Signals and Systems

[Ch – 01]
Introduction to Signals and
Systems

Instructor: Engr. Furqan Haider

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 About myself !!
 Where you can find me: 1st floor, DEE
 E-mail: [email protected]
 Mobile Contact: CR can ask after the class.
 Best way to contact me: Come and talk to me during
discussion hours.

 Research Interests: Wireless Communication, Fiber

Optics Communication and Acoustic Systems.

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Course Organization

 Course Folder link:

 https://www.dropbox.com/sh/rek9gj0e313dzb6/AACD-
g2WZ5cEQRT3jv3dcRiWa?dl=0

 Visit the folder frequently

 For further details please see the course
outline

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Grading Policy
 Grading Policy
 Quizzes (4 ~ 6) 7.5%
 Assignments (4 ~ 6) 7.5%
 Lab+Project 25%
 Midterm 22.5%
 Final 37.5%
 100 %

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Text & Reference Books
 Text book:
 Signals and Systems, 2nd edition by Alan V.
Oppenheim, Alan S. Willsky with S. Hamid Nawab.

 Reference Book(s):
 Signal Processing First by James H. McClellan, Mark A. Yoder,
and Ronald W. Schafer.

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Pre-Requisite

 EE-211 Electrical Network Analysis

 MATH-121 Linear Algebra and ODEs

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Helpful Hints!!
 Read each and every word of the text book--Very Important
 Participate actively in the class
 Do not miss any lecture
 Do not be late in the class
 Try to apply the theory in the lab
 Do not get behind. You are encouraged to work with other students but
avoid plagiarism.
 Work in groups, whenever appropriate. However, Assignments and Quizzes
must be attempted alone. No plagiarism will be tolerated.
 Do the end problems of each chapter by yourself.
 We will not proceed until everybody says “YES”.
 Interrupt me during the lecture if I forget to deal with these 2 questions:
 Why? and

 How?

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 A big WHY?

Why studying this course ?

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 A big HOW?

TOOLS required to perform analysis of

Signals & Systems?

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Grading Rules
 Assignment Submission on time: graded out of 100%

 Assignment Submission (1 day late): graded out of 70%

 Assignment Submission (2 days late): graded out of 50%

 No Assignment / Project will be accepted after 2

days.
 Only ONE make-up QUIZ in last week of the
semester. (whether you have missed one or more
quizzes throughout the semester).

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 What is expected from you?
 Prepare the agendas of Monday & Wednesday
class on weekly basis (You will do relevant End
Problems by yourself – seek my help if
necessary).

 Expect a quiz on each Wednesday.

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

1. COURSE OUTLINE

Introduction, Types of Signals

Motivation, Applications, Signal Classification
CT, DT, Analog, Digital, Deterministic, Random, Periodic, aperiodic; Even & Odd signal decomposition
CH-01
Signal Transformations/Signal Fundamentals
Signal Transformations
Fundamental signals : Complex Exponentials; Decaying exponentials; sinusoids; Unit Impulse; Unit Step
Signal representation using fundamental signals
CH-01
System Classification
Continuous/Discrete ; Analog/Digital
Linear/Nonlinear ; Time-invariant/Time varying; Causal/Anti-causal; Stable/Unstable
CH-01
LTI Systems Theory

CH-02
Intro to LTI Systems, Impulse response as system characterization
LTI System Properties, Linearity, Convolution (CT and DT)
Difference equations for LTI system

Fourier Series
Frequency domain view of LTI systems, Concept of complex frequency
Fourier series representation of CT periodic signals (CTFS), Properties of CTFS
Fourier series representation of DT periodic signals (DTFS), Properties of DTFS
CH-03
Continuous Time Fourier Transform (CTFT)
FT of continuous time aperiodic signals, Properties of CTFT
Fourier Transform of periodic signals
CH-04
CH-05
Discrete Time Fourier Transform (DTFT)
FT of discrete time aperiodic signals, Properties of DTFT
Introduction to Sampling
Time Domain and frequency domain description; Nyquist criterion
Aliasing; Under/Over sampling
CH-07
Laplace transform (LT)

