Netuxork Basics and Infrastructure '

K Chapter - 2
Module - 1

NETWORK BASICS AND INFRASTRUCTURE

COMPUTER NETWORK
A computer network is an interconnection of tWo or more computers such that they
can share resources and information. These computers can be linked
together using a
wide variety of cables, telephone lines, or through satellites. The computers in a network
communicate with each other using a set of rules known as protocol.
All networks must have the following:
1. Aresource to share such as printer, modem, database, etc.
2. A medium for transmission of data ( i.e., a communications link),
3. A set of rules governing how to communicate (protocols).

NETWORK GOALS AND MOTIVATION

The basicreasons why computers are networked are as follows:
1. Cost reduction by sharing hardware & software resources: Costly hardware such
as printer, modem, CD-ROM drive, etc can be shared by many computers
connected in a network. Similariy, software packages can be shared by many
computers.
2. High reliability : The same data is replicated (duplicated) on many computer
systems so that if one computer fails, data can still be retrieved from another
computer in the network.
3. Communications : Using e-mail, video conferencing. instant messaging, chat,
etc. is possible because of computer networks.
4. Greater flexibility : In a network it is possible to connect systems of difterent
types such as PCs, Windows-based or Unix-based systems.
5. Centralized administration and security of the resources within a network is
possible. Itis possible to permit the use of certain resources to certain users, while
others are prohibited from using those resources. (E.g.. laser printer to be used
only by certain users)
 Computer Systems and Applications (T.Y. B.Com) (Sem. - V)
ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
Computer networks offer the folowing advantages :
1. Resource sharing : Hardware devices and data can be shared by different users
even if they are located in different places within a building. The resource and the
kilometers.
user may be within the same room, or separated by many thousands of
Typical example is the Internet.
2. Saving money :Certain resources like a printer can be connected in anetwork
and shared by many users. Since a printer is used for a very short time, it is not
necessary to provide every computer with its own printer. Whernever a printer is
to be used by a user, she can issue a print command from her computer and the
print job will be executed on a remote (distant, or not local) computer. The
computer to which printer is physically called a print server.
3. File Server :It is possible to have a file server which stores files and these fles
can be accessed by any computer in the network. In this case, the users are called
clients and the computer which provides resources such as printer or files is
called the server. This arrangement is called the client-server model.
4. Scalability : Scalability is the ability to increase the performance of a system by
adding more processors. In a mainframe system, when a system is full, it must be
replaced by a larger and more expensive system. In the client-server mnodel, new
clients and new servers can be added as needed.
5. Increased Productivity : Networks increase productivity as several people can
enter data at the 'same time. They can also share the same data.
6. Communications : A computer network is a powerful communication medium
for users who may be separated by large istances. Using a computer network it is
easy for two or more people who are working on the same project and who live
far apart to write a report together. When one user makes a change to an on-line
document, the others can see the change immediately, instead of waiting several
days fora letter. Computer networks can also be used to send files from one user
to another in a very short time. E-mail, instant messaging, chat and video
conferencing are some of the techniques used.
7. High Reliability : Computer networks provide high reliability by providing the
same data on multiple computers. For example, all fles could be stored on two or
three machines, so if one of them is unavailable (due to hardware failure), the
other copies could be used. For certain applications like banking, air traffic
control, etc., it is important to be able to continue operating even if some
hardware/software faults take place.

DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Although the advantages of computer networks far outweigh their disadvantages, it is
important to realize that there are certain disadvantages of computer networks :
1. Computer networks are expensive to set up as they require additional hardware
and software to connect computers and devices.
2. Network management requires skilled personnel such as network administrator,
hardware engineers, and other support staf.
3. Special precautions must be taken for data security. The network administrator
must allot userrnames and passwords to users, and ensure that a user can access
only the data that is relevant to his/her work.
4. Users must be provided training in using the network resources.
 Network Basics and Infrastructure
5. If avirus affects one of the computers in a network, it can very quickly spread to
other computers also and cause loss of data.
6. Users can work on computers as long as the network is working. f the network
fails, all work must stop since data and hardware are shared through servers and
not available locally on any one computer.
7. Network faults can cause loss of data.
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
Al computer networks can be classified into three categories based on the following
factors:
a) Size (number of computers) of the network,
b) Geographical range of the network i.e., the distance it covers,
c) Ownership i.e., owned by a single organization, a public body like the municipal
corporation, a national organization like the Indian Railways or airlines, or a global
organization.
The three types of computer networks are: Local Area Network (LAN), Metropolitan
Area Network (MAN), and Wide Area Network (WAN).
Local Area Network (LAN)

