1. Archimedes: (287 to 212 B.C.

) An amount of pure gold equal in weight to

Archimedes was born in Syracuse, that of the crown was immersed in a
Sicily, 287 B.C. His father, Pheidias was container fully
an astronomer. Archimedes in his youth
had an opportunity to study Mathematics at
Alexandria which was the centre of
learning in ancient Greek. He studied
under Conon of Samos, who was the
student of Euclid – the father of geometry.
Archimedes developed abiding interest in
Mathematics and geometry in particular.
The earth, the universe, space, different
geometric forms fascinated him.
Hieron, king of Syracuse ordered a
gold crown for himself. He gave the
goldsmith 20 pounds (about 9 kg ) of pure
gold for making the crown. The crown was filled with water. Over-flown water was
beautiful but the king suspected that the collected and measured. The gold crown
goldsmith has mixed certain amount of was then immersed in the container, fully
silver in the pure gold. King asked filled with water. In this case more amount
Archimedes to find out (without breaking of water overflew. This episode led to
the crown), presence of silver in the crown. theory of specific gravity or relative density
The scientist was initially puzzled and went and culminated in the epoch-making
on thinking how to solve king’s question. Principle of Archimedes. “Whenever an
He started studying the behavior of object is immersed, partially or wholly, in a
different metals. fluid at rest, there is an upthrust (buoyant
The famous story goes: One day he force) on it, of an amount equal to the
stepped in to a fully filled bathtub, water weight of the fluid displaced by its
overflew. In a flash of intuition he saw a immersed portion; and the object
method of solving king’s crown-problem. It apparently loses its weight by this amount.”
is reported that in his ecstasy, he jumped This story of water overflowing from a tub
out of the tub and ran home, through the is known practically, to every school-going
streets of Syracuse shouting : “Eureka!
Eureka”! (I have found it! I have found It!),
unmindful of his nakedness. Archimedes
envisioned an experiment.
student. However, there is another
experiment, relatively unknown, but closely
related to this incident. In fact, Archimedes
himself regarded his most important
mathematical discovery was the
relationship between the volume of a
sphere and its circumscribing cylinder. He
made a hollow cylinder, whose height and
On rotating the screw about its axis, water
diameter, were equal. A sphere, exactly
in it rises and is ejected at the top end
fitting inside the hollow cylinder was also
Power of pulleys and levers:
made. The cylinder was fully filled with
Hundreds of labourers were employed in
water whose volume was measured. Then
Egypt to raise huge blocks of granite
the sphere was immersed in it. He
needed for the construction of pyramids.
compared the volume of water that
Archimedes realized the immense power
overflew with that of the initial water filling
of pulleys and levers and did pioneer work
the cylinder. Archimedes experimentally
in the field of mechanics.
discovered that: the volume of the
Archimedes once remarked that a
inscribed sphere is equal to, two-thirds of
small force properly applied to a set of
the volume of the inscribing cylinder.
pulleys will multiply geometrically and can
King Hieron was a relative of
move an enormous mass like a ship.
Archimedes. The king entrusted many
Amused by this statement, King Hieron
important projects to Archimedes. He too
requested him to demonstrate this
obliged the king by inventing about forty
phenomenon.
different contrivances which were used as
A tall tower with a clumsy arrangement
implements for war and commercial
of pulleys was erected on the dockyard of
purposes.
Syracuse, as per the instructions of
The Screw of Archimedes: This is a
Archimedes. Thousands of people
unique invention and a novel labour-saving
gathered on the wharf. A few amongst
device. Even today this device is used for
them believed Archimedes would fulfill his
draining marshy lowlands. Before the
pledge. Most of them thought that the
invention of the pump, Archimedes’ screw
was the only device used to empty water
from the holds of ships. This screw served
irrigation of fields in Egypt. In its simplest
form it consists of a large hollow cork-
screw. The lower end of the inclined
corkscrew is immersed in water.
experiment is worthless and bound to fail. Syracuse. King Hieron once again turned
to Archimedes for help. The Roman siege
was held off for over three years.
Archimedes devised all sorts of
mechanical gadgets and devices, mainly to
assist the Sicilian army to repel the Roman
invaders.
There is a legend that some of the
A mortal man can never single handedly lift Roman wooden ships were set on fire by
a ship weighing many thousand pounds, focusing sun’s light on them with help of
they believed. But the king had full faith in huge metallic concave mirrors. The
Archimedes’ skill. Silence fell over the panicked crew of the remaining ships
wharf as King Hieron walked toward the turned away their ships from the battle
tower of pulleys. He held the free end of field. Thinking that the “Sun God” is with
the rope hanging from the pulleys. King Hieron.
Archimedes was standing by the side of
the king. The other end of the rope was
tied to the stern of the massive merchant
ship that lay in the water at dockside.
With a very little effort, the king pulled
down on the rope. Nothing happened!
“Pull, again and again, Your Majesty”
urged Archimedes. The King obliged. A
murmur arose from the crowd. Lo and According to another legend when the
behold! within few moments, as if by Romans placed heavy ladders against the
magic, the stern of the heavy ship, started walls of Syracuse, enormous iron claws
rising from the water. The scornful murmur tied to ropes were used to pick them up
changed to a roar of acclaim. The crowd and smash them to pieces. Plutarch wrote
was simply transfixed. The king turned that the Romans were so scared of
toward the scientist-magician. The King Archimedes that they called him the
exclaimed, “Archimedes, you have scientist-magician. The sight of any of his
triumphed once again!” weapons was enough to frighten them to
Within a few months after the flee from the battle field.
triumphant experiment of raising the ship, Death of every living being is
the Roman general Marcellus with invading certain, so was that of Archimedes!
troops and fleet of about sixty ships and One night the soldiers and
small boats appeared before the walls of subjects of Syracuse were in a festive
mood. They have become complacent and (i) He proved that the ratio of the
careless. The Romans seized this circumference of a circle to its diameter is
opportunity to climb the wall of Syracuse less than 31/7 and slightly more than
and a general massacre followed. General 223/71.
Marcellus had issued orders to save and (ii) He found out areas of parabolic
protect Archimedes. According to legend, segments. This is equivalent to today’s
Archimedes was drawing some integral calculus method.
mathematical figures in sand. A Roman (iii) He wrote several propositions on conic-
soldier killed him taking him to be a Sicilian sections and spheroids.
soldier drawing a plan for attack. (iv) He wrote a theoretical treatise on
Archimedes’ last request to the soldier was centre of gravity of plane laminae.
to let him finish the mathematical (v) He gave 24 propositions on segments
computation of his drawing. of a parabola and a triangle with same
base and equal height.
(vi) He justified through several
experiments, the concept of ‘mathematical
induction’.
The concept of lever to multiply force
owes its origin to Archimedes. He is
reported to have said, “Give me a proper
place to stand and I will move the earth.”
Two thousand years ago, Archimedes
believed, “The wonders of science are
Mathematician immortal! indeed without limit.” Today we experience
In today’s philosophy, Archimedes was this. Don’t we?
one of the great, pioneer mechanical
engineer but he refused to accept this
idea. He himself felt that his contribution to
philosophical mathematics was most
valuable.
Love of Mathematics till the last
breath!
No surprise! Archimedes himself had
made a request to mark his tomb by a
sphere inscribed in a cylinder. Archimedes’ .
written contribution to mathematics Archimedes died in the year 212 B C.
available can be summed up as: _*_*_*_*_*_*_*_*_*_*_*_
2. Galileo Galilei. ( 1564 – 1642 ): not considered as an important subject and
Galileo was born on 15 February mathematics professor were drawing much
1564, in Pisa (Italy).He was one of a family less salary.
of seven children. His father was highly Aristotle [ 384 – 322 B.C.] had earlier
educated and a talented musician. At the claimed that the speed of falling objects
age of 17, Galileo joined University of Pisa. was proportionate to their weights
He had already shown great mental and (masses). Galileo’s inquisitive mind wanted
physical strength. At Pisa, Medicine was an experimental proof, for or against, this
his major subject. Simultaneously, he statement. The epoch making experiment
studied Mathematics and Physical was performed in front of a large crowd
Science. As a student at Pisa, Galileo once gathered near the leaning Tower of Pisa.
noticed the regular, periodic motion of
the swinging chandelier in the cathedral.
He checked the period of motion with his
pulse-rate.
Unable to control his excitement, he
rushed home, attached leaden pellets, to
strings of different lengths.
Setting the pellets to oscillate, he was
stunned when he discovered that: the time-
period of oscillation is independent of the
mass of the leaden weight and the
amplitude of oscillation. The period of In the curious observers were many of his
swing depended only on the length of the skeptical colleagues. Galileo
suspension string. Galileo’s observation simultaneously released, from the top of
gave birth to clocks with pendulums, a gift the tower two lead balls, a one-pound and
to mankind for measurement of time. a ten-pound. Silence fell over the throng!
He made an in-depth study of Both balls struck the ground below at
Archimedes’ work. One great, inquiring approximately the same time. The small
mind, studied the inquiries of another disparity in time of fall was due to air
philosophical mathematician. resistance.
Grand Duke of Tuscany was highly “Earth generates the same acceleration
impressed by the talent of Galileo. He in all falling bodies, irrespective of their
appointed the twenty-five year young masses” claimed, Galileo.
Galileo as Professor of Mathematics, at The Tower-of-Pisa-experiment was
University of Pisa, at a salary of 65 dollars beyond the reach of everyone. To
per year. Those days, mathematics was overcome this difficulty, an experiment was
set up. A smooth inclined plane, about people. The superstitious society did not
twenty feet (≈ 7m) long was cut from wood. like the new truths proposed by Galileo. He
Notches were marked along the side of the made powerful enemies. Consequently,
plank, indicating their distances from the Galileo was dismissed from the faculty of
top of the board. Marbles and small lead Pisa. Galileo was a generous and a kind
balls were released down the inclined man. Even in his stringent conditions he
plane. Several observations were gave the best he could to his family, sister,
analysed. Mathematical relation between younger brother.
speed, time and distance, were Dismissal from Pisa was a blessing in
established on the basis of these disguise. University of Padua engaged him
observations. Galileo developed the at a salary of 200 dollars per year (nearly
concept of acceleration- the rate of change three times he was paid at Pisa). With
of velocity, per unit time. more freedom at Padua, a productive
phase of his life started. Here, Galileo first
invented calculating device called a sector.
A sector consists of two straight rulers
hinged together at one end. The
instrument enables us to draw various
polygons to the desired scale. Putting the
centre of the hinge at a suitable point over
a quadrant, Galileo computed several
mathematical operations like square roots
of numbers, interest earned on savings
He studied the motion of a bullet and
etc.
the forces it experiences in its path.
The success of many of his devices,
Many of his experiments which were
encouraged Galileo to set up a laboratory
performed before 1590, were further
and a workshop manufacturing, sectors,
developed. He published a book on motion
magnetic compasses, thermometers,
and mechanics, titled as: Dialogues
telescopes etc. He had a vast knowledge
concerning Two New Sciences in 1638.
of equipments needed for military
Galileo’s pioneering work created a strong
operations. Some of these equipments
foundation for understanding rudiments of
were also manufactured in his workshop.
science. He vigorously opposed the then
As per the prevailing custom that time,
prevailing false notions. Aristotle
nearly 25 students were living with him.
maintained that women have fewer teeth
Something like ancient Indian Ashram of a
than men. Why did he not verify this
Guru. Galileo heard about Jacob Metius (of
statement by examining the mouths of his
Alkamaar), a Dutch optician and expert in
two wives, was Galileo’s question to the
lens grinding who placed coaxially a Galileo, at the University of Padua with
convex lens and a concave lens such a annual salary of five thousand dollars.
way that distant objects appeared nearer
and enlarged. Using this idea Galileo
developed a telescope. He called it
perspicillum.
His telescope had a magnifying power of
30. The ambassador of the Grand Duke
of Florence, attended the public
demonstration of the telescope (1609).

