, and said that he had just whis-
soon as possible after the child performs the target behavior. This helps chil- pered to her, “Watch her, Mom. She never yells,
dren see the contingency connection between the reward and their behavior. but she sure knows how to keep them in line.”
If the child completes the target behavior (such as doing ten math problems
by midmorning) and the teacher doesn’t give the child playtime until late
afternoon, the child might have trouble making the contingency connection.

Select the Best Schedule of Reinforcement Most of the examples given so far
assume continuous reinforcement—that is, the child is reinforced every time he or
she makes a response. In continuous reinforcement, children learn very rapidly, but
when the reinforcement stops (the teacher stops praising), extinction also occurs
rapidly. In the classroom, continuous reinforcement is rare. A teacher with a class-
room of 25 or 30 students can’t praise a child every time he or she makes an appro-
priate response.
Partial reinforcement involves reinforcing a response only part of the time.
Skinner (1957) developed the concept of schedules of reinforcement, which are
partial reinforcement timetables that determine when a response will be reinforced.
The four main schedules of reinforcement are fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-­interval,
and variable-interval.
On a fixed-ratio schedule, a behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses.
For example, a teacher might praise the child only after every fourth correct response,
not after every response. On a variable-ratio schedule, a behavior is reinforced after
an average number of times, but on an unpredictable basis. For example, a teacher’s
praise might average out to being given every fifth response but be given after the
second correct response, after eight more correct responses, after the next seven
correct responses, and after the next three correct responses.
Interval schedules are determined by the amount of time elapsed since the last
behavior was reinforced. On a fixed-interval schedule, the first appropriate response
after a fixed amount of time is reinforced. For example, a teacher might praise a
child for the first good question the child asks after two minutes have elapsed or
give a quiz every week. On a variable-interval schedule, a response is reinforced
after a variable amount of time has elapsed. On this schedule, the teacher might
praise the child’s question-asking after three minutes have gone by, then after fifteen
minutes have gone by, after seven minutes have gone by, and so on. Giving a pop
quiz at uneven intervals is another example of a variable-interval schedule.
What is the effect of using these schedules of reinforcement with children? Initial
learning is usually faster with continuous rather than partial reinforcement. In other
words, when students are first learning a behavior, continuous reinforcement works schedules of reinforcement Partial reinforcement
better. However, partial reinforcement produces greater persistence and greater resis- timetables that determine when a response will be
tance to extinction than continuous reinforcement does. Thus, once children master ­reinforced.
 226 Chapter 7 Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches

a response, partial reinforcement works better than continuous

Fixed- reinforcement.
ratio
Children on fixed schedules show less persistence and faster
Reinforcement
response extinction than children on variable schedules. Children
show the most persistence on a variable-interval schedule. This
schedule produces slow, steady responding because children don’t
Cumulative response

Variable-ratio Fixed- know when the reward will come. As we mentioned earlier, giving
interval pop quizzes at uneven intervals is a good example of the variable-
interval schedule. If the teacher starts making the quizzes more
Variable-interval predictable (for example, once a week on Fridays), children will
begin to show the stop-start work pattern that characterizes the
fixed-interval schedule. That is, they won’t work hard for most of
the week; then toward the end of the week they will start cramming
for the quiz. Thus, if your goal as a teacher is to increase children’s
persistence after the behavior has been established, variable sched-
Time
ules work best, especially the variable-interval schedule. Figure 5
FIGURE 5 SCHEDULES OF
shows the different response patterns associated with the different schedules of
REINFORCEMENT AND DIFFERENT PATTERNS reinforcement.
OF RESPONDING
Consider Contracting Contracting involves putting reinforcement contingencies
In this figure, each hash mark indicates the delivery
of reinforcement. Notice that ratio schedules
in writing. If problems arise and children don’t uphold their end of the bargain, the
(reinforcement is linked with number of responses) teacher can refer the children to the contract they agreed to. Applied behavior ana-
produce higher rates of responding than interval lysts suggest that a classroom contract should be the result of input from both the
schedules (reinforcement is linked with the amount teacher and the student. Classroom contracts have “If . . . then” statements and are
of time elapsed). The predictability of a reward also signed by the teacher and child, then dated. A teacher and child might agree on a
is important in that a predictable (fixed) schedule contract that states that the child agrees to be a good citizen by doing
produces a higher response rate than an , , and . As part of the
unpredictable (variable) schedule. contract, the teacher agrees to if the student behaves in this
manner. In some instances, the teacher asks another child to sign the contract as a
witness to the agreement.