File Server

Workstation Workstation
oo0000o o0
Networking Hub

Workstaion Workstation Workstation

Fig. 1: Local Area Network (LAN)
Alocal area netwcrk is a network of computers in a limited geographical region, e.g.
within a room or abuilding. Figure. 1shows an interconnection of many workstations
and a file server throu; a central connecting device calleda hub.
Features of LAN
The main features of alocal area network (LAN) are:
1. A local area network (LAN) is owned by a single organization.
2. A LAN can consist of as few as 2 computers, or as many as 100 computers and
peripherals such as printer, modem, etc.
3. All the computers and peripherals are in a single roonm or within a building or a
campus.
4. All computers and peripherals are within a range of a few kilometers.
5. One of the computers may be a file server while the others are called
workstations.
6. LANS use a shared media such as a cable which is spread throughout the area to
cover the various computers.
7. LANs have a speed of about 100 Mbps.
8. There is very little delay in transmission of data.
2/T.Y.B.Com - Com. Sys. & Appl. (Sem. - V)
10
Computer Systems ond Applications (TY BCon.) (Sem.
9. Very few erros take place in the transmission
process.
0. The arrangement of computers in a network is called the "network topology. A
LAN may Ise any one of the following topologies: the star topology. ring topology.
and bus topology.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
20 lm

Branch Office Branch Office

80 km 60 km

Branch Office
Factory
Fig. 2: Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Features of MAN
The main features of ametropolitan area network (MAN) are:
1. Ametropolitan area network is spread out over a bigger area compared to a LAN.
E.g., it may occupy an entire metropolis area (i.e. a city)or a large campus.
2. A MAN is owned by a single organization or may be shared by marny organizations
within a city.
3. A MAN is used to provide interlinking between various LANs. E.g., a company can
use a MAN to interconnect all its local area networks in various parts of a city.
4. A metropolitan area network may span a distance of about 50-70 kms.
S. MAN supports real-time transaction backup system.
6. The data transfer speed is very high in a MAN.
7. These are usually based on ring topology, but star topology is not used.
8. The medium used for transmission of data is fibre optic cable.
Thus, one diference between a LAN and a MAN that a LAN is a small nerwork of
connected computersin which computers are connected to each other physically with the
help of cables. But a MAN is a bigger network of interconnected computers in which
computers are connected to each other through fibre optic cable.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
A wide area network covers many cities, states,countries or even continents.

Plg 3:WIde Area Network (WAN)

 Netuork Basics and Infrastnucture
Features of WAN
The main features of awide area network (WAN) are :
1. Awide area network covers many cities, states, countries or even continents.
2. A WAN interconnects many smaller LANs or MANs together to forrn a larger
network.

3. WAN will use various communication technologies such as telephone network.

satellite communications, and undersea cables.
4. Communication channels between computers are provided by a third party e.g. a
telephone company, or a satellite service carrier, or a public data network.
S. Wide Area Networks operate at lower speed of about 1-10 Mbps.
6. There are more chances of data being lost or corrupted during the course of
transmission.
7. Different types of computers, using different operating systems are connected
together.
8. WANs use the mesh topology.
9. Examples of WAN are: banking networks to support core-banking system, airline
reservation systems, Indian Railways reservation system, credit card companies,
international cargo and courier companies.
Thus, the main diference between LAN and WAN is that aWAN covers a larger
area and uses satellite or microwave for transmission of data. But, a LAN covers a
smaller region such as a office building or a camnpus and the transmission medium
is wired medium such as UTP cable or coaxial cable.