One night, Galileo turned his telescope

towards the sky. In his ecstasy! He said,
“Oh God! How can I thank you? You have
made me the first observer of marvellous
things unrevealed to bygone ages. I have
ascertained that the moon is a body similar
to the earth. . . . I have beheld a multitude
of stars never seen before. But the
greatest marvel of all, is my discovery of
the four new planets ( four satellites of
Jupiter ) . . . I have observed that they
move around the sun.” Galileo gifted new
vistas of knowledge to mankind.
Astronomy as we call it today. Sidereus
The excited ambassador reported his nunclus (Messenger of the stars) is his
experience to the Duke. book that gives all details of his
Directing the telescope toward the observations. Galileo’s observations
Sea, the Duke, could see clearly distant revealed that the Milky Way is a cluster of
ships approaching the shore. Normally millions of stars. Planets are not self-
they would not have been visible to his luminous, they reflect the light of the sun.
naked eye, for at least a couple of hours. Venus and Mercury are planets moving
Galileo presented the telescope to the round the sun, not stars as was believed.
Duke. Immensely pleased by what he saw The Sun itself revolves on its axis. The
through the telescope. The excited Duke universe is continuously changing
bestowed a life time professorship on (expanding).
 Galileo’s stay for twenty years at Principal Systems of the World. Once more
Padua made him famous throughout he was called before the Inquisition.
Europe for his experiments and lectures. In
Padua he championed the Copernican
system. Ultimately he was so involved with
correspondence, visitors, and the
construction of hundreds of telescopes that
his creative work nearly stopped.
Nevertheless, he had great independence
to work because Padua, was in Venetian
territory and under the protection of
Venice. This time the decision was rendered that
Despite this his eagerness to return to (i) Galileo must publicly swear that his
Pisa, the land of his birth-place, was the beliefs Inquisition were wrong.
most tragic blunder of his life. In 1610 (ii) He must abandon further work in
Galileo returned to Tuscany as Court science.
Mathematician and Philosopher to his (iii) He must suffer confinement under a
friend Cosimo II, the Grand Duke. His guard in his house.
dream to find time to pursue his own This unbearable tyranny of the church did
interests was totally shattered. In 1616 his not fully silence the spirit of Galileo ― the
enemies in Pisa and Florence brought him true devote of Science. He wrote his last
before the Inquisition. He was ordered to book: Two New Sciences. It was a treatise
renounce the heresy that the earth moves on his many years’ work in physics. Galileo
round the sun. His friendship with Pope described the book as, “results which I
Paul V and the influence of other highly consider the most important of all my
placed friends enabled him to get off with a studies. The book was written in the form
warning, on his agreement: “not to hold, of conversation among three men, Salviati,
teach, or defend” the Copernican theory.” a spokesman for Galileo, Simplicio a
There after Galileo devoted himself for spokesman for Aristotle’s views, and
many years to meditation, research in Sagredo, an impartial man of high
astronomy and physics—particularly intelligence. The printing of any work by
motion and mechanics. He took a small Galileo was forbidden (nullo excepto) by
home near the convent where his two the Church. Fortunately, one of his disciple
daughters were nuns. – probably Giordano Bruno [burnt at stake
In 1632, Galileo broke the silence at the age of 52, by the Church], smuggled
imposed on him by publishing a new book the manuscript to Holland where it was
titled: Dialogue concerning the Two published in 1638. Regrettably, Galileo
never saw the book. He was seventy four
year old and blind with poor health.
Galileo died on 08 January 1642, at
the age of seventy eight. Many citizens,
civic leaders and even some Church
leaders silently paid glowing tributes and
mourned his death, but the Inquisition
refused permission for his public funeral. It
is said that the blind great scientist, before
dying in the prison murmured,
“E per si mouve.” (And still it moves).
His infallible faith in reason and
experimental evidence is of paramount
importance in today’s world.
Ironically, Newton was born in 1642,
the year Galileo died, perhaps, Newton
was sent on the earth to carry forward
Galileo’s philosophy for the bright future of
mankind. Creator of the universe must
have been disturbed by the misuse of his
name by the tribunal of the Inquisition
(Church) that forced Galileo to publicly
kneel and beg for pardon for an error that
was no error. The famous poet Alexander
Pope wrote:
Nature and Nature’s laws lay hid in
night. God said! “Let Newton be,” and
all was light.

*_*_ *_*_*_*_ *_*_ *

3. Sir Isaac Newton: (1642 – 1727).
Newton was born on 25th
December 1642 ( by Julian calendar).
Christmas Day!
Someone wrote, Newton is thebiggest
blessing by Santa Claus to mankind.