Use Negative Reinforcement Effectively Remember that in negative reinforce-

ment, the frequency of response increases because the response removes an aversive
(unpleasant) stimulus (Alberto & Troutman, 2017). A teacher who says, “Thomas,
you have to stay in your seat and finish writing your story before you join the other
students in making a poster,” is using punishment. Then, when Thomas finishes his
work, negative reinforcement is being used as the punishing consequence is removed.
Using negative reinforcement has some drawbacks. Sometimes when teachers
try to use this behavioral strategy, children throw a tantrum, run out of the room, or
destroy materials. These negative outcomes happen most often when children don’t
have the skills or capabilities to do what the teacher asks of them.

Use Prompts and Shaping Earlier in our discussion of operant conditioning, we

indicated that discrimination involves differentiating among stimuli or environmental
events. Students can learn to discriminate among stimuli or events through differen-
tial reinforcement. Two differential reinforcement strategies available to teachers are
prompts and shaping (Alberto & Troutman, 2017).

Prompts A prompt is an added stimulus or cue that is given just before a response
that increases the likelihood that the response will occur. A reading teacher who holds
up a card with the letters w-e-r-e and says, “Not was, but . . . ” is using a verbal
contracting Putting reinforcement contingencies into prompt. An art teacher who places the label “Watercolors” on one group of paints
writing. and “Oils” on another also is using prompts. Prompts help get behavior going. Once
prompt An added stimulus or cue that is given just the students consistently show the correct responses, the prompts are no longer needed.
before a response that increases the likelihood the Instructions can be used as prompts (Alberto & Troutman, 2017). For example,
response will occur. as the art period is drawing to a close, the teacher says, “Let’s get started on
[Link]/santedu6e Applied Behavior Analysis in Education 227

reading.” If the students keep doing art, the teacher adds the prompt, “Okay, put
away your art materials and come with me over to the reading area.” Some prompts
come in the form of hints, as when the teacher tells students to line up “quietly.”
Bulletin boards are common locations for prompts, frequently displaying reminders
of class rules, due dates for projects, the location of a meeting, and so on. Some
prompts are presented visually, as when the teacher places her hand on her ear when
a student is not speaking loudly enough.

Shaping When teachers use prompts, they assume that students can perform the
desired behaviors. But sometimes students do not have the ability to perform them.
In this case, shaping is required. Shaping involves teaching new behaviors by rein-
forcing successive approximations to a specified target behavior. Initially, you rein-
force any response that in some way resembles the target behavior. Subsequently,
you reinforce a response that more closely resembles the target, and so on until the
student performs the target behavior, and then you reinforce it.
Suppose you have a student who has never completed 50 percent or more of her
math assignments. You set the target behavior at 100 percent, but you reinforce her
for successive approximations to the target. You initially might provide a reinforcer
(some type of privilege, for example) when she completes 60 percent, then the next
time only when she completes 70 percent, then 80, then 90, and finally 100 percent.
Shaping can be an important tool for the classroom teacher because most students
need reinforcement along the way to reaching a learning goal (Chance, 2014). Shaping
can be especially helpful for learning tasks that require time and persistence to com-
plete. However, when using shaping, remember to implement it only if the other types
of positive reinforcement and prompts are not working. Also remember to be patient.
Shaping can require the reinforcement of a number of small steps en route to a target
behavior, and these might take place only over an extended period of time.

DECREASING UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIORS

When teachers want to decrease children’s undesirable behaviors (such as teasing,
hogging a class discussion, or smarting off to the teacher), what are their options?
Applied behavior analysts Paul Alberto and Anne Troutman (2017) recommend
using these steps in this order:
1. Use differential reinforcement.
2. Terminate reinforcement (extinction).
3. Remove desirable stimuli.
4. Present aversive stimuli (punishment).
Thus, the teacher’s first option should be differential reinforcement. Punishment
should be used only as a last resort and always in conjunction with providing the
child with information about appropriate behavior.

Use Differential Reinforcement In differential reinforcement, the teacher reinforces

behavior that is more appropriate or that is incompatible with what the child is doing.
For example, the teacher might reinforce a child for doing learning activities on a
computer rather than playing games with it, for being courteous rather than inter-
rupting, for being seated rather than running around the classroom, or for completing
homework on time rather than late.