NETWORK STRUCTURES
The way in which individual computers (called nodes) on a network interact with
other computers depends on how they are organized. The two basic types of network
structures (or architectures) are: server-based (client-server model), and peer-to-peer
network.
1. Client-Server model (Server-based)

Hub

Shared printer
Server

Client 1

Client 2 Client 3

Fig. 4: Client-Server Model

In this type of network, certain computers called servers, are dedicated to provide
various services to the other computers, called clients.The client and server are connected
through a central hub.
12
Computer Systems ond Applications (T.Y. B.Com.) (Sem.
Features of Client-Server Network
1 All resources are controlled through the server.
2 This is a distributed application structure that divides tasks between the providers
of a resource or service (called servers), and service requesters (called clients).
3 The client is the requesting machine and the server is the supplying machihe.
4. Different types of servers are file-server, print server, e-mail server, fax server,
database server, etc.
S. The most common type of client-server arrangemnent is a local area network
(LAN)consisting of PCs connected to a network server.
6. The network server serves all the clients on the LAN.
7. A client program running on a computer can request a specific data rom the
server. The server program will fetch the data and return it to the client.
3. In this way, a LAN permits all the clients to share the hardware and software
resources.
9. The most commonly shared resources are disk storage devices and printers.
Advantages of Client-server architecture
1. Centralized resources and data security : These aspects are controlled directly
from the server.
2. Flexibility :New technology can easily be integrated into the system. Additional
workstations (clients) may be added or non-working clients can be removed
without disturbing the entire network.
3. Interoperability : All components, i.e., client, server and network work together.
4. Scalability : Additional workstations (clients) may be added or non-working
clients can be removed without disturbing the entire network.
Disadvantages of client-server architecture
1. Expensive : The cost of server and network operating system can be quite high
for asmall organization.
2. Maintenance : Large networks require skilled manpower for network
administration and maintenance.
3. Server not utilized fully : Usually the server will not be used for routine tasks
but will be dedicated only for network-related activities. Hence one computer is
not being utilized fully.
4. Dependence on server :If the sever fails, the whole network will stop working.
2. Peer-to-Peer Network
In a peer-to-peer network (also called P2P
network), there are no dedicated servers. No
single computer is assigned the role of providing
services to all other computers. Each machine
works as both a server as wellas a client. The word
"peer" means "equal", and therefore in this type of
network, all computers are equal.
Features of Peer-to-Peer Network
1. All computers have equal capabilities and
all computers are equal no single
Fig. 5 : Peer-to-Peer Network
computer is assigned the responsibility for
the entire network.
Network Basics and lnfrastructure 13

2. This arrangement is suitable "nr a limited number of users - e.g. less

than 10.
3. Since the users are located in the same area, (e.g., the same roon), security is not
a very important issue.
4. .Users can freely access data and other resources on all cornputers.
Advantages of Peer-to-Peer architecture
1. Simplicity of design - nomajor costs of server and network operating systern are
involved.
2. Since there is no server, all nodes are fully utilized.
3. This network is not dependent on other computers. Even if a computer fails, the
network will continue to work as each computer is essentially independent of the
others.
4. Linking computers in peer-to-peer network is easier than in the client-server
model.
5. Computers can be connected in peer-to-peer network to share broadband
Internet, printers, and other expensive resources.
6. A full-time network administrator is not required to maintain this type of network.
Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer architecture
1. Since there is no server, administration of the network is difficult.
2. There is no security of data and other resources.
3. It is more time consuming to maintain the software on individual computers.
4. P2P networks are designed for small number of users. If the number of users
increases beyond 10, network performance begins to deteriorate.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Network topology is the geometric and physical arrangement of a computer network.
A computer network consists of nodes and links. A node
may be, for example, a computer, while a link is the
communication path between the nodes. The word Server
"channel" is also used for the link.
There are four main topologies : (a) star, (b) bus,
(c) ring, and (d) mesh topology. We discuss the first Clhent Hub Chent
three topologies here. Mesh topology is outside the
Scope of the syllabus.
1, Star Topology
Chent
This is the most common arrangement of computer Chent Server
systems and links between them. All devices are
connected to central hub. The function of the hub is to Fig. 6: Star Topology
deliver the data to-and from the computers. The hub
may be a server computer.
Features of Star Topology
1. All nodes (clients) are connected directly to a central system (the hub).
2. Each node can communicate only with the central hub and not directly with
another computer.
3. If it is desired to send data from one node to another, it can be done only by
sending data to the central hub, which in turn will deliver it to the destination
computer.
 B.Com.) (Sem.
14
Computer Systems and Applications (T.Y.
4Tns topology is useful if it is required to keep a centralized database.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. It is easy to add and remove nodes (clients).
2. If one of the nodes fails, the network continues to work.
3
t1S easier to diagnose network problems through the central hub.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. If the central hub fails, the entire network will fail.
connected to
Z. More cable is required in this topology as each computer must be
the central hub.
2. Bus Topology
Chent |Chent

