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The Successes and Challenges of Kenya"s Mombasa-Nairobi Standard Gauge

Railway Transport Operations: A Special Reference to the Users

Article in Research in World Economy · March 2021

DOI: 10.5430/rwe.v12n2p258

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[Link] Research in World Economy Vol. 12, No. 2, Special Issue; 2021

The Successes and Challenges of Kenya‟s Mombasa-Nairobi Standard

Gauge Railway Transport Operations: A Special Reference to the Users
Nancy Muthoni Githaiga1,2
1
Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
2
Murang‟a University of Technology, Murang‟a, Kenya
Correspondence: Nancy Muthoni Githaiga, Murang‟a University of Technology, Murang‟a, Kenya.

Received: November 18, 2020 Accepted: December 23, 2020 Online Published: March 2, 2021
doi:10.5430/rwe.v12n2p258 URL: [Link]

Abstract
This article examined the successes and challenges of Kenya‟s standard gauge railway for users in transport
operations. The constrained operations in Kenya‟s existing colonial railway system have contributed to connectivity
barriers and inefficiencies in the transport sector. Standard Gauge Railway‟s construction aimed to address these
gaps and facilitate cargo and passenger transport operations in Kenya and across borders. This study used a
descriptive research design in the form of a survey and adopted a mixed research method of qualitative and
quantitative data with primary data collected through questionnaires and interviews. The population of interest was
the train users (passengers and cargo transporters). The findings suggested that the railway has generally enhanced
transport operations for passengers and freight through reduced travelling time, improved transport safety and
security, and improved mobility and accessibility. While the SGR has led to reduced travel costs for passengers, the
cost of freight transport remains relatively high.
The SGR has provided an alternative for freight and passenger transport, but there are challenges such as logistical
and administrative challenges in cargo clearance, ticketing issues, and passengers' “First mile and Last mile”
challenges. While the improvement of physical transport infrastructure and connectivity is significant, these
challenges should be transformed into enablers to realize the railway‟s full potential. This research, therefore,
recommends for; effective transfer of the cargo clearance and forwarding paperwork from Mombasa to Nairobi;
development of a transport link between the railway and the two major cities to solve the “first mile” and “last mile”
transport challenges for passengers, and to audit the ticketing system to identify and sanction cartels involved in
ticketing malpractices. The overall conclusion is that generally, the railway has added value in Kenya‟s transport
sector; passengers now have a cheaper, reliable and safer mode of transport while cargo is transported in a more
reliable and safer way. The SGR is thus a transformative infrastructural project for Kenya; it symbolizes a country on
a pressing need to transform herself into a middle-income economy supported by modern infrastructure.
Keywords: Kenya, Standard Gauge Railway (SGR), successes, challenges, transport operations, users
1. Introduction
The Kenya Standard Gauge Railway (SGR) was constructed to connect Kenyan cities and link the country to the
neighbors, like Uganda and beyond. However, this article focuses on Kenya‟s Mombasa-Nairobi phase, which is
complete and functional. Phase 2 of Nairobi to Naivasha is underway while the third phase was also tendered. Thus,
the Mombasa–Nairobi Standard Gauge Railway connects Mombasa‟s vast Indian Ocean city with Nairobi, the
country‟s capital and largest city (Githaiga & Bing, 2019). This SGR runs parallel to the narrow-gauge Kenya-
Uganda Railway, completed under British colonial rule in 1901. Its operator is Kenya Railways Corporation, and its
Line length is 3,800 km (2,400 mi). SGR is part of Kenya‟s Vision 2030, the country‟s development program from
2008 to 2030 whose objective is to transform Kenya into a “newly industrialized, middle-income country providing
all its citizens with a high quality of life in a clean and secure environment by 2030” (Ministry of State for Planning,
2008).
While this article concerns Kenya‟s Standard Gauge Railway transport operations, a recent phenomenon, Kenya‟s
rail transport system dates back to colonial times. Railways were particularly favored because they facilitated the
penetration of remote areas and proved incredibly efficient and economically beneficial to the colonial project (Njoh,