CH-09
Convergence of CTFT and motivation of Laplace transform, Properties of LT
Pole-zero plots;
Filter design by pole zero placement (time permitting)
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION TO
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 What is a Signal?
 A description of how one parameter is related to
another parameter

Examples of signal include:

 Electrical signals : Voltages and currents in a circuit

 Acoustic signals: Acoustic pressure (sound) over time

 Mechanical signals: Velocity of a car over time

 Video signals: Intensity level of a pixel (camera, video)

over time

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 How is a Signal Represented?
 Mathematically, signals are represented as a function of
one or more independent variables.
 For instance a black & white video signal intensity is
dependent on x, y coordinates and time t f(x,y,t)
 On this course, we shall be exclusively concerned with
signals that are a function of a single variable: time
f(t)

t
 Signal
 The Speech Signal

 The ECG Signal

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Signal
 The image

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Signal
 The image

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 Signal
 It is the variation pattern that conveys the information, in
a signal

 Signal may exist in many forms like acoustic, image,

video, electrical, heat & light signal
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 Example: Signals in an Electrical
R
Circuit v (t )  v (t )
i (t )  s c

R
dv (t )
+ i i (t )  C c
vs C vc dt
-
dvc (t ) 1 1
 vc (t )  vs (t )
dt RC RC
 The signals vc and vs are patterns of variation over time

Step (signal) vs at t=1

vs, vc

RC = 1
First order (exponential)
response for vc

 Note, we could also have considered the voltage across the resistor
or the current as signals
 Continuous-time signals
 A value of signal exists at every instant of time

Independent variable

t
Independent variable
 Discrete-time signals
 The value of signal exists only at equally spaced
discrete points in time

t
Independent variable

t
Independent variable

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Discrete-time signals
 Why to discretize ?
 How to discretize ?
 How closely spaced are the samples

 Distinction between discrete & digital signals

 How to denote discrete signals
 Is image a discrete or continuous signal
 The image is generally considered to be a
continuous variable
 Sampling can however be used to obtain a discrete,
two dimensional signal (sampled image)
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 Notation
 A continuous-time signal has independent variable
(time) in parentheses () xt 

 A discrete-time signal is represented by enclosing

the independent variable in square brackets []
xn

n
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 Continuous & Discrete-Time Signals
Continuous-Time Signals
 Most signals in the real world are continuous
time, as the scale is infinitesimally fine e.g x(t)
voltage, velocity,
 Denote by x(t), where the time interval may be
bounded (finite) or infinite t
Discrete-Time Signals
 Some real world and many digital signals are
discrete time, as they are sampled e.g. pixels,
daily stock price (anything that a digital
computer processes)
 Denote by x[n], where n is an integer value that x[n]
varies discretely
Sampled continuous signal
 x[n] =x(nk) , where k is sample time
n

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Types of Signals
Particular interest in signals with certain properties:
 Periodic signals: a signal that repeats itself after a fixed
period T, i.e. x(t) = x(t+T) for all t. e.g. A sin(t).
 Even and odd signals: even if x(-t) = x(t), and odd if
x(-t) = -x(t). Examples are cos(t) and sin(t) signals.
 Exponential and sinusoidal signals: a signal is (real)
exponential if it can be represented as x(t) = Ceat. The same
example is (complex) exponential C and a are complex.
 Step and Impulse signals: A pulse signal is one which is
nearly completely zero, apart from a short spike, δ(t). A
step signal is zero up to a certain time, and then a constant
value after that time, u(t).
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 Odd and Even Signals
 An even signal is identical to its time reversed signal, i.e. it can
be reflected in the origin and is equal to the original:
x( t )  x(t )
 Examples:
 x(t) = cos(t)


 An odd signal is identical to its negated, time reversed signal,

i.e. it is equal to the negative reflected signal
x( t )   x (t )
 Examples:
 x(t) = sin(t)


 This is important because any signal can be expressed as the

sum of an odd signal and an even signal.
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
 Exponential and sinusoidal signals are characteristic of real-
world signals and also from a basis (a building block) for other
signals.
 A generic complex exponential signal is of the form:
x(t )  Ce at
 where C and a are, in general, complex numbers. Lets
investigate some special cases of this signal
 Real exponential signals
Exponential growth Exponential decay
a0 a0
C 0 C 0