Terminator
Terminator
Drop line

Bus

Clhent Clhent Server

Fig. 7: Bus Topology

This topology is very popular with local area networks. A single cable runs in the
building and all nodes are linked along with this communication line. This cable is called
the bus or backbone. The two ends of the cable are termninated with terminators. We can
imagine a bus picking up various people from one bus stop and dropping off people as it
travels, and then picking up a few more.
Features of Bus Topology
1. All nodes (clients) are connected to the cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is
a connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a
connector that punctures the sheathing of the cable to create a contact with the
metal core.
2 There is a limit on the number of devices that can be connected onto the main
cable.
3. Only one device is allowed to transmit at a time.
4. There is a terminator at each end of the cable. The purpose of this terminator is to
absorb the signal that travels to the end. If the terminator does not absorb the
signal, then the same signal is reflected back to the bus confusing the data flow.
S. The bus is considered to be a passive network because the computers are
dependent on the signal that is being transmitted.
6. There is acollision handling system which ensures that data travels without errors
and is delivered correctly at the destination.
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. Bus topology is very easy to setup.
2. If one computer fails on the network, then the others are not affected.
3. Arepeater can be used to extend the bus configuration.
4. Bustopology uses the least amount of cabling and is therefore very cost effective.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. It is difficult to isolate a fault in this topology.
Network Basics and Infrastructure 15

2. If new nodes are added, the data transfer rate on the network may reduce.
3. This topology is not suitable for large networks.
4. Signal reflection at the nodes can cause deterioration in the quality of signal.
5. If there is a fault or a break in the cable, all transmission on the network will stop.
3. Ring Topology

Clhent

Chent
Chent

Server

Clhent

Chent

Fig. 8:Ring Topology

Ring topology is also used for local area networks. In this arrangement, a network
cable passes from one node to another until all nodes are connected in the form of a ring
or loop. There is a direct point-to-point link between neighbouring nodes.
Features of Ring Topology
1. Each device is connected to the two adjacent devices on either side, thus forming
a ring or a loop like structure.
2. A "token" is circulating in the network. Any device that wants to transmit data
must first capture the free token and replace the data with its own message.
3. The signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device,until it
reaches its destination.
4, The address of the sending device and the receiving device are sent along with
the message to be transmitted. The message travels along the ring till it reaches the
destination computer.
5. Each device handles every mesage that flows in the network.
6. The links between computers are unidirectional. Any data transmitted by a node
comes back to the same node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Ring networks can extend over longer distances than other types of networks.
2. Ring topology ofers high performance forasmallnetwork.
3. Since each device is connected only to its two neighbours, adding or removing
nodes in the network is easy.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Ifany one computer fails, then the entire network will stop working.
2. It is relatively expensive and difficult to install.
3. Troubleshooting is difficult in this type of network.
16 (Sem.
Computer Systems and Applications (T.Y. B.Com.)
NETWORK MEDIA : WIRED AND WIRELESS
Nework media refers to the medium used in computer networks for transrnission of
data. It is the actual path over which an electrical signal travels as it moves from one
computer/device to another, This data transmission can take place either through wired
media or wireless.
Wired Media : Examples of wired media include twisted pair and coaxial cable. Copper
wire is very commonly used. Copper media can be used in following ways :
Copper Medla

Coaxial Twisted-Pair

Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Unshielded Twisted -Pair (UTP)