He joined King’s School at Grantham,

when he was twelve. There he stayed with
his mother’s friend − Mrs. Clark. Mr. Clark
prepared and sold medicines. Four years
in their home was a
happy period of Newton’s life. Here he
made many toys, models of windmills,
His birth was premature. He was a mechanical carriages, water-clocks, kites,
posthumous child. He was born three sundials etc.
months after his father’s death in The attic on the home was full of scientific
Woolsthrope Manor, Lincolnshire, England. books as well as bottles of chemicals
At the time of birth he was so tiny that his required by Mr. Clark for preparing
mother –Hannah felt that the child won’t medicines. Above all he had a delightful
survive in the severe winter of England. company of their daughter named Miss
But destiny had planned a different game Storey. In King’s School he learned Latin,
for the happiness of the world. When Isaac not Mathematics.
was three years old his mother remarried He returned to Woolsthorpe farm at
Reverend Smith, leaving the child in the the age of sixteen to help his mother who
care of his maternal grandmother Margery was widowed again. However, farming was
on their farm. Deprived of normal not Isaac’s calling. Instead of doing his
relationships with parents, brothers and agricultural chores he quietly browsed
sisters and even away from other children, books on science. His mother, finally
Newton developed power of meditation decided to let him pursue his academic
and thoughtful concentration. career.
His uncle, Reverend William
Ayscough enrolled him in Trinity College—
Cambridge, in June 1661. His first year
performance at Cambridge was not
impressive.
Nevertheless, Issac Barrow, an
outstanding professor of mathematics and
dynamics and a towering personality at simultaneously and independently
Trinity, somehow noticed the latent spark discovered the same. How true it is that:
of Newton’s talent. In 1664, Professor Great minds think alike.
Barrow recommended, twenty-two year
young Newton’s name for scholarship in
mathematics. The door of vast store of
knowledge of mathematics was now
opened for Newton.
Under the guidance of Prof. Barrow,
Newton had an excellent grounding in
geometry and optics. He mastered
Descartes’ algebraic geometry ( co-
The apple incident: At Woolsthrope,
ordinate geometry ). He had read Kepler’s
Newton saw an apple falling on the
optics.
ground. In a contemplative mood he asked
himself two questions:
(i) Why should that apple always descend
perpendicularly to the ground?
(ii) Why should it not go sideways or
upwards?
Newton had read works of, Galileo,
Tycho Brahe, Kepler’. With this
background, he said, “The earth draws
(pulls) the apple implies that there is
drawing power in matter.
Despite his command over principles
Thus if matter draws matter, it must
of pure mathematics, he believed in
be in proportion to the quantity of matter.”
solving problems through experimentation.
Analysing results of experiments, further
modifying and re-analysing was his
approach to scientific study. In true sense,
he carried forward Galileo’s torch of
scientific reasoning through experiments..
Cambridge University was
temporarily closed in August 1665, due to
the Great Plague. Newton returned to
Woolsthorpe. During the one-and-half He further argued: “Apple also has
year’s stay there, he made three of his matter
greatest scientific discoveries, namely, (mass) hence it must draw (pull) the earth
Binomial Theorem; Elements of Differential as
Calculus (fluxions) and Integral Calculus much as the earth draws it.” The power of
(inverse of fluxions). Strange enough, gravity (earth’s attraction) does not appear
Leibnitz, the German mathematician to be limited to distance. Apples at different
heights on a tree fall on the ground. In to 1666, was refraction and dispersion of
Galileo’s famous experiment the two balls light. The skill he had gained in model
released from the top of leaning tower at making at the Clark’s home came handy in
Pisa also fell on the ground below making and experimenting with lenses and
simultaneously. If the power of gravity is prisms.
not limited to distance then “Why not as
high as the moon? is my question”, said
Newton.
In fact, terrestrial attraction holds the
moon in its orbit, was his opinion.
Extending the argument still further,
Newton said that the similar force must be
responsible for
T
other orbital motions also. He was well
hese experiments revealed, “Light is
versed with Copernicus’ theory of
composed of individual rays having
revolution of planets around the sun,
different refrangibility.”
Kepler’s laws of orbital motions of planets
and Galileo’s laws of motion. Summing up
all these, Newton said, “I have the proof
that the force that permeated the universe
keeping the planets in their orbits is
gravitational, and the gravitational force is
measurable. It is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance from the centre
about which it revolves.”
and that coloured rays are not “
Newton did not disclose the discovery
Qualifications of Light.” Colours of rays are
of gravity to anyone. He wanted to confirm
their inherent characteristic properties and
the facts by further mathematical analysis,
do not change due to reflection, refraction,
and experimentation. The process of
transmission and scattering. The
raising questions and finding answers to
dispersion through his prism, of sun’s light
them went on for about two decades.
entering his house, was the beginning of a
Finally, when fully satisfied, in the year
new era – science of spectroscopy.
1687, Newton pronounced, the triumphant
Telescopes made by Galileo and others
Universal Law of Gravitation also known
had serious drawbacks of spherical and
as “Newton’s Law of Gravitation.”
chromatic aberrations. In fact, a
Lagrange, a great Mathematician hailed
satisfactory achromatic lens was made by
the law as, ‘the greatest production of
John Dolland in 1760, more than one
human mind’. On the basis of his Universal
hundred years later.
Law of Gravitation, Newton justified
Newton on the other hand overcame
Kepler’s Laws of planetary motion.’
these drawbacks in his Reflecting
The third great discovery during the
Telescope (1671). His telescope was just
compelled stay at Woolsthrope from 1665
six inches (15 cm) long with a metallic forced Newton to write details of his entire
concave mirror about one inch in diameter. work. Halley at his expense published:
Newton said his tiny telescope “would Philosophiae naturalis principia
discover as much as any three or four-foot Mathematica. (Mathmatic Principles of
tube.” He retired from Cambridge in 1671. Natural Philosophy). Principia is rich in
His experiments on light: its nature, details, with carefully worked out proofs.
colour etc. using mirrors, lenses, and Principia is one of the most
prisms and his reflecting telescope brought important documents ever produced in
him national fame. At the age of thirty the scientific world.
(1672), he was elected Fellow of the After the publication of the great
Royal Society of London, the highest Principia, Newton was elected Member of
honour for an English scientist. Parliament from Cambridge, in 1689 –
His work was not received with 1690 and again in 1701 − 1702. He
applause at some quarters. Some of his prepared the second edition of the
experiments were, no doubt, performed Principia. It dealt with problems presented
earlier by Robert Hooke, Christian to him, on several occasions. He foresaw
Huygens, but their experiments were the thermal radiations, and enunciated the
inconclusive and sketchy. Newton wrote famous, Newton’s law of Cooling.
extensive answers to his criticism but he The period from 1690 to 1696 was
was highly disturbed. He wrote to Leibnitz: very unfortunate for Newton. He had
“ I was so persecuted … my theory of light suffered from prolonged illness of nervous
has made me blame my own imprudence system in 1693. Many people wrote him
… I have parted with so substantial a off. Has the master lost his sagacity and
blessing.” His agony can be realized when keenness of intellect? A fear was haunting
he said, “ I am running after a shadow to the minds of scientists of world.
catch it.” Fortunately he recovered fully.
Ridiculing all the The fifty-four year old genius was
criticism, King Charles II made him appointed warden of the English mint in
President of the Royal Society, in 1675. 1696. This was a lucrative political job. It
Next decade, Newton continued his was regarded as a sinecure – a job with
experiments silently owing to the salary but no work. Part of his job was to
unpleasant experience with the publication investigate and prosecute clippers and
of his earlier work on nature of light and counterfeiters (imitating coins and currency
colour. The young astronomer Edmund to cheat people), reform currency. Three
Halley, visited Newton at Cambridge (an years of hard work yielded result, Newton
old city, dripping in ancient architecture, caught the counterfeiter named William
soaked in history of academic power par Chaloner who was hanged.
excellence) in 1684 to seek his help in Newton was made ‘Master of the Mint’
clarifying his doubts about gravitation. in 1699 after the death of Master Thomas
Halley was simply stunned to find that Neale. He held this job till his death in
Newton had already worked out his 1727.
doubts. Halley’s eloquent persuasion
 Though people regarded the mint-job “There has existed such, and so great
as a sinecure, Newton took it seriously. an ornament of the human race.”
Simultaneously, he pursued with full zeal
his scientific study. An interesting story is * _ * _ * _ *_ * _ * _ * _ *_ * _ * _ *
told. John Bernoulli, famous for his work in
exponential calculus, published a
challenging problem, “ How to ascertain a
curve along which a body would fall in the
shortest time, under given conditions.”
Bernoulli, challenged world
mathematicians to send the solution to the
problem in six months.
One late afternoon Newton was
given the printed paper containing the
challenging problem. In less than a day,
Newton completed the solution and
anonymously sent it to Bernoulli. When
Bernoulli read it he recognized the
masterly style of the author. “ Tanquam ex
ungue leonem”, ( “It has the touch of the
lion’s paw.”) was his remark. He
informed the scientific world, “the master
has not yielded his pre-eminence.”
Queen Anne Knighted him in 1705.
He was the second to be knighted after Sir
Francis Bacon.
Secret of Newton’s Ability: The genius
had tremendous and tenacious power of
concentration. In any problem he could
focus on its basic facts, rejecting irrelevant
ones. He organized his approach that led
him, step by step, to an accurate solution
of the problem.
The powerful lamp of
Newton’s life went off on 20th March 1727.
He died in sleep at his niece Catherine
Barton Condutt’s house in Cranbury Park.
Nevertheless, the bright light of his study
will perpetually illuminate the thinking of
the intelligentsia around the world. Newton
divested his estate to relatives. His tomb at
Westminster Abbey reads,
 Ph.D. on 25 October, 1811. Ohm was then
only twenty four year old. He was very
disappointed since no teaching post was
offered, despite his doctorate. Quite
4. Georg Simon Ohm. [ 1787 – 1854 ].
disappointed he continued his private
teaching for two years. He was a highly
respected teacher for his zeal and
scholastic approach of teaching.
In January 1813, Government of
Bavaria offered a post of teacher of Maths
and Physics, at a poor quality school in
Bamberg. Here he started writing an
elementary book on geometry.
Unfortunately, the school was closed down
in 1816. Bavarian government sent him to
help out teaching mathematics in another
school. During this job, Ohm completed the
manuscript of his book which he showed to
Georg Ohm was born on March 16, 1787, King William III of Prussia. King
in Erlangen, a small town of Bavaria. His recognized Ohm’s talent and offered him a
father Johann Ohm was a locksmith. The teacher’s job in the highly reputed Jesuit
profession of locksmith was practiced by Gymnasium of Cologne. He joined the job
the family for generations. Johann, a on 11 September 1817. He was assigned
practising locksmith often visited Germany to teach Physics in addition to
and France, for his business. Strange Mathematics. Ohm was very happy with
enough, in his leisure time he used to the job, mainly because the institute had a
study philosophy and mathematics. well equipped laboratory.
Georg’s mother died prematurely in 1799 In 1822, Joseph Fourier published his
when he was twelve year old. He and his Analytic theory of Heat. The theory dealt
younger brother Martin joined a local with heat conductivity of metals. Fourier
university at Erlangen. Their father justified the relative ease with which
encouraged a love of learning different metals transmit heat from one
mathematics. As ill luck could be, Georg’s molecule to the
study at Erlangen was interrupted after next. He also proved that the rate of flow
only three terms. In a small town of of heat increases (i) directly with the area
Gottstadt, Switzerland, he became a of cross-section of the conductor and
mathematics teacher. His supervisors were (ii) the difference of temperature between
highly impressed by his ability to teach its two ends.
mathematics. Ohm continued both, Fourier’s theory of heat conduction
teaching and studying (at home) science highly motivated Ohm to study parallel
and mathematics. He returned to university phenomena for flow of electric current in
of Erlangen. The university granted him his wires. His father’s locksmith’s training was
a great asset to him. He was able to mathematics at University of Erlangen, his
construct wires of suitable dimensions of home town.
different metals. Moreover, he had Ohm’s work at Nuremberg was
developed great skill to fabricate apparatus recognized by Royal Society of London,
as required for his experiments on electric which awarded him Copley Medal in 1841.
conductivity. Very next year, Ohm was again honoured
After several experimental as the most distinguished foreign member
observations, Ohm established the of the Royal Society.
following facts: Ohm’s work marked the early
(i) the flow of electric current through wires beginning of the subject of ‘Electric Circuit
of same material varies with their physical Theory’. University of Munich appointed
dimensions, him as Professor of Experimental Physics,
(ii) depends on the material of the wire, in 1852. He continued this job till his death
(iii) inversely proportional to its length and on 6 July 1854.
(iv) directly proportional to the cross- Real recognition came to Ohm, twenty
section of the wire. seven years after he passed away.
Further experiments established two International Congress of Electrical
vital facts: (i) Rise in the temperature of the Engineers held a meeting in Paris, in 1881
conductor results in a decrease of flow of and awarded scientific immortality to Ohm.
current. (ii) The flow of current can be The congress changed the capital alphabet
increased by increasing the voltage “O” of his name to small “o” and named the
( potential difference) applied across any unit of electrical resistance as, “ohm.” (Ω).
closed circuit. In 1827, Ohm published the Similar changes were made in the
book titled: “The Galvanic Circuit names of Ampere and Volta. Even today,
Investigated Mathematically.” It was a Ohm’s Law is often expressed as: ohm x
two-hundred-fifty page thesis. The book, ampere = volts. Algebraically, V = R x I.
instead of gaining recognition, was
ridiculed. Similar to the days of Galileo,
there were many people who practiced
Hegelian philosophy of condemning
experiments. They believed that
experiments are full of unavoidable errors
and hence are not trustworthy. Hence,
Ohm had to quit his job.
Six very dismal years followed his
forced resignation at Cologne. Finally, in
It is noteworthy here to properly state
1833, Polytechnic School of Nuremberg
Ohm’s Law : Ohm’s law states: Physical
offered him the professorship, on the
conditions remaining the same, ratio of the
recommendation of King Ludwig I of
potential difference between any two
Bavaria. He worked in Nuremberg till the
points on a conductor to the current flowing
year 1849. In the meantime, in 1835 he
through them is constant. This constant
was also appointed to the chair of higher
ratio is called the resistance of the A memorial for Ohm, in the form of a
conductor between those two points. statue, is built at the entrance of the
[ Note: Ohm’s law can be applied to a Campus of the Technical University of
complete circuit or to a part of it.] Munich. This statue was made by the then
famous sculptor, Wilhem Von Rumann.