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Periodic Complex Exponential &
Sinusoidal Signals
 Consider when a is purely imaginary:
x(t )  Ce jw0t
 By Euler’s relationship, this can be cos(1)
expressed as:
e jw0t  cosw0t  j sin w0t
 This is a periodic signals because:
e jw0 (t T )  cosw0 (t  T )  j sin w0 (t  T )
 cosw0t  j sin w0t  e jw0t
 when T=2p/w0
 A closely related signal is the sinusoidal T0 = 2p/w0
signal:
x(t )  cosw0t    w0  2pf 0 T0 is the fundamental
 We can always use: time period

A cosw0t     A e j (w0t  )  w0 is the fundamental
frequency
A sinw t     Ae
0
j (w0t  )

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 General Complex Exponential
Signals
 So far, considered the real and periodic complex exponential
 Now consider when C can be complex. Let us express C is polar form
and a in rectangular form:
C  C e j
a  r  jw0

 So Ce at  C e j e( r  jw0 )t  C e rt e j (w0  )t
 Using Euler’s relation
Ce at  C e j e( r  jw0 )t  C e rt cos((w0   )t )  j C e rt sin((w0   )t )
 These are damped sinusoids

30/25
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 Discrete Unit Impulse and Step Signals
 The discrete unit impulse signal is
defined:
0 n  0
x[n]   [n]  
1 n  0
 Useful as a basis for analyzing other
signals

 The discrete unit step signal is defined:

0 n  0
x[n]  u[n]  
1 n  0
 Note that the unit impulse is the first
difference (derivative) of the step signal
 [n]  u[n]  u[n  1]
 Similarly, the unit step is the running sum
(integral) of the unit impulse.
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 Continuous Unit Impulse and Step
Signals
 The continuous unit impulse signal is
defined:
0 t  0
x(t )   (t )  
 t  0
 Note that it is discontinuous at t=0
 The arrow is used to denote area, rather
than actual value
 Again, useful for an infinite basis

 The continuous unit step signal is

defined: t
x(t )  u (t )    ( )d


0 t  0
x(t )  u (t )  
1 t  0
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 Sinusoidal signal : x(t) = 10cos(2π(440)t - 0.4π)

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Recording of a Tuning fork
signal: Fig 2-3

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 MATLAB Demo of Tuning Fork
 % TuningFork
 t = 0:.0001:.01;
 y = 10*cos(2*pi*1000*t-0.4*pi);
 plot(t,y)
 grid
 pause;
 t = 0:.0001:1;
 y = 10*cos(2*pi*1000*t-0.4*pi);
 sound (y)

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 x(t) = 20cos(2π(40)t - 0.4π)

36
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 x(t) = 5cos(2πfot) for different values of fo

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 What is a System?
 Systems process input signals to produce output signals
Examples:
 A circuit involving a capacitor can be viewed as a
system that transforms the source voltage (signal) to
the voltage (signal) across the capacitor
 A CD player takes the signal on the CD and transforms
it into a signal sent to the loud speaker
 A communication system is generally composed of
three sub-systems, the transmitter, the channel and the
receiver. The channel typically attenuates and adds
noise to the transmitted signal which must be processed
by the receiver
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 System
 An entity that responds to a signal

input system output

 Examples
 Circuit

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 System
 The camera

Image

 The Speech Recognition System

Identified

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 System
The audio CD-player
 Block Diagram representation of a system
 Visual representation of a system

Input Signal Output Signal

system

 Shows inter-relations of many signals involved in

the implementation of a complex system
 Look at everything around and try to identify the
signals and systems !!

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 How is a System Represented?
 A system takes a signal as an input and transforms it
into another signal

Input signal Output signal

System
x(t) y(t)

 In a very broad sense, a system can be represented as

the ratio of the output signal over the input signal
 That way, when we “multiply” the system by the
input signal, we get the output signal
 This concept will be firmed up in the coming weeks