Fig. 9 : Use of Copper Media

Twisted-pair cable
Twisted-pair cable is a type of cabling that is used for telephone communications and
most networks. It consists of two copper conductors twisted together. Each conductor is
inside a plastic insulation.
The wires are twisted to provide protection against crosstalk, the noise generated by
adjacent pairs. When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, there may
be interference due to electrical signals in them. Twisting the wires cancels this
interference.
Two basic types of twisted-pair cable are used: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and
shielded twisted pair (STP).
Twisted Pair
Outer Jacket

Fig. 10 :Twisted Pair cable Fig. 11 : RJ-45 jack

UTP cable is connected using a connector called RJ-45 jack. RJ stands for
Jack. Registered
Advantages of UTP Cable
UTP has a small external diameter (approximately 0.43 cm) and
small size it is easy to install. hence due to its
UTP cable is less expensive than other types of networking
UTP can be used with most of the major
media.
" Easy tomaintain and easily
networking architectures.
available.
Network Basics and Infrastructure 17
Disadvantages of UTP Cable
UTP cable is more likely to be affected by electrical noise and other types of
interference.
UTP cables cannot be used for connecting devices if the distances between
devices are very large.
Signalweakens as the distance increases. Typically,these are not used beyond 100
metres.

Transmission speeds are low.

COAXIAL CABLE
Coaxial cable consists of a solid copper conductor surrounded by a flexible plastic
insulation, braided copper shielding, and an outer jacket. It is a high frequency
transmission cable.

Fig. 12: Coaxial Cable Fig. 13 :BNC Connector

Advantages
Coaxial cable supports data transfer speeds of 10 to 100 Mbps.
It is relatively inexpensive, although it is more costy than UTP on a per-unit length.
Reduces electrical interference
Coaxial cable can be used over longer distances than twisted-pair cable. For
example, Ethernet can run approximately 100 meters (328 feet) using twisted-pair
cabling. Using coaxial cable increases this istance to 500m (1640.4 feet).
Disadvantages
It is difficult to-bend around corners due to its thickness.
More costly, and difficult to install.

FIBER OPTIC CABLE

Fiber optic cable uses a beam of light for transmitting data. A fiber optic cable consists
of a central glass core surrounded by
several layers of protective material.
Advantages of fiber optic cables
It can transmit signals over much Flg. 14 : Fiber Optic Cable
larger distances that copper media
such as coaxial cable and twisted pair cable.
It is not affected by electrical signals.
" Itcan carry data at very large speeds i.e. at speed of light
It is a secure transmission medium compared to UTP and coaxial cables.
The maximum run of a fibre optic cable is 2000m.
Disadvantages
Fiber optic cables are more expensive.
These cables are more difficult to install.
18 Applications (T.Y. B.Com.) (Serm V
Computer Systems und
WIRELESS MEDIA
WirelesS communication uses radio frequencies (RF) or infrared (IR) waves to
transmit data between devices on a Local Area Network. In a wireless LAN, a najor
Component is the wireless hub, or access point, used for signal distribution.
Wireless Internet transfers digital data using radio frequerncy signals.
" It allows a person with a Wi-Fi device, such as a mobile phone, laptop or personal
digital assistant (PDA) to Connect to the Internet via accesspoints (AP).
Weless Connectivity is useful for business travelers who need access. to Internet in
cafés, and airports.
This type of access is also useful at home Awireless router can connect a Broup of
W-ienabled devices (e.g, multiple computers) to an adjacent Wirea netWork
(such as aDSL or cable mnodem) to establish home networking.
MOSt mobile telephone operators now offer Internet access through mobile
phones.
Free Wi-F0networks are available in many cafes, shopping malls and college
campus. The region covered by access points is called a hotspot.
Advantages of Wi-Fi Access
A network can be set up without cabling
and wiring
Provides access tothe Internet in outdoor areas
A user can move from one access point to
another and use the Internet.
Alarge number of hotspots are available cafes, shopping malls, college campus.
at
Disadvantages of Wi-Fi Access
Wi-Fi network has limited range
They have a poor security.
Internet connection speed of wireless network is lower
than that of wired network.
They are easily affected by interference.