* _ * _ * _ * _ * _ * _ * _ * _ *_ * _ * _ * _ *

In Ohm’s language, “The

circuit of his life was switched off on 06
July 1854, at the age of 65.”
 Improvement of the Mind,” by Isaac Watts
and (ii) “Conversations in Chemistry,” by
5. Michael Faraday. (1791 – 1867).
Jane Marcet.

Michael Faraday was born on 22 Fig. 5.1A Riebau’s Library

September 1791 at Newington Butt, Surrey J.Tatum founder of the City
(U K), now part of London Borough of Philosophical Society and William Dance
Southwalk. His father James Faraday was one of the founders of the Royal
an apprentice to village blacksmith. His Philharmonic Society came to Riebau’s
family lived in utter poverty on a farm of bookshop and gave Faraday tickets of Sir
public assistance. He was given a ration of Humphry Davy’s lectures at Royal
one loaf of bread per week. A cruel teacher Institution. This was the turning point in
who hated poor children (children of have- Faraday’s life.
nots) added misery to physical survival of He neatly took down the notes of
Michael. Consequently, his most Davy’s lectures. A 300 page book was
elementary education ended abruptly. prepared and presented to Davy. Faraday
When he was thirteen years of age, he was surprised to know that Davy was
became a helper to Mr. George Riebau, a highly flattered by Faraday’s accurate
local bookseller and stationer at Blandfort notes. Davy hired him as a bottle-washer
Street. Mr. Riebau was a very kind and and janitor (care-taker) of his laboratory.
noble person. Extremely pleased with
Michael’s work, he promoted young
Faraday to free apprenticeship in
bookbinding. This job was the most
precious gift in Faraday’s life. He
thoroughly examined the outside and
inside of the books that came to be bound
in the bookshop. In his spare time he read
a variety of books. Two books, in particular
that influenced his thinking were: (i) “The
Fig. 5.1B Photo of Sir Humphry Davy. him in his early researches in electrolysis
In 1813 Davy partly damaged his eye- and electro-chemistry. On returning to
sight in an accident with nitrogen tri- England, Faraday continued to assist Davy
chloride. On 1 March 1813, Faraday was in his work as well as devote himself to his
appointed as Chemical Assistant at Royal own researches.
Institution. Here too, both were again In the field of Chemistry he (i)
injured in an explosion of nitrogen tri- discovered two new compounds of chlorine
chloride. and carbon, (ii) performed experiments in
Same year Sir Humphry Davy was support of Dalton’s Theory of Diffusion,
invited for a series of lectures throughout (iii) succeeded in liquefying several gases,
the principal cities of Europe. Davy, his (iv) produced one specimen of glass that
wife Jane and their servant were to go on showed rotation of the plane of polarization
the tour. The servant did not wish to go, so when placed in a magnetic field and also
Faraday was asked to go as Davy’s valet showed repulsion of magnetic poles, (v)
(attendant), until replacement was found in discovered bi-carburet of hydrogen – now
Paris. The wide-eyed young Faraday had known as benzene (vi) his
not travelled beyond the outskirts of experiments in metallurgy produced the
London. Thinking that this humiliating job first stainless steel (vii) discovered
of valet will certainly provide the Electrolysis and his two laws of electrolysis
opportunity to listen to the discussions of called: Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis. He
great scientists of Europe, Faraday popularized the terms: anode, cathode and
decided to go with Davy. The tour was electrode which were earlier proposed by
both a mixture of great joy and unbearable William Whewell.
humiliation. Sir Humphry respectfully Field of Physics:
treated as his Scientific Assistant. Mrs. In 1821, Hans Christian Orsted
Jane on the other hand refused to treat and Ampere discovered that electricity
him as a gentleman. Throughout the tour could produce magnetic effects, Faraday
she treated him as their attendant. She thought of the reverse phenomenon,
made him travel outside their coach and namely producing electricity from
made him eat with servants. At one stage magnetism. In the first of his experiments
Faraday contemplated a return to England in 1824, he caused a wire to revolve round
alone. But the dream of an access to a magnet, only when electric current
scientific elite overwhelmed the agony. flowed through it. In the second
Accompanying Davy at his meeting experiment, he induced a pivoted magnet
with the venerable Alessandro Volta, the to revolve round a rigid, current carrying
inventor of Voltaic cell was the precious gift wire. This was the discovery of the basic
to Faraday. This chance meeting inspired principle of electric motor. Faraday kept a
very careful set of notes of his scientific due to the devotion and care of his beloved
investigations. After more than seven wife Sarah Barnard.
years of experimental investigations,
Faraday communicated his results to other
scientists whom he met during his Europe
tour with Davy.
After Davy’s death on 29 May 1829,
Faraday continued his experiments in the
laboratory of the Royal Society. In one of
his experiments he wrapped two insulated
coils of wire around an iron ring. Mutual
Induction was discovered through this
experiment. Further modifications of this
experiment led to the principle of electric On his recovery from the serious illness, in
dynamo and electric motor. 1844 he was made: Foreign Member of
James Clerk Maxwell, modeled French Academy of Science.
mathematically Faraday’ experiments. In 1847, he made a stunning discovery
Subsequently, it became one of the four that optical properties of gold colloids differ
Maxwell’s Equations known as Field from bulk gold. These observations are
Theory. To visualize electric and magnetic considered by many as the birth of nano-
fields, Faraday intuitively developed non- science.
mathematical way of representing electric Story of Faraday’s greatness will be
and magnetic fields by means of pictures. incomplete, if we don’t mention that
Today this pictorial representation is despite lack of formal education he was a
termed field lines. very inspiring lecturer and demonstrator.
In June 1832, Oxford University His Friday evening lectures and the
granted Doctor of Civil Law (honorary). Christmas lectures, at the Royal Institute
Faraday a devout Christian, turned down motivated large number of young people to
the offer, reason: The Bible does not devote themselves to study of science.
permit such honours and worldly rewards. Representations made by Prince
He wanted to remain, “ Plain Mr. Machael Consort resulted in awarding Faraday a
Faraday.” He even refused the Knighthood grace-house, free of all expenses and up-
and twice refused to become President of keeps. It is now known as Faraday House,
Royal Society. 37, Hampton Court Road. Faraday retired
In 1839,Faraday suffered nervous to stay there. Though the shy genius
breakdown. Luckily, he fully recovered only rejected all honours bestowed on him, the
grateful scientific society immortalized him
by naming farad as the practical unit of
electric capacitance and also in electrolysis
Faraday constant (F = 96500
coulomb/gram equivalent) is most vital
quantity.
British rulers did not lag behind in paying
their reverence. On the occasion of the Bi-
centenary of Faraday’s birth, Bank of
England issued a 20-pound sterling note --
the second highest denomination – on 5
June 1991.
Fig. 5.4 B Electric dynamo.