Terminate Reinforcement (Extinction) The strategy of terminating reinforcement

involves withdrawing positive reinforcement from a child’s inappropriate behavior.
Many inappropriate behaviors are inadvertently maintained by positive reinforcement,
especially the teacher’s attention. Applied behavior analysts point out that this can occur
even when the teacher gives attention to an inappropriate behavior by criticizing, threat- shaping Teaching new behaviors by reinforcing suc-
ening, or yelling at the student. Many teachers find it difficult to determine whether they cessive approximations to a specified target behavior.
228 Chapter 7 Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches

are giving too much attention to inappropriate behavior. A good strategy is to get some-
one to observe your classroom on several occasions and chart the patterns of reinforce-
ment you use with your students (Alberto & Troutman, 2017). If you become aware that
you are giving too much attention to a student’s inappropriate behavior, ignore that
behavior and give attention to the student’s appropriate behavior. Always combine taking
attention away from inappropriate behavior with giving attention to appropriate behavior.
For instance, when a student stops monopolizing the conversation in a group discussion
after you withdraw your attention, compliment the student on the improved behavior.

Remove Desirable Stimuli Suppose you have tried the first two options, and they
haven’t worked. A third option is to remove desirable stimuli from the student. Two
strategies for accomplishing this are “time-out” and “response cost.”

Time-Out The most widely used strategy that teachers use to remove desirable
stimuli is time-out. In other words, take the student away from positive reinforce-
ment. For example, a teacher might use time-out with a student who won’t stay in
his seat or engages in loud confrontations with the teacher.

Response Cost A second strategy for removing desirable stimuli involves response
cost, which refers to taking a positive reinforcer away from a student, as when the
student loses certain privileges. For example, after a student misbehaves, the teacher
might take away 10 minutes of recess time or the privilege of being a class monitor.
Response cost typically involves some type of penalty or fine. As with time-out,
This student has been placed in “time-out” for misbe-
response cost should always be used in conjunction with strategies for increasing
having. What is the nature of ­time-out?
© Ableimages/Getty Images RF
the student’s positive behaviors.
I recently asked teachers how they use applied behavior analysis in their class-
room. Following are their responses.

EARLY CHILDHOOD We use applied behavior analysis with our preschoolers

by giving time-out to students who are misbehaving. For example, if a child throws
a toy across the room during free play, hits another student, or speaks
disrespectfully, we explain why this behavior is inappropriate and
give time-out. The child has to sit in a chair, away from other stu-
dents, and misses five minutes of free-play time. As a result, the child
learns that negative behavior will not be tolerated.
—Missy Dangler, Suburban Hills School

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL: GRADES K–5 For my second-grade students, tangible

or implied (a smile from me or attention) rewards work best. I also find that a combi-
nation of individual and group rewards work well in my classroom. For
example, I give each student a “Compliment Sheet” at the beginning of
the school year. When I see behavior that I want to encourage, I tell
the student publicly that he or she may have a compliment. The student
fills in one of the circles on the compliment page, and the others in the
class—seeing that this student’s particular behavior has been rewarded—
imitate the student’s behavior almost immediately. The rules are that no compliment
may be removed and that a student may not ask for a compliment. When the Compliment
Sheet is completed, a big deal is made of it, and the student can go the prize box and
choose a small token such as stickers. At first this is an external way of conditioning
behavior, but the children seem to move rapidly from wanting the “thing” to wanting
the compliment to wanting the positive attention to doing the right thing.
—Janine Guida Poutre, Clinton Elementary School
time-out Removing an individual from positive
­reinforcement.
MIDDLE SCHOOL: GRADES 6–8 I’m not big on rewards for my sixth-grade
response cost Taking a positive reinforcer away from students. I think students who act inappropriately in class need to learn how to cope
an individual. and deal with controlling their behavior without expecting to receive something in
[Link]/santedu6e Applied Behavior Analysis in Education 229