NETWORK HARDWARE
To establish a computer network we require hardware and
hardware includes computers, software. Network
peripheral devices, network interface cards
hub, bridge, etc. (NIC). rOuter.
Hub
Ahub joins multiple
computers (or other network
network segment. All computers can
Ahub includes a series of ports
devices) together
communicate directly with each to form a single
in which we other.
contain many ports. For example, a five ports hub can insert a network
fifth port is reserved for "uplink" will cable. Hubs can
connections to another connect four
Contain eight, 12, 16, and even 24 ports. hub or similar computers,
device.
and the
hubs
Ahub simply receives
incoming packets, may
Larger
electrical signal, and broadcasts these packets amplifyout
the
devices the network -including the one
on to all
the packet! that originally sent
Bridge Fig. 15: Hub
Abridge is a
device using
more efficient networks. Abridgewhich we can segment a large
can be used to
connect two network into two smaller,
networks together.
 Netw "sics and Infrastructure
A bridge monitors the intomation traflic on both sides of the network so that it can
pass packets of information to the cotrect location. A bridge manages the traffic to
maintain optimum pertormance on both sides of the network. A bridge is like atraffic cop
at abusy intersection during rush hour. It keeps information flowing on both sides of the
network, but it does not allow unnecessary traffic through.
Bridges can be used to connect different types of cabling, or physical topologies.

Bridge

Corporate LAN Segm ent Manufacturing Segmont

Fig. 16: A bridge used to join two networks

Switch
A
switch is a device that provides a central connection point NETGEAR

for cables from workstations, servers, and peripherals. Switches

are hardware devices that are used to connect multiple
computers in anetwork. In astar topology, twisted-pair wire is
run from each workstation to a central switch/hub. Fig. 17 : Switch
Most switches are active, that is they electrically amplify the
signal as it moves from one device to another. Aswitch does not send network packets to
all computers on the LAN. They send the information to the correct location directly.
Switches :
Uually have 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports
Are often used in astar or star-wired ring topology
Are sold with specialized software for port management
Are usually installed in a standardized metal rack.
Router
A router translates information (data packets) from one network to another: it is
similar to a bridge. Routers select the best path to send a message, based on the
destination address and origin.
The router can direct traffic to
INTERNET
prevent head-on collisions, and is smart
enough to know when to direct traffic
along back roads ánd shortcuts.
While bridges know the addresses of
Windows 98se
Cable Modem all computers on each side of the
192.168.100.1
192 16804 network, routers know the addresses of
Router i Switch computers, bridges, and other routers on
192.168 01
the network. Routers can even "listen" to
the entire network to determine which
sections are busiest they can thens
Windows for Windows XP redirect data around those sections until
Workgroups 3.11 192 168 02
they clear up.
192 168 o3
In order to connect a LAN to
Connect to the Internet, we need a router. The router serves as the translator between the
information on the LAN and the Internet. It also determines the best route to send the data
over the Internet.
 (T.Y. B.Com.) (Sem. - V
20 Computer Systems and Applications
Routers can :
Direct signal traffic efficiently
such as bus, star, and star.
Route messages between different network topologies

NETWORK PROTOCOLS
Internet. Some of these
Millions of computers of different types are connected on the
others may be running under
Computers may be running UNIX operating systems whilecommunicate with each other.
WindowS operating systems. For all these computers to
rules.
they must speak a common language and follow some common
The set of rules, which enables different types of computers to communicate with
each other, is called a protocol.
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP / IP)
The protocol used by the Internet for transferring messages from one computer to
another is called the Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP /IP
This term actually refers to two parts :
1. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):The job of the TCP is to break
down every piece of data into small parts called packets. Each such packet also
contains the address of the sender and the receiver.
2. Internet Protocol : The job of the Internet Protocol (IP) is to find out how the
data will go from point A to point B passing through a series of routers. These
packets of data are sent over different paths until they reach their final destination.
This is somewhat similar to the way regular mail passes through several post offices
before it reaches its final destination. As the packets arrive at the destination, TCP
takes over again, identifying each packet and checking to see if it is intact. Once it
has received all the packets, TCP reassembles them into the original.
Features of the TCP/IP Protocol
TCP is a reliable connection-oriented protocol with the following features:
-1. Its allows error-free transmission.
2. Incoming byte stream is fragmented (broken down) into a number of shorter
messages and these are passed on to the next layer.
3. At the receiving end the TCP reassembles the messages into an output stream
4. TCP also handles flowcontrol- to control data transfer rate so that a slow receiver
is not flooded with data from a fast sender.
S. A connection must be established between the sernder and the receiver before
transmission begins.
6. TCP creates a virtua circuit between sender and receiver for the duration of the
transmission.
7. TCP begins each transmission by alerting the receiver that segments are on
their
way (connection establishment).
8. Each transmission is ended with connection
termination.
Network Basics and Infrastructure
21
Layers of TCP/IP Model
Application
Transport
Internet
Data Link