The great experimentalist breathed his

last on 25 August 1867.
It is said, “today’s entire electrical
industry owes its existence to Faraday and
his work.”

Fig.5.4 A. Electric motor

6. James Prescott Joule. (1818 -1889):
James Prescott Joule was born at
Salford near Manchester, on 24 December
1818. His father was a wealthy brewer.
James was a frail child. Instead of sending
him to school, his father arranged a variety
of tutors to teach James at home only. In
Faraday’s case the great fortune was his
teacher Sir Humphry Davy, in the case of
Joule the rare good fortune was his tutor Fig. 6.2 A Joule’s House.
John Dalton – the father of the atomic
theory of matter. William Henry also made
impact on his study of Chemistry.

Fig. 6.2B: Joule’s Brewery.

Fig. 6.1A : Dalton
Joule was young when he started
working at his father’s brewery. Fascinated
by electricity, he even experimented
electric shocks on himself, his brother and
their servant. Working on homemade
equipment, he began original experiments
in electricity, hoping to improve the
recently invented electric motor by
Faraday. He realized that in due course of
time, an electric motor can be a prime
Fig. 6.1B Joule. mover, replacing the then prevailing steam
engine in his brewery plant.
 The full description of this well known
experiment was published in the
September 1845 issue of the Philosophical
Magazine. Continuing modifications and
re-modifications, Joule worked out that
mechanical work of 4.16 x 107 ergs, in any
Fig. 6.3 Steam Engine
form, is equivalent to 1 calorie.
In the process he discovered (1841),
In 1847, at the meeting of the British
that the heat evolved by any voltaic current
Association in Oxford, the chairman
is proportional to the square of the
suggested that Joule should give a brief
magnitude of current multiplied by the
verbal description of his experimental
resistance of the current-carrying
observations and inferences, not read the
conductor. This is called Joule’s First Law.
entire paper of his findings because they
Before his experiment, the then prevailing
had more important things to discuss. As
caloric theory (1783 – 1824) dominated
luck could be, a young Cambridge
thinking.It was believed that heat can
graduate, who recently had worked in
neither be created nor destroyed. Many
Regnault’s laboratory in Paris, rose and
biased supporters of caloric theory mocked
made some appreciative remarks. The
Joule’s work as “outside academia or
young man from Cambridge was none
engineering profession.” They, at the most
other than William Thomson, later years
accepted Joule as “amateur scientist.”
known as Lord Kelvin. After his
Undaunted, Joule continued his
comments, the group never went on to
experimental research work. He was ably
discuss the “more important things.”
supported and assisted by a skilled
Amongst the important personalities
scientific instrument maker John Benjamin
present, Stokes, Faraday and Thomson,
Dancer. Joule read his paper to the Royal
were stunned with Joule’s findings.
Society on 20 June 1844. The Royal
Notwithstanding Joule’s honey-moon trip,
Society rejected it for publishing. Further
Joule and Thomson arranged to attempt
refinement of his famous experiment was
an experiment to measure the temperature
carried out.
difference between the top and the bottom
of the Cascade de Sallanches (water fall).
Subsequently, the experiment was given
up as impractical. However, the
collaboration between the two resulted in
valuable scientific investigations. Joule
conducting experiments, Thomson
Fig. 6.4: Joule’s Expt. for ‘J’. analysing the results and suggesting
modified experiments. This collaboration energy consumed when using one watt of
for four years (1852—1856) resulted in the power for one second.
discovery of Joule—Thomson effect. The Joule died peacefully on 11 October
basic principle of refrigeration is based on 1889, near his birthplace in Salford. He
Joule—Thomson effect. was buried in Brookland’s Cemetery. His
statue stands at Manchester Town Hall
opposite that of Dalton, his tutor.