CONNECTING WITH STUDENTS: Best Practices

Strategies for Using Time-Out

In using time-out, you have several options: 2. For time-out to be effective, the setting from which the
student is removed has to be positively reinforcing, and
1. Keep the student in the classroom, but deny the student
the setting in which the student is placed has to lack
access to positive reinforcement. This strategy is most
positive reinforcement. For example, if you seat a student
often used when a student does something minor. The
in the hall outside your classroom and students from
teacher might ask the student to put his or her head down
other classes come down the hall and talk with the stu-
on the desk for a few minutes or might move the student
dent, the time-out is clearly not going to serve its
to the periphery of an activity so the student can still
intended purpose.
observe other students experiencing positive reinforcement.
In Through the Eyes of Teachers, kindergarten teacher 3. If you use time-out, be sure to identify the student’s
Rosemary Moore describes an innovative use of time-out. behaviors that resulted in time-out. For example, say to
the student, “You tore up Corey’s paper, so go to time-
out right now for five minutes.” Don’t get into an argu-
THROUGH THE EYES OF TEACHERS ment with the student or accept lame excuses as to why
The Peace Place the student should not get a time-out. If necessary, take
the student to the time-out location. If the misbehavior
Resolving conflicts is always difficult for children. When my kin- occurs again, identify the behavior once again and repeat
dergartners engaged in power struggles, they often turned to me the time-out. If the student starts yelling, knocking over
to referee. I thought it would be much more beneficial if they furniture, and so on, when you assign time-out, add time
could arrive at their own compromise. Ownership of the plan to time-out. Be sure to let the student out of time-out
would make it more acceptable to all parties. To accomplish this, when the designated time away from positive reinforce-
I put two small chairs in a corner of the room. Above the chairs ment is up. Don’t comment on how well the student
was a sign that said, “Peace Place.” Then when I heard a struggle behaved during time-out; just return the student to the
begin, I would send the parties to this corner. There they sat fac- prior activity.
ing each other with their knees almost touching. Their task was
4. Positively reinforce the student’s positive behavior when he
to negotiate a “peace plan.” When the plan was agreed upon,
or she is not in time-out. Reinforce positive behavior dur-
they were to come to me. I would listen to their plan and either
ing regular class time. For example, if a student got time-
approve it or send them back for another try. Initially, this took
out for disruptive behavior, the teacher can praise the
some time, but as the children began to realize that the time
student for quietly working on an assignment during class.
they spent arguing was time away from the activity they were ar-
guing about, they arrived at their plan much more quickly. It was 5. Keep records of each time-out session, especially if a
a pleasure to watch them grow in their negotiating abilities. time-out room is used. This will help you monitor effective
and ethical use of time-outs.

return. Instead of rewards, I give students who turn from negative behavior to pos-
itive behavior more responsibility in the classroom. For example, students who
engage in good behavior are given classroom jobs—for example,
handing out pencils and paper, checking my mail box in the main
office, and turning on/shutting off computers. Students love respon-
sibility and are happy when I depend on them to perform important
duties in the classroom.
—Felicia Peterson, Pocantico Hills School

HIGH SCHOOL: GRADES 9–12 I set clear expectations for my high school stu-
dents. For example, it is a classroom expectation that students are in my classroom,
ready to work, when the bell rings. Students soon learn that walking
in late results in not knowing what is going on in class and may lower
their grade if they cannot complete an activity. It is important to start
class on time and not let the stragglers determine when class will start.
—Sandy Swanson, Menomonee Falls High School
230 Chapter 7 Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches

Present Aversive Stimuli (Punishment) Most people associate the pre-

sentation of aversive (unpleasant) stimuli with punishment, as when a
teacher yells at a student or a parent spanks a child. However, in accor-
dance with the definition of punishment given earlier in the chapter, an
aversive stimulus is punishment only if it decreases the undesirable
behavior. All too often, though, aversive stimuli are not effective punish-
ments, in that they do not decrease the unwanted behavior and indeed
sometimes increase the unwanted behavior over time.
The most common types of aversive stimuli that teachers use are
verbal reprimands. These are more effectively used when the teacher is
near the student rather than across the room and when used together with
a nonverbal reprimand such as a frown or eye contact. Reprimands are
more effective when they are given immediately after unwanted behavior
and when they are short and to the point. Such reprimands do not have
to involve yelling and shouting, which often just raise the noise level of
What are some effective strategies for using reprimands?
the classroom and present the teacher as an uncontrolled model for stu-
© Chris Schmidt/Getty Images RF
dents. Instead, a firmly stated “stop doing that” with eye contact is often
sufficient to stop unwanted behavior. Another strategy is to take the student aside
and reprimand the student in private rather than in front of the entire class.
Thinking Back/Thinking Forward Many countries, such as Sweden, have banned the physical punishment of school-
Authoritarian parenting is restrictive and children (which usually involves school paddling) by principals and teachers. However,
punitive, and so is an authoritarian class- in 2015, 19 U.S. states still allowed it with the greatest prevalence in southern states.
room management style. Both are less Research on college students in 11 countries found that the United States and Canada
effective styles than authoritative (rather have more favorable attitudes toward corporal punishment than many other countries
than authoritarian) parenting and an au- (Curran & others, 2001; Hyman & others, 2001) (see Figure 6). Use of corporal
thoritative classroom management style. punishment by parents is legal in every state in America, and it is estimated that 70
Connect with “Social Contexts and to 90 percent of American parents have spanked their children (Straus, 1991).
Socioemotional Development” and A national survey of U.S. parents with 3- and 4-year-old children found that 26 percent
“Managing the Classroom.” of parents reported spanking their children frequently, and 67 percent of the parents
reported yelling at their children frequently (Regalado & others, 2004).
In U.S. schools, male minority students from low-income backgrounds are the
most frequent recipients of physical punishment. Many psychologists and educators
Mean score argue that physical punishment of students should not be used in any circumstance.
Country (5 point scale) Physical or otherwise, numerous problems are associated with using aversive
Canada 3.14 stimuli as intended punishment:
United States 3.13 ∙ Especially when you use intense punishment such as yelling or screaming, you are
presenting students with an out-of-control model for handling stressful situations.
South Korea 3.00
∙ Punishment can instill fear, rage, or avoidance in students. Skinner’s biggest
Malaysia 2.90 concern was this: What punishment teaches is how to avoid something. For
Great Britain 2.68 example, a student who experiences a punitive teacher might show a dislike
Finland 2.34
for the teacher and not want to come to school.
∙ When students are punished, they might become so agitated and anxious that
Greece 2.26
they can’t concentrate clearly on their work for a long time after the punish-
Germany 2.13 ment has been given.
Spain 2.05 ∙ Punishment tells students what not to do rather than what to do. If you make
a punishing statement, such as “No, that’s not right,” always accompany it
Argentina 1.96
with positive feedback, such as “but why don’t you try this.”
Sweden 1.35 ∙ What is intended as punishment can turn out to be reinforcing. A student
might learn that misbehaving will not only get the teacher’s attention but put
FIGURE 6 ATTITUDES ABOUT the student in the limelight with classmates as well.
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT IN DIFFERENT ∙ Punishment can be abusive. When parents discipline their children, they might
COUNTRIES not intend to be abusive, but they might become so upset and angry when they
A 5-point scale was used to assess attitudes are punishing the child that they become abusive. Teachers in all 50 states are
toward corporal punishment, with scores closer to legally required to report even reasonable suspicions of child abuse to the police
1 indicating an attitude against its use and scores or local child protective services. Teachers should learn about their state’s laws
closer to 5 suggesting an attitude favoring its use. and their school district’s policy regarding the reporting of child abuse.
[Link]/santedu6e Applied Behavior Analysis in Education 231