Physical
The functionality of each layer of the TCP model is as follows
The Application layer :
This is equivalent to the combined OSI Session, Presentation, and
(discussed below). All the functions handled by these 3 layers in theApplication
OSI modellayers
are
handled by the Application layer. This layer contains the higher level protocols :
a) FTP- File Transfer Protocol - basic file transfer between hosts (computers)
b) SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (for email)
c) HTTP-Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (for web browsing)
A data unit created at the application layer is called a message.
Encapsulation of Data:TCP/P protocol suite encapsulates data units at various
layers of the model.
a) At the Application layer, the data unit created is called a message.
b) The Transport layer adds a header to form either a segment with TCP or a user
datagram with UDP.
c) Each segment created by TCP includes:
) Asequencing number for re-ordering after receipt.
ii) An acknowledgement ID number
ii) Source address and destination address
iv) Checksum - for error detection
v) Data
vi) And other fields
d) The Network (or Internet) layer adds another header to form a datagram. A
datagram is a self-contained message unit which contains sufficient information to
allow to be routed from the source to the destination. The protocol used at the
data link layer encapsulates the datagram into a frame and this is transmitted
across the transmission medium.
Transport Layer
This layer is represented by two protocols - TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
UDP is simpler but is used when reliability and security are less important than size
and speed - such as speech and video where a loss of few data is not significant.
but speed is important.
Network Layer or Internetwork Layer
Internetwork Protocol (P) is an unreliable and connectionless datagram protocol.
It offers abest-effort delivery service. There is no error checking. IP does its best to
get a transmission through to its destination but with no guarantees. Noise can cause bit
errors during transmission, and datagrams maybe discarded due to timeouterrors.
 B.Com.)(Sem. - V)
Computer Systems and Applications (T.Y.
22

IP transports data in packets called datagrans :

Each datagram is transported separately.
Datagramscan be of variable lengths (upto64 KB).
Datagrams may travel along different routes and may arrive out of sequence.
IP does not keep track of the routes.
IP does not have the facility to reorder datagrams once they arrive.
A datagram contains a header and data.
The header contains a number of fields including Source and destination address.
Data Link Layer
Tne data link layer breaks up the input data into data frames and then transmits these
frames one after the other. The receiving computer sends an acknowledgement frame
back to the sender. The data link layer alsocontrols the speed at which data issent trom
the sender to the receiver.
Physical Layer
The physical link layer is responsible for transmitting bits over a communication
channel. This layer handles isSues such as the voltage levels for a Oand a 1 bit, the tÉme for
which a bit lasts on the channel, how connection is established, how connection is broken
after transmission of data, the number of pins a connector has, etc.
OSI MODEL
The OSI model is a framework for design of network systems that allow
communication between all types of computer systems.
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.
An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two computer systems to
exchangedata irrespective of their hardware and software.
The OSImodel is not a protocol but is a model for understanding and designing a
network that is flexible.
The OSImodel consists of seven layers. These are : Application layer, Presentation
layer, Session layer, Transport layer, Network layer, Data Link layer, and Physical
layer. The order of these layers is important. These layers can be remembered by
using the acronym AlI People Seem To Need Data Processing.
Layers of the OSI Model
Application
Presentátion
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
We now discuss the functionality of each layer :
Application Layer
This is the top layer of the reference model.
This layer deals with questions such as: How can two applications
a meaningful way? communicate in
The particular needs of an application specify the
communication characteristics at the application layer.
Network Basics and Infrastructure 23