Fig. 6.5: Joule Thomson effect

It also paved the way for liquefaction of all
known gases, including helium. During his
life span of 70 years, he received many
honours. In 1850 he was elected Fellow of
the Royal Society (F R S ). He was
awarded Gold Medal in 1852, Copley
Medal of the Royal Society in 1866. He
was President of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science in 1872 and
in 1877.
A gentleman-scientist, fully dedicated
to scientific experiments had to face
economic misfortune, but Queen Victoria
granted him a ‘Civil List Pension’ in 1878.
In 1880, Royal Society of Arts
Joule’s principle of transformation of
awarded him the Albert Medal for
mechanical energy into heat energy and
“Establishing true relation between heat,
vice versa is carried one step further by
electricity and mechanical work”. Today
Eienstein by declaring that all matter may
this relation is the sure guide in application
be converted into energy and vice versa,
of science to industrial pursuit.
through his revolutionary equation: E = m
His crowning glory occurred when the
c2.
Second International Science Congress
chose the joule as the practical unit of
*_*_*_*_*
mechanical energy. It is also the electrical
7. Lord Kelvin (William Thomson): language. However, he did not learn the
[ 1824 – 1907 ]. new language, but instead he discovered
William Thomson was the second son Fouriers great work on mathematical
of Prof. James Thomson, the head of the physics on conduction of heat energy.
mathematics department of the Royal In 1840 he won the class prize in
Academical Institution of Belfast, Ireland. Astronomy for his essay on “The Figure of
William was born on 26 June 1824. His the Earth.” On the title page of the essay
mother, Margaret Thomson died (1830), he quoted lines from, “Essay on Man,” a
when William was only 6 years old. His poem from the great Alexander Pope. The
father tutored him at home. lines are:
In 1832, his father was appointed Go, wondrous creature! Mount where
Prof. of Mathematics at Glasgow and the science guides; Go, measure earth, weigh
family shifted there. air, and state the tides;
In 1833, when William was only 9 Instruct the planets in what orbits to run;
year old, he developed heart problem. But correct Old Time! And regulate the sun.
for the greatest fortune of the world, the William’s fascination for Fourier’s heat
boy escaped death. His father realised that theory, made him publish his first science
for time being a stressful study of paper under the pseudonym P.Q.R.
mathematics should be avoided by Science establishment of Briton, which
William. He felt, instead, study of language was still working under Newton’s shadow
should be given high priority for some time. showed scant respect to this article in the
In the entrance examination of the Cambridge Mathematical Journal.
University of Glasgow, in 1834, the ten However, second article by P.Q.R.
year old William showed unbelievable followed immediately. Holidaying in
mental ability. Later on, he excelled in Lamlash in 1841 his third P.Q.R. article
courses like Latin, Greek, Natural was published. It was titled: “The uniform
Philosophy, Logic, Chemistry and motion of heat in homogenous solid
Advanced Mathematics. William translated bodies, and its connection with the
Lucian Samosata’s “Dialogues of the mathematical theory of electricity.” This
Gods” from Latin to English and won the article was described by J.C.Maxwell as,
prize for this work, at the age of twelve “most valuable science-forming ideas.”
year (1836). In the same year (1841), William
In 1839 – 1840, his father took the entered the Cambridge University as a
fifteen year old son on a tour to London, student of Advanced Mathematics.
Paris, Germany and Netherlands. His His original articles in the Cambridge
intention was that William should get a Mathematical Journal proved his brilliance.
first-hand opportunity to learn the German He soon achieved the highest academic
honours in the university. Nevertheless, the only space available for William’s
William’s talent had a wide range of scientific experiments.
aptitudes like, rowing, swimming and British Association for the Advancement of
music. He was president of the musical Science, held its annual meeting at Oxford,
society of the Cambridge University, for in 1847. There, he heard Joule. He
some time. realized that Joule’s experimental results
In 1845, he graduated as Second needed theoretical explanations. He
Wrangler. A test of his original research predicted that the melting point of ice must
ability was evident when he won Smith’s fall with pressure. This is the phenomenon
Prize. Robert Leslie Ellis, one of the of regelation.
examiner said to another examiner, “ You On the basis of the researches of
and I are just about fit to mend William’s Carnot and Joule, Thomson built his
pens.” Absolute or Kelvin scale of
In 1845, he first gave the temperature in 1848. He supported the
mathematical development of Faraday’s theory that heat is a form of motion. In
idea of electric induction trough dielectric. February 1851, Thomson stated, “It is
In June same year, he was elected Fellow impossible by means of inanimate material
of St. Peter’s. On gaining fellowship, he agency, to derive mechanical effect from
went to Paris and worked for some time in any portion of matter by cooling it below
the great Henri Regnault’s famous the temperature of the coldest of the
laboratory. surrounding objects.” This, in fact, is the
Second Law of Thermodynamics. His
collaboration with Joule, showing that a
sudden expansion of any gas shows
cooling, is known as Joule-Thomson effect.
This phenomenon opened up a new area
of low temperature physics called
cryogenics. Today our refrigerators or air
In 1846, William was appointed to The conditioners are the direct descendent of
Chair of Natural Philosophy, in the Joule-Thomson effect.
University of Glasgow. He was thrilled to In 1857, Thomson developed the
wear the gown of a learned professor, at ‘divided ring electrometer’ or the ‘quadrant
the young age of 22. His vigour and zeal electrometer’ to measure the electrostatic
were both without limits. In the old wine charge – the coulomb. The entire
cellar was born the first modern research development of electrostatic measurement
laboratory, of Glasgow university. This was became practically possible with this
device.
 Fig.7.2: divided ring electrometer’.
Thomson was a scientific inventor. His
reputation as a brilliant scientific worker
interested in solving all of the scientific Fig. 7.4: poster
problems, crossed all international . Thomson’s fame as a useful scientist to
boundaries. Cyrus Field appointed him humanity was so great that he earned the
technical adviser to Field’s Atlantic Cable supreme compliment from sailor’s
Company. community that: “Every sailor ought to
pray for Thomson.” On 10 November
1866, Her Highness the Queen
Knighted him for his successful laying of a
two thousand mile cable between Ireland
and Newfoundland – the greatest scientific
feat of that time. From 1870 to 1890,
Thomson and Tait working together
developed the knot Theory, a branch of
Fig. 7.3: Submarine.
topology which claimed that the atom was
In 1858, Thomson developed a
a vortex (whirling mass) in ether.
complete system of operating a submarine
In 1893, Thomson ( then Lord Kelvin)
telegraph capable of sending a character
was elected as the Head of the
every 3.5 second. He also suggested short
International Commission to design the
− and –long flashes of light to send signals
Niagara Falls power station. He endorsed
to ships on sea, on the pattern of Morse
Westinghouse’s ac system.
code.
On 26-27 June 1906 the International
Electrotechnical Commission, unanimously
elected, Lord Kelvin as its first president.
His name was proposed by Alexander
Siemens – President of the U S Institute of
Electrical Engineers.
Thomson’s teaching was enthralling.
His lectures were described as feats of
mental and physical gymnastics.
Lord Kelvin was the only man in the history
of science who ever made discoveries
while lecturing.

Fig. 7.5: Lord Kelvin’s photo.

Lord Kelvin died on 17 December 1907
at his Scottish residence, Netherhall in
Largs. After the funeral service the body
was taken to Bute Hall, University of
Glasgow and then for final interment at
Westminster Abbey, near the final resting
place of Sir Isaac Newton

.@@@@@
8. James Clerk Maxwell.[ 1831-1879 ]. father and his sister Isabella played vital
James was born on13 June 1831, at role in his life to make him happy. When
14, India Street, Edinburgh (UK). His father James’ father learnt that a young tutor was
John Clerk was a advocate but his father chiding his son slow and wayward, he sent
took little interest in his work, instead James to the prestigious Edinburgh
devoted himself to manage his huge 1500 Academy. Here too, his dress earned him
acre estate at Middlebie, Glenlair. At the the nick-name “Daffy” ( meek and foolish!).
same time, he paid full attention to the Once more good luck prevailed. Lewis and
education of his only son - James. Peter Tait became his close friends. Their
At tender age of 3yr, everything that friendship lasted for the whole life and both
moved, shone or any sound, James would his friends also became notable scholars.
ask,“What’s the go o’of that? The James was a voracious reader. He read all
unquenchable curiosity of the child was of the books at Aunt Isabella’s house. This
remarkable. He used to be fully engrossed developed in him the spirit of self
playing with doors, keys, locks etc. His education. He always eagerly looked
mother – Frances Cay , recognised his forward to the week-end visits of his father.
potential and took full responsibility of her The father-son duo would roam the
son’s early education. Edinburgh area on nature walks. Strangely
enough, he was poor in arithmetic.
Similarity with Einstein! His father felt that
the proper motivation for mathematics was
missing. His father, John, took the twelve
year James to a meeting of Royal Society
of Art and Science of Edinburgh. New
developments in science and mathematics
were discussed by a group of famous men.
John’s decision of taking his son to the
meeting brought wonder. James was
simply mesmerized. This was the dawn of
motivation. James started constructing a
Fig. 8.1. Mother & Child Maxwell. lot of geometrical shapes out of cardboard.
At the age of 8 years, James could The real funny thing was that he had not
recite long passages of Milton’s. Any studied geometry, at that time. His skill of
question from psalms, he could quote origami was stunning. Making cubes,
chapter and verse of psalms. pyramids on bases of various shapes,
Unfortunately, his mother died in 1839 regular dodecahedron and so on. Names
when he was just 8 year old. Luckily, his of many of the complicated figures he
made were not even known to him. This
work was probably the glimpse of a
mathematical genius to be. Very next year,
at the age of 13, the inspired James won
the first prize for both English and
Mathematics.
James’ father decided to take him to
the Royal Societies meetings. There in one
meeting James learnt the art of drawing
curves with the help of loops of thread,
pins and pencil from an artist D.R.Hay.
Developing this art and applying his own
modifications and imagination he
discovered: the exact relationship between
the number of lengths of thread running to
each pin and the distances of the pins from Answer! “A boy in a round jacket was
the pencil. He also worked out a barred from mounting the august rostrum
mathematical formula for identifying the of the Royal Society”. However, the
types of ovals (ellipses). auspicious gathering unanimously agreed
On 6th April 1846, at the Royal Society of that the discovery of the relationship
Edinburgh, the most distinguished between ovals and the refraction of light by
mathematician Prof. J. Forbes read a purely mathematical research would have
scientific paper on productions of ovals been amazing for anyone, much less for a
and refraction of light. The group of boy of fifteen.
eminent scientists was shocked by Prof. Next year James Maxwell joined
Forbes’ announcement, “Original author of University of Edinburgh. He had an
this noteworthy paper is a fifteen year old opportunity to join University of Cambridge.
boy, named James Clerk Maxwell, who is James preferred Edinburgh where the
present here”. Then why was the prodigy teaching faculty included great teachers
not allowed to present his own work? like Sir William Hamilton, Philips Kelland
and James Forbes. With his quick grasp,
he had enough free time to study himself.
William Nicol gave him a pair of
polarising prisms. Experiments on colour
fringes developed within jelly led to the
discovery of Photo elasticity and
determined stress distribution within prepare lectures on hydrostatics and optics
physical structures. and also to set examination papers.
The eighteen year old, Maxwell In 1856, Prof. Forbes urged Maxwell
contributed two papers for the transactions to apply for the Chair of Natural Philosophy
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: (i) at Marischal college at Aberdeen.
Equilibrium of Elastic Solids. This paper Maxwell’s father assisted him in the task of
was the harbinger of the discovery of preparing necessary references. The
temporary double refraction in viscous father-son team was successful. James
liquids (ii) Rolling Curves. was appointed as professor at Aberdeen.
Both the papers were read by his tutor Unfortunately, James’ father could not see
Prof. Kelland, because Maxwell was again the happy moment of his son’s
adjudged as too young to stand at the appointment as professor. He died on 02
rostrum of Royal Society of Edinburgh. April 1856. Depressed by the loss of
University of Cambridge: father, James left Cambridge in November
In October 1850, Maxwell left Scotland 1856.
for Cambridge. Initially he joined Marischal College- Aberdeen: ( 1856
Peterhouse but soon was transferred to – 1860 ).
Trinity. He was elected to the elite secret At the age of 25, Maxwell was 15
society ( Cambridge Apostles ). In 1851, years younger than any other professor at
he studied under the guidance of William Aberdeen. As a head of department he
Hopkins, a great genius of Mathematics. managed skillfully, devising syllabus,
Prof. Hopkins was popularly nick named as preparing lectures 15 hr/week. Also
“ Sir! Wrangler Maker”. delivered weekly pro bono lectures at local
In 1854, James graduated from Trinity. working men’s college. He used to spend
He was second highest behind Edward six months in Aberdeen and other six
Routh and earned the title of months of one academic year at Glenlair –
“Second Wrangler”. However, in Smith’s his father’s estate.
Prize Exam, he shared the 1st position with
Routh.
Immediately after this, he read his
Pure Mathematics Paper on “
Transformation of Surfaces by Bending”.
This paper earned him the fellowship for
research of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society.
On October 10, 1855, Maxwell was
made Fellow of Trinity and was asked to
Fig. 8.3:.
During this period at Aberdeen,
Maxwell focused his attention on the
nature of Saturn’s rings. Scientists were
engaged for 200 years in finding the cause
of the stability of these rings. St. John’s
College at Cambridge had chosen this as
the topic for Adam’s Prize for the year
1857. Maxwell rejected the solid ring as
well as the fluid ring concept. He proposed,
“ the ring is composed of numerous small
particles (bric-bats), each independently
orbiting Saturn. His essay—“stability of the
motion of Saturn’s rings”, was awarded, ₤
130, Adam Prize that year. His work was
so detail and convincing that the great
Prof. Airy, after reading commented, “It is Fig. 8.5. Maxwell’s House.
the most remarkable applications of In 1860, Marischal college merged
Mathematics to Physics, that I have ever with King’s College forming University of
seen.” It is very interesting to note that the Aberdeen. Maxwell was granted Chair of
Voyager of 1980 confirmed Maxwell’s Natural Philosophy at King’s College,
prediction of 1857 was absolutely right. London. Recovering near fatal bout of
On 02 June 1858, Maxwell married smallpox Maxwell with his wife moved to
Katherine Mary Dawer, daughter of the London.
principal of Marischal college. She helped King’s College – London: ( 1860 –
James in his laboratory and worked 1865 ).
experiments on viscosity. The five years at King’s college –
London were the most illustrious years of
Maxwell’s life. He was awarded the
Rumford Medal of the Royal Society, in
1860.
In 1861, Maxwell was elected to the
Royal Society. In the same year he (i)
displayed the world’s first, fast colour light-
photograph (ii) developed concepts of
viscosity of gases (iii) proposed a system
Fig. 8.4. Mr. Mrs. Maxwell with Puppy.
of defining physical quantities by means of papers of Cavendish, especially the
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS. research papers on the density of earth
During this period he regularly and composition of water. He felt: The
attended Michael Faraday’s lectures at Electrical Researches of the Honorable
Royal Institution. Faraday, who was 40 Henry Cavendish must be known to the
years senior to Maxwell, had highest world. Maxwell spent almost five,
regards for Maxwell’s talent. Mutual painstaking years and just lived long
respect for each other’s talent created a enough to see the publishing of these
strong bond of friendship between the two, papers. Probably, his mission of life ---
notwithstanding the big age gap. “Tribute to Cavendish” was fulfilled.
In 1861, he published a paper on During the last term in May 1879,
physical lines of force. This provided Maxwell’s health began to fail, but he
conceptual model of electromagnetic continued his lectures upto the end of the
induction, suggesting tiny spinning cells of term. He went with his wife, who was also
magnetic flux. ill, to Glenlair, his estate, for the summer.
In another paper (1862), he discussed His health continued to deteriorate and he
the nature of electrostatics and suffered much pain, although remained
displacement current. In the additional remarkably cheerful.
part he dealt with the rotation of the plane Maxwell with his wife made the last
of polarization of light in magnetic field. trip to Cambridge on 8 October 1879. By
This was discovered by Faraday and is this time he could scarcely walk. Finally,
known as Faraday Effect. one of the greatest scientists, the world
In 1870, he published a paper on has known, breathed his last on 5
Reciprocal figures, frames and diagrams of November 1879. Maxwell died of
forces. The paper also discussed the abdominal cancer, at the mere age of 48
rigidity of various designs of lattice. years, same as his mother’s age when she
In 1871, Theory of heat and explicit died and with the same type of cancer. His
use of dimensional analysis was published doctor, Dr. Paget reported, “No man, ever
in a book form. met death more consciously or more
In the same year (1871), Maxwell was calmly.”
appointed First Cavendish Professor of
Physics at Cambridge. He developed
Cavendish Laboratory. He supervised
every step in the progress of the lab –
collection of apparatus and their
purchases. His great contribution to
science is, also editing the research Fig. 8.6. Maxwell’s 4 Equations.
 Albert Einstein remarked: The
Special Theory of Relativity owes its origin
to Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetic
waves.
Max Planck said: Maxwell achieved
greatness unequalled.