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

Example: An Electrical Circuit System
R vs (t )  vc (t )
i (t ) 
R
dv (t )
+ i i (t )  C c
vs C vc dt
-
dvc (t ) 1 1
 vc (t )  vs (t )
dt RC RC
 Simulink representation of the electrical circuit

vs, vc
vs(t) vc(t)

first order t
system
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 Continuous & Discrete-Time Models
Continuous-Time Systems
dvc (t ) 1 1
 Most continuous time systems  vc (t )  vs (t )
dt RC RC
represent how continuous
dv(t )
signals are transformed via m  v(t )  f (t )
dt
differential equations. e.g. First order differential equations
circuit, car velocity
Discrete-Time Systems
 Most discrete time systems
represent how discrete signals y[n]  1.01y[n  1]  x[n]
are transformed via difference
First order difference equations
equations e.g. bank account,
discrete car velocity system
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 Continuous and discrete time
system
 Like signals we have continuous and discrete-time
systems as well
xt  y t 
system

xt   yt 

xn yn
system

xn  yn
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 Continuous and discrete
time system
 Examples of continuous and discrete-time systems
Squaring System
xt   xt 
2

y t  x t 
    2

Differentiator System
d
y t   xt 
dt
Accumulator System
n
yn    xk 
k  

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Transformations
 Transformations of the independent variable
 Time Shift
xn xn  3

n n

xt  xt  4

4 t 8 t
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 Transformations
 Time reversal
xn x n

n n

xt  x t 

t t

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Transformations
xt 

 Time scaling
t
2 2
x2t 

1
t
1

xt / 2

4 4 t

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Transformations
 xt
1
 Example
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
t

x t 
1

3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
t

x2  t / 2

3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
t

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Properties of a System
 Memory: Memoryless (Resistor in V-I relationship, identity
system), Memory(V-I relation of a Capacitor, Accumulator)
 Invertible: output = input (e.g 2x(t) and 1/2x(t)) (y(t)=
x2(t) is not invertible)
 Causal: a system is causal if the output at a time, only
depends on input values up to that time.
 Stability: small inputs lead to responses that do not diverge
 Linear: a system is linear if the output of the scaled sum of
two input signals is the equivalent scaled sum of outputs
 Time-invariance: a system is time invariant if the system’s
output is the same, given the same input signal, regardless
of time.
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 LINEARITY Check

• Interchanging the operations result in same output, so,

SYSTEM is LINEAR

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 Time-Invariance Check

• Interchanging the operations does not result in same output,

so, SYSTEM IS NOT TIME-INVARIANT.

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 How Are Signal & Systems
Related?
 How to design a system to process a signal in particular ways?
 Design a system to restore or enhance a particular signal
 Remove high frequency background communication noise

 Enhance noisy images from spacecraft

 Assume a signal is represented as

 x(t) = d(t) + n(t)

 Design a system to remove the unknown “noise” component n(t),

so that y(t)  d(t)

x(t) = d(t) + n(t) System y(t)  d(t)

?

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 How Are Signal & Systems
Related?
 How to design a system to extract specific pieces of
information from signals
 Estimate the heart rate from an electrocardiogram

 Estimate economic indicators (bear, bull) from

stock market values
 Assume a signal is represented as: x(t) = g(d(t))
 Design a system to “invert” the transformation g(), so
that y(t) = d(t)
x(t) = g(d(t)) System y(t) = d(t) = g-1(x(t))
?

DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems

 How Are Signal & Systems
Related?
 How to design a (dynamic) system to modify or control the
output of another (dynamic) system
 Control an aircraft’s altitude, velocity, heading by
adjusting throttle, rudder, ailerons
 Control the temperature of a building by adjusting the
heating/cooling energy flow.
 Assume a signal is represented as: x(t) = g(d(t))
 Design a system to “invert” the transformation g(), so that
y(t) = d(t)
x(t) dynamic y(t) = d(t)
system ?
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 Phase Shift and Time Shift

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 Phase Shift is Ambiguous

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 Practice with sinusoid

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 Solution

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 Sinusoid from a Plot

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DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems
 Lecture 1: Summary
 Signals and systems are important for:
 Electrical circuits

 Physical models and control systems

 Digital media (music, voice, photos, video)

 Study of signals and systems helps in:

 Design systems to remove noise/enhance
measurement from audio and picture/video data
 Investigate stability of physical structures

 Control the performance of mechanical and

electrical devices
 This will be the foundation for studying systems and
signals as a generic subject in this course.
DEE, NUST College of E & ME Signals and Systems