" It contains protocols that allow the users to access the network: FTP, HTTP.
SMTP, etc.
It does not include application programs such as email, browsers, word processing
applications, etc.
Protocols contain utilities and network-based services that support email via
SMTP, Internet access via HTTP, file transfer via FTP, etc.
Presentation Layer
The functions of this layer are as follows:
This layer is concerned with questions like: What does the data look like? The
Presentation layer provides services that affect how data passed between
applications will look, such as character set conversion, or encryption/decryption.
It provides services for translation :
Different computers use different encoding systems (bit order translation)
Convert data into a common format before transmitting.
Syntax represents info such as character codes, data types, and file formats (how
many bits to represent data - 8 or 7 bits
The Presentation layer is responsible for data compression - reduce number of bits
to be transmitted

Encryption or transformation of data into an unintelligible format at the sending

end for data security
Transformation of data back into an intelligible format or decryption, at the
receiving end.
Session Layer
Main functions of this layer are:
O Dialog control - allows two systems to enter into a dialog., keep atrack of
whose turn it is to transmit
O Synchronization - adds check points (synchronization points) into stream of
data.

It is also concerned with : How can more than one resource talk to only one of
me? - The session layer answers the need for individual hosts to support more
than one active connection at a tÉme.
Transport Layer
Main functions of this layer are:
OResponsible for source-to-destination delivery of the entire message
O Segmentation and reassembly - divide message into smaller segments, number
them and transmit. Reassemble these messages at the receiving end.
Error control - make sure that the entire mnessage arrives without errors - else
retransmit.
What if data arrives garbled or out of order or too fast?- The Transport Layer
provides end-to-end communication integrity. If a packet is missing or garbled, or
arrives out-of-order, or too soon, the protocol at this layer will attempt to correct.
Network Layer
Main functions of this layer are :
Responsible for delivery of packets across multiple networks.
Routing, that is provide mechanisms to transmit data over independent networks
that are linked together.
24 Computer Systerms and Applications (T.Y. B.Com.) (Sem. - )
Network layer is responsible only for delivery of individual packets and it does not
recognize any relationship between those packets.
Data Link Layer
Responsible for delivery of data between twO systems on the same network
Main functions of this layer are :
Framing - divides the stream of bits received into manageable data units
called frames.
Physical Addressing - Add a header to the frame to define the physical address
of the source and the destination machines.
Flow control Impose a flow control control rate at which data is
transmitted so as not to flood the receiver
Error Control Adds mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames; also prevents duplication of frames. This is achieved by adding a trailer
to the end of a frame.
Physical layer
Functions of Physical Layer:
Bit representation - encode bits into electrical or optical signals.
Transmission rate - The number of bits sent each second.
Physical characteristics of transmission media.
Synchronizing the sender and receiver clocks.
Transmission mode -simplex, half-duplex,full duplex.
Physical Topology - how devices are connected - ring, star, mesh, bus topology.
Transmit raw bit-stream over physical cable.
Define physical aspects of media, network cards, etc.

QUESTIONS

1. What is a computer network? What are the advantages of using a computer network?
2. What are the disadvantages of a computer r .twork?
3. What is a local area network (LAN)? What are the main features of a LAN?
4. What is a metropolitan area network (MAN)? What are the main features of a MAN?
5. What is a wide area network (WAN)? What are the main features of a WAN?
6 What are some of the factors that determine whether a communication system is
LAN, MAN or WAN?
7 Give the main features of the client-server architecture.
8 State the advantages and disadvantages of client-server model.
9 What are the salient features of the peer-to-peer network?
10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network?
11. Define the term topology. State three main topologies commonly used in computer
networks.
12. Describe the star topology. What are its advantages and disadvantages?
13. Describe the bus topology. State its advantages and disadvantages.
14. Describe ring topology. State the pros (advantages) and cons (disadvantages) of this
topology.
15. Give one advantage of each type of topology.