*_*_*_*_*
9. Wilhelm Konard Rontgen: ( 1845 – Finally, the lady luck smiled. In 1867,
1923 ): at the age of 22 years, he was selected for
Wilhelm Rontgen was born on 27 Mechanical Engineering at the
March 1845 in the Old-World town of Polytechnical School at Zurich,
Remscheld Lennep of Rhine province of Switzerland. Here, the brilliant young
Germany. Wilhelm was the only child of his professor of Physics August Kundt kindled
parents. His father was a well to do the fire of enthusiasm in Rontgen to pursue
businessman. His family shifted to Holland experimental physics. He learned the
in 1848, to escape the disturbances of the principles of physics in record time of 2
Great Revolution. years. He finally found the purpose of his
His early life did never predicted that life. Large part of his night-time was
one day he will become world’s greatest devoted to reading latest discoveries in
experimental physicist. In fact his early Physics. In 1869, Rontgen graduated with
schooling ended, as he was expelled from Ph.D. from Zurich University under the
Utrecht Technical School for ridiculing a inspiring Professor A. Kundt. When Kundt
teacher. was offered professorship at the University
However, Rontgen’s extraordinary skill in of Strasbourg, he took with him his protégé
developing a variety of mechanical –Rontgen.
gadgets was closely and carefully At Strasbourg, Rontgen performed
observed by his father. He arranged a some outstanding experiments on ratio of
private tutor for his son and prepared him specific heats of gases, developed
for entrance examination of the Utrechcht procedures for measuring thermal
University for a mechanical engineering conductivity of crystals, absorption of heat
course. Unfortunately for Wilhelm the rays in water vapour; and above all,
biased teacher of Utrecht Technical School electromagnetic rotation of the planes of
was a member of selection board. He polarization in gases. His work earned him
rejected Rontgen’s admission. With special the post of lecturer at Strasbourge in 1874.
permission granted, Rontgen attended Soon, Rontgen earned the reputation
certain lectures for two semesters. of a brilliant experimental physicist and a
master technician. He developed
apparatuses with great precision. His
successful experimentation brought him
offers of prestigious positions in various
universities. In 1879, when Rontgen was
only 34 year old, he was appointed to the
chair of Physics at the university of
Giessen.
In the early part of the 19th century
Michael Faraday observed brilliant glows in
the discharge tubes when electricity was
passed through them. In the last half of the
19th century, William Crookes (England)
and W. Hittorf (Germany) designed glass several properties of the ‘then unknown’
discharge tubes with nearly perfect rays. He named them X- rays ( X stands
vacuum. Their experiments (1879) for the algebriacal symbol meaning
revealed that the electric discharge unknown).
originates at the cathode (negative
electrode) and travel in straight lines to the
anode (positive electrode). They were
named cathode rays.

Fig. 9.2: X -ray apparatus.