Debate about the effects of punishment on children’s development continues

(Ferguson, 2013; Gershoff, 2013; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Laible, Thompson, &
Froimson, 2015; Theunissen, Vogels, & Reijneveld, 2015). One debate about punish-
ment that is ongoing involves a distinction between mild punishment and more intense
punishment. A research review of 26 studies concluded that only severe or predomi-
nant use of spanking, not mild spanking, compared unfavorably with alternative dis-
cipline practices with children (Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005). Indeed, there are few
RESEARCH
longitudinal studies of punishment and few studies that distinguish adequately between
moderate and heavy use of punishment. In a recent meta-analysis in which physical
punishment that was not abusive was distinguished from physical abuse, physical pun-
ishment was linked to detrimental child outcomes (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2017).
However, research on punishment is correlational in nature, making it difficult
to discover causal factors. Also, consider the concept of reciprocal socialization that
emphasizes bidirectional child and parent influences. Researchers have found links
between children’s early behavioral problems and parents’ greater use of physical
punishment over time (Laible, Thompson, & Froimson, 2015). Nonetheless, a large
majority of leading experts on parenting conclude that physical punishment has
harmful effects on children and should not be used.
In a recent research review, a leading expert on punishment, Elizabeth Gershoff
(2013), concluded that the defenders of spanking have not produced any evidence that
spanking produces positive outcomes for children and that negative outcomes of spank-
ing have been replicated in many studies. Also, one thing that is clear is that when
physical punishment involves abuse, it can be very harmful to children’s development,
as discussed later in this chapter (Cicchetti & Toth, 2015, 2016).
Thinking Back/Thinking Forward
A final lesson related to using punishment less often is to spend more class time
monitoring what students do right rather than what they do wrong. Too often disruptive The new trend in classroom manage-
behavior, not competent behavior, grabs a teacher’s attention. Every day make it a point ment places more emphasis on guiding
to scan your classroom for positive student behaviors that you ordinarily would not students toward self-discipline and less
notice and give students attention for them. on externally controlling the student.
Connect to “Managing the Classroom.”
EVALUATING OPERANT CONDITIONING AND APPLIED
BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
Operant conditioning and applied behavior analysis have made contributions to
teaching practice (Alberto & Troutman, 2017). Reinforcing and punishing con-
sequences are part of teachers’ and students’ lives. Teachers give grades, praise
and reprimand, smile and frown. Learning about how such consequences affect
students’ behavior improves your capabilities as a teacher. Used effectively,
behavioral techniques can help you manage your classroom. Reinforcing certain
behaviors can improve some students’ conduct and—used in conjunction with
the time-out—can increase desired behaviors in some incorrigible students.
Critics of operant conditioning and applied behavior analysis argue that
the whole approach places too much emphasis on external control of stu-
dents’ behavior—a better strategy is to help students learn to control their
own behavior and become internally motivated. Some critics argue that it is
not the reward or punishment that changes behavior but, rather, the belief
or expectation that certain actions will be rewarded or punished (Schunk,
2016). In other words, the behavioral theories do not give adequate attention
to cognitive processes involved in learning (Ashcraft & Radvansky, 2016).
Critics also point to potential ethical problems when operant conditioning is
used inappropriately, as when a teacher immediately resorts to punishing
students instead of first considering reinforcement strategies, or punishes a
student without also giving the student information about appropriate behav- When used effectively, what are ways that operant conditioning and
ior. Another criticism is that when teachers spend a lot of time using applied applied behavior analysis can help teachers manage the class-
behavior analysis, they might focus too much on student conduct and not room? What are some criticisms that have been leveled at these
enough on academic learning. We will have much more to say about student approaches?
conduct in the chapter on managing the classroom. © Fuse/Corbis/Getty Images RF
232 Chapter 7 Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches

Review, Reflect, and Practice

3 Apply behavior analysis to education.

REVIEW
∙ What is applied behavior analysis?
∙ What are six ways to increase desirable behaviors?
∙ What are four ways to decrease undesirable behaviors?
∙ What are some effective and ineffective uses of operant conditioning and applied
behavior analysis?

REFLECT
∙ Come up with your own example in an educational setting for each of the six ways
to increase desirable behavior.

PRAXIS™ PRACTICE
1. The uses of applied behavior analysis in education include all of the following except
a. asking a child to reflect about undesirable behavior
b. increasing desirable behavior
c. using prompts and shaping
d. decreasing undesirable behavior
2. Ms. Sanders wants her students to be quiet and ready to learn as soon as possible
after coming in from recess. Sometimes the children are so excited that they have dif-
ficulty quieting down. To help remind them that it is time to be quiet and listen, Ms.
Sanders flicks the light switch on and off several times. The children immediately quiet
and listen to her instructions. According to applied behavioral analysis, what is Ms.
Sanders doing when she turns the lights on and off?
a. prompting
b. punishing
c. coercing
d. shaping
3. Sid is a real handful in class. He talks when he should be working quietly. He gets out
of his seat without permission. He often disrupts class. His third-grade teacher, Ms.
Marin, sends him out into the hall when he misbehaves as a form of time-out.
However, Sid continues to misbehave. At one point, Ms. Marin checks on Sid in the
hall and finds him quietly tossing a ball back and forth with a child from another class.
Why has time-out been ineffective with Sid?
a. Ms. Marin did not present an aversive enough stimulus to Sid.
b. Ms. Marin did not use differential reinforcement effectively.
c. Sid finds being in class to be reinforcing.
d. Sid finds being in the hallway to be reinforcing.
4. Critics of applied behavior analysis techniques often point out that when these tech-
niques are used in the classroom they
a. lead to physical abuse of students
b. do not work effectively
c. take time away from academics
d. emphasize external control of behavior

Please see answer key at end of book . . . .