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2012). Until recently, Kenya was fully served by the Mombasa-Uganda rail system, developed by the colonial
government in the early 1890s. However, over the years, the rail system has dilapidated due to technological and
maintenance challenges becoming almost obsolete (Githaiga, Burimaso, Bing, & Ahmed, 2019; Mairura, 2010;
Mustapha & Greenhill, 2017). As a result, roads have been used as the primary mode of transport in Kenya.
However, road transport has had significant problems, especially in urban areas and cities, such as traffic congestion
and increased death rates. In a study carried out in Nairobi, the traffic forecast showed that the number of cars that
have access to the city every day in 2007 was more than 330,000, which is why it is necessary to reconsider the
revitalization of the railway as an alternative means of transport (Committee, 2018). Furthermore, the United Nations
considers the rail mode of transport to be the most efficient and efficient in the movement of bulk freight over long
distances on land in Africa and the movement of container traffic between cities and capitals. In Africa, however,
only one percent of the world‟s rail passengers and only two percent of goods are transported by rail due to low
connectivity on the continent (United Nations, 2009).
Therefore, the research set out to examine the successes and challenges of this new standard gauge railway on
transport operations compared to the still existing colonial railway system‟s performance in Kenya. The article
focused on the users‟ experiences and sought ways to address the old hurdles to meet the current challenges. The
Chinese funded SGR has often been lauded as a great success in improving transport operations in Kenya. However,
very few researchers have ventured to provide empirical evidence for this claim. Most of the current research and
narratives on the Mombasa-Nairobi SGR impacts are limited in scope and polarized on the project‟s economic
viability, debt rise, and self-sufficiency. Besides, little is known about the socio-economic impacts of this type of
infrastructure (SGR) given that it is a bit recent in Africa, and the aim of the study is to fill this knowledge gap. For
instance, Voskamp (2017) research entitled „Investing in Transport Infrastructure in Developing Countries‟ was done
before the completion of the SGR and heavily relied on secondary data (Voskamp, 2017). In their research entitled
“Influence of Technology Strategies on the Performance of Standard Gauge Railways in Kenya,” Jincheng focused
on the technological aspect of the project (Jincheng, 2018) while (Githaiga & Bing, 2019) focused on the overall
socio-economic impact of the SGR using secondary data.
Therefore, this study sought to examine three main objectives; the SGR contribution to improving transports
operations for users, the main challenges/concerns faced by SGR users, and the recommendations in improving the
SGR operations. Understanding the successes and challenges of the SGR in Kenya‟s transport operations provides
vital lessons for future infrastructure investment planning for Kenya and other African countries in general.
2. Literature Review
This section focused on the literature on three specific themes covered under transport operations, i.e., travel time
and cost, safety and security, and mobility and accessibility. Travel time and cost savings are essential factors in
passenger transportation‟s social and economic performance (Lingaitis & Sinkevičius, 2014). Transport
infrastructure improvements are linked to consistent and organized traffic timetables, rail traffic acceleration, and
traffic information distribution. This minimizes travel and freight transportation time (Affuso, Masson, & Newbery,
2003; Ajayi, 2005; Givoni, 2006). Research reveals that commuting times for passengers are significantly shorter in
areas along the rail line than in those without the rail line. This is due to the faster speed of rail travel than other
modes of transport, such as cars in comparable circumstances (Baum-Snow & Kahn, 2005). Railway transport has
been argued to provide the most cost-effective option for transporting people and non-time-sensitive freight over
longer distances in Sub-Saharan Africa(Havenga, Simpson, & Bod, 2014) as seen from the Ethiopia-Djibouti
Railway (Quarters, 2018), Ghana railway (Jedwab, Kerby, & Moradi, 2017) and Kenya-Uganda railway (Kerby,
Moradi, & Jedwab, 2018; Rodney, 1982). Modern transport and freight delivery networks globally need efficient,
prompt, and cost-effective services; goods should be shipped from origin to destination at the lowest possible cost
(Ubogu, 2011). These positive results directly boost economic growth in these regions due to improved market
attraction; time and cost savings are the prerequisites for fostering business competitiveness for business consumers
and a direct economic gain (Regional Development, 2014). Generally, transporting freight on railways is less costly
than on roads since cargo transport on roads leads to high costs in vehicle operations, maintenance, and repair on
roads and their users. If the situation persists, it will likely result in increased in-vehicle vibrations, resulting in cargo
damage. In addition, the depreciation of road quality leads to an increase in road freight tariffs, which translates into
an increase in commodity prices (Research, 2013). Railway transports large volumes of cargo, which leads to
removal of the same from the roads leading to a reduction in road damage and carbon emissions. Therefore, railway
transport has been hailed as the best transportation mode for bulky goods due to its greater regularity, capacity, and
energy efficiency than other modes (AFrica Development Bank 2015).