Crookes demonstrated that cathode rays
can be deflected by a strong magnet. He Fig. 9.3. 1st X – ray photo.
observed that cathode rays produced an On 8 November 1895, he first wrote his
eerie, green coloured fluorescence when notes on X-rays. The very first picture
they strike the glass end of the discharge using X-rays was his wife Anna’s hand.
tube, near the anode. Lenard replaced the The picture was no ordinary photograph.
glass near the anode with an aluminum The picture showed bones of her hand
window. The cathode rays escaped from without flesh and muscles. Shocked Anna
the glass and were spontaneously exclaimed,“ I have seen my death.”
absorbed by the air in the laboratory. What else can stop the X-rays, other than
Rontgen started his epoch making human bones? Was the question to be
experiments trying to discover additional answered.
properties of cathode rays. After a series of
A cardboard with barium- platinocyanide experiments, Rontgen found that lead can
covering anode, showed fluorescence in stop X-rays. In other words,
the dark room. A faint shimmering lead absorbs X-rays or it can be said that
appeared from a bench a few feet away like our bones lead is opaque to X-rays. So
from the discharge tube. Striking a match exhaustive and thorough were Rontgen’s
( lighting a match-stick), Rontgen experiments that in the next two decades
discovered that the shimmering was no new properties of X-rays discovered.
originating from the barium-platinocyanide Finally, after fully convinced of the
screen prepared for further experiments to experimental results and inferences there
follow. from, on 28 December 1895, Rontgen
For the next two weeks Rontgen ate his submitted his original manuscript
food and slept in the laboratory. He studied
accompanied by the X-ray photograph of
Anna’s hand ( mentioned above ) to the
Physical Institute of Wurzburg. The
University of Wurzburg awarded him
Honorary Doctorate of Medicine.
On 05 January 1896, a Austrian
Newspaper, first time reported
Rontgen’s discovery of X-rays.
Overnight, the 50-year-old, professor of
physics and director of the Physical
Institute of Wurzburg: Wilhelm Konard
Rontgen became a world-famous
personality. The discovery of X-rays simply
mesmerized people all over the world. .
Newspapers around the world splashed Fig. 9.4 Cartoon.
the story of the discovery of X-rays, on Cartoons of X-ray machines, X-ray
their front page. Medical world jumped into photographs were regular features of
the fray of using X-rays for diagnostic newspapers for quite some time. Can
purposes. Research scholars of Physics anybody now believe, that a ready-made
from all corners of the world repeated garments company published an
Rontgen’s experiments on X-rays and advertisement for X-ray-proof under-
were awestruck. Discovery of X-rays gave garments. Unscrupulous spiritualists used
birth to the break-through of scientific their X-ray knowledge (?) to cheat and
knowledge. Within a couple of months, X- extract money from ignorant and
ray industry flourished in many countries, superstitious people. In 1900, Bavarian
from nothing. Different models of portable government sent a special request to
X-ray machines were purchased by Rontgen to join the University of Munich
scientists, physicians, hospitals. X-rays as: Professor Emeritus of Experimental
discovery simply hypnotized even Physics. He served in this capacity till his
educated masses retirement in 1920.
 The great experimentalist, first Nobel
Laureate of Physics and discoverer of X-
rays died on 10 February 1923.
Irony of fate is that Rontgen
died of cancer, a disease that responds
positively to the X-ray treatment, even
now. Why say now! Rontgen’s gift of X-
rays is a perpetual boon to mankind.
Fig. 9.5 Photo of 1st Nobel Prize.
First Nobel prize in Physics was
awarded to Rontgen in1901. It was *_*_*_*_*
indeed the most deserved honour. He
donated the award to the University of
Wurzburg, where he performed the
revolutionary experiments on X-rays.
10. Max Planck: (1858 – 1947).
Rontgen could easily have become a
Max Planck was born 23 April 1858, in
millionaire those days, had he patented his
the seaport of Keil, Germany. His father
discovery of X-rays. He refused to do that,
Johnn Planck was a professor of Law at
saying, “Scientific discoveries and
Keil and Munich. When he was only six
inventions belong to mankind and they
years of age (1864), he saw the Prussian
should not be maligned by patents.” A true
and Austrian troops marching on the
noble minded man, Rontgen vehemently
streets of Keil.
opposed the idea of his close friends that
In 1867, at the age of 9 years, his
X-rays should be named as Rontgen rays.
family shifted to Munich. He joined
Not withstanding his opposition, I U P A C,
Maximilian Gymnasium School. Under the
named the element number 111 on the
inspiring guidance of H. Muller, Planck
periodic table as: rontgenium (Rg).
studied Astronomy, Mechanics and
Mathematics. Muller taught him, in depth,
Principle of Conservation of Energy. At the
age of 17 Planck graduated.
 Planck was a real versatile person. A Planck passed the qualifying exam for post
gifted musician, he took lessons in singing, graduate studies in theoretical physics.
playing piano, organ and Cello; even Very next year, in February 1879 he
composed songs and operas. However, submitted his dissertation on the Second
Muller’s teaching had made a great impact Law Of Thermodynamics to obtain a
on his mind. A burning desire to study doctoral degree. The most amusing
science and mathematics over-powered outcome of this dissertation was that it had
his love of music. no anticipated impact on the learned
He initially planned to study theoretical professors. Planck mentioned this in his
physics. In order to persuade Planck to Scientific Autobiography. Prof. Von Jolly
study experimental physics, Prof. Philip and Helmholtz did not even bother to read
Von Jolly at Munich, once remarked, the contents and Kirchhoff disapproved it.
“Everything in theoretical physics is However, the dissertation was passed
already discovered and all that remains is because they knew Plank’s work in the
to fill a few holes.” Probably, this remark Physics laboratory and mathematics
was to make him aware that theoretical seminars. Nevertheless,
physics had very little prospects. Planck’s this thesis earned him the post of
reply was that he is very keen to instructor at Munich.
thoroughly understand only the known In June 1880, Planck presented his
fundamentals. Under Prof. Jolly’s thesis on Equilibrium State of isotopic
supervision, Planck performed diffusion of bodies at different temperatures, known as
hydrogen gas through heated platinum. In Habilitation thesis. Five years later, in April
1877, Planck went to Berlin to study 1885, University of Keil appointed him
physics under Prof. Helmholtz, Kirchhoff Associate Professor of Theoretical
and Clausius. There he became a good Physics. Treatise on Thermodynamics was
friend of Helmholtz. In October 1878, published in 1887.
In 1889 Planck moved to Berlin
University as Associate Professor of
Theoretical Physics succeeding Kirchhoff
and later in 1892 became a full professor
(the highest academic position) in
Germany at that time.
In Berlin University, Planck was the
only theoretical physicist. He was not
treated well because he used to mention
entropy which the local physicist termed
“Ghost”.
His six-semester course was
described by Lise Meitner as : never using
notes, never making mistakes, never
faltering in his lectures. Another participant
in the lecture-programme, J. Partington –
an Englishman, mentioned that Prof.
Planck was never disturbed by anything
during his lectures.
Black-body Radiation.(October
1900): Electric companies commissioned
Planck to create maximum light from
electric bulbs. An incandescent bulb had
an efficiency of hardly (10 to 15) Lm/W.
Studying and analysing earlier (1859)
works of Kirchoff and later on by W.Wien
who proposed his displacement law,
Planck theoretically predicted why Wien’s Fig 10.3 Planck & Einstein
law [λ max = 2.9 x 10—3 m K] relating In 1913, Neils Bohr explained the spectrum
temperature and frequency of radiations of hydrogen atom based on quantum
failed at low temperatures. concept.
Planck’s Radiation Law: It is a Arnold Sommerfeld applying the Quantum
combination of two phenomena: (i) Entropy Theory to the structure of atom, wrote to
of radiation had to depend mathematically Planck:
upon its energy in the high frequency “You cultivate the virgin soil where, picking
region (ii) A black body cannot absorb flowers was my only toil.” Planck replied:
incident energy continuously, but in You picked flowers-well, so have I, Let
discrete amount. (quanta). [ ∆ E = h ν ]. them be, then combined; Let us exchange
Planck’s concept of energy-quanta our flowers fair, And in the brightest
was accepted when Einstein supported wreath, them bind.
this in justifying his photoelectric effect. Planck was awarded Nobel
Both Planck and Einstein attended ‘Solvay Prize for Physics in 1918. Later on
Conference’ in Brussels. Compton Effect justified Planck’s theory
beyond doubt.

10.4 Five great physicists. Neils Bohr,

Fig: 10.2 Planck & Bohr Compton, Max Born, Heisenberg,
Planck’s Gift. Planck’s Quantum Theory
gifted the world with some gems of modern When things were going the pleasant
science like: Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Dirac way, suddenly, his 22-year married life
and J. Oppenheimer, Robert Millikan, ended tragically in 1909 with the death of
their works adopted Planck’s theory. Each his first wife Marie Merck. His elder son
one of these gems, in return enriched the Karl was killed in action (war) in 1916. His
scientific ethos. daughter Margaret died in childbirth in
1917. The Nobel Prize for Physics in 1918
probably, was just a small sweet dose, to
dilute the earliertragedies. However,
destiny had other plan. In 1919, his other
daughter Emma died the same way in
childbirth, as her twin sister. His house was
completely destroyed by bombs in 1944.
The cup of sorrow was filled to the brim
when his dear young son Erwin died a
horrible death in 1945, at the hands of
10.5. [Photos of: Compton, Max Born, Gestapo.
Heisenberg, Fermi, Dirac, J. Oppenheimer, In fact, it was indeed Planck’s
Millikan, Sommerfeld.] indomitable will stoic and philosophical
Glory and Tragedy of Planck’s Life ! religious conviction that made him absorb
almost unbroken series of tragedies.
However, the merciless act of Gestapo
killing Erwin, completely destroyed
Planck’s desire to live. He had lost all his
seven children in his life time.
His life came to an end on 04
October 1947. James Frank said, “ death
came to him as a redemption.”
Fig: 10.8. In 1929 ……

Fig: 10.7. Planck family.

Barring the glorious but tragic
life story of Antoine Lavoisier, there is no
parallel to that of Planck’s. It seems glory
and tragedy were playing hide and seek in
Planck’s life. In 1892, he was the first
professor of Theoretical Physics at Berlin
University.( The great centre of learning
science). He was only thirty four years old.