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Studies on the safety and security effects of rail transport indicate that it is important to reduce traffic accident rates
since traffic accidents impart social and economic costs to communities globally (Retallack & Ostendorf, 2019).
Although traffic congestion is considered less dangerous than drunk driving, it is significant in causing car accidents.
The increased number of drivers, coupled with fewer roads, leads to congestion due to more drivers sharing less
space. This road congestion, coupled with unsafe driving, could lead to a significant increase in car accidents.
Studies have shown that rail transport is linked to fewer road accidents than other alternative modes of transport and,
therefore, to a safer transport mode (Arndt et al., 2009). As the rail mileage expands in a city, truck congestion and
motorist costs decrease (Winston & Langer, 2004). For example, based on travel estimates for 2065, the Hume
Region of Australia estimated a reduction of $12.6 million per year in road accidents due to railway developments
(Regional Development, 2014). Using the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) accident data, (Litman, 2006)
indicated that as annual per capita transit passenger-miles increased in the US, fatality rates decreased. Besides, rail
transport can lead to a significant reduction in road casualties and related costs. According to the African
Development Bank (2015), the rail accident value is 50 times lower than that of the roads (AFrica Development
Bank 2015). The rail schedule‟s fixed nature has been shown to increase pedestrian and passenger safety due to its
predictable travel path and high visibility (Feigenbaum, 2013; Litman, 2019). This implies that rail systems reduce
congestion and its associated costs; incremental rise in rail service leads to about eight times more shifts to travel for
commute reasons than the same gradual increase in bus service (Litman, 2019). However, in another school of
thought, some studies have criticized rail transit investments, arguing that they are not cost-effective in reducing
traffic congestion. Investments in public transit are unlikely to significantly and meaningfully reduce
congestion(Taylor, 2004). Therefore, despite the rail transport existence, the congestion levels are likely to keep
increasing into the future due to an increase in population and a gradual increase in real wealth and preference
changes (Stopher, 2004). Generally, however, rail transport is critical in reducing traffic congestion on the roads and
reducing accidents, thus enhancing transport safety.
Finally, mobility is considered one of the essential characteristics of human activities since it helps to meet the basic
need of moving from one location to another for commodities and travelers. Mobility enhances cultural, social,
economic, and political activities regardless of their goal. Regions with better mobility have a better chance of
developing than those with limited mobility. Therefore, it is one of the development indicators; better mobility is a
driving force for development, while limited mobility hinders development (Feigenbaum, 2013). Mobility provision
is a sector that provides services to its clients, creates employment as well as providing revenue from taxes, among
others. Railway transport can provide a solution to accessibility by creating a better alternative to other modes of
transport or a new economic corridor with high inter-regional accessibility. The primary assumption is that regions
and cities linked to rail transport are transformed into extended functional areas by substantially increasing the travel
intensity resulting in increased economic growth and development as a result of stimulation and market expansion in
the region (Blum, Haynes, & Karlsson, 1997). Improving the accessibility and connectivity of the various regions
using trains makes it easier to travel, attracts more people to use rail transport (mobility), and thus makes rail
transport more economically viable (Banister & Berechman, 2001; Blanquart & Koning, 2017; Guirao & Soler, 2008;
Shin, 2005). Investment in rail transport infrastructure improves accessibility, which, as a result, contributes to the
potential growth of economic activity, which is mainly due to job creation and increased productivity (Banister &
Berechman, 2001; Guirao & Soler, 2008; Hadas & Ceder, 2010). Different regions‟ connectivity affects their
competitiveness; regions compete for people‟s attraction, settlement, and business investors (Mishra, Welch, & Jha,
2012). In today‟s global markets, industries need to have strong ties to compete effectively internationally. The
extent of global connectivity could have an impact on investment decisions for local and international industries.
Generally, people and investors are more likely to settle in areas with better rail links. As a result of better links
attracting businesses and relocations, there may be agglomeration impacts, leading to higher productivity in the
regions concerned.
3. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
3.1 Modernization Theory
This study was guided by the modernization theory. The modernization theory began in the 1950s to explain how
Western Europe and North American societies developed (Hussain & Tribe, 1981; Lenin, 1964). The theory posits
that communication and transportation become progressively sophisticated and accessible through the modernization
process as society becomes more mobile and urbanized. Modernism has often been used to justify the
implementation of certain types of structures and processes in underdeveloped regions in comparison with western
civilizations, which are considered to possess unmatched democratic stability and economic prosperity; achieved

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through advancement in science and transport, technological progress and rationality, mobility and economic
well-being (Tipps, 1973).
Theoretically, the relationship between transport infrastructure and modern development appears to be evident in
developing countries. In Africa, the colonial and pre-colonial powers seemed to be aware of transport and modern
development relations and heavily invested in transport infrastructure. Transport infrastructure provides a modern
connectivity condition essential to the movement of people and commodities, particularly in a developing space
economy (Herbst, 2000). Modern economies are after means of transport that increase the mobility of people and the
movement of goods at the lowest possible cost, in addition to safer conditions and maximum environmental
protection. As a result, rail has been given priority as an alternative means of transport for the reasons set out above.
By applying the modernization theory, the researcher explores the SGR contribution to the transformation and
modernization of Kenya‟s transport operations for users. Improved user transport operations, increased accessibility
and mobility of people, enhanced service sector, and economic growth are part of a modernized society.
3.2 Conceptual Framework
Generally, investment in rail transport in most developing countries has not been a priority, as shown in the available
literature. Besides, the existing railways have not been assessed in terms of their successes and challenges to
transport operations for the respective countries‟ users. Therefore, every investment model for rail transport must
account for the construction of the project and the impact of the transport operations that come with it. The author
has drawn up a conceptual framework in Figure 1 to illustrate the link between the investment in the standard gauge
rail and its transport operations benefits. The framework sets out the broad relationship between the variables of
specific transport operations covered by this research; time travel and costs, safety and security, mobility, and
accessibility. These relationships underscore a recurring theme in the literature that investment in rail transport can
have multiple overlapping effects on user transport operations. Data on the relationship between rail transport and
rail transport benefits are challenging to obtain in most developing countries.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the impacts of SGR on transport operations

4. Methodology
This study used a descriptive research design in the form of a survey and adopted a mixed research method
consisting of qualitative and quantitative data. Survey research designs are procedures for quantitative research in
which investigators administer a survey to a sample or to the entire population of individuals to describe attitudes,
opinions, behaviors, or characteristics (Mathiyazhagan & Nandan, 2010). The researcher sought to collect data on the
views of Kenya‟s SGR train users on its operations successes and challenges. The survey design was the most
appropriate method by which the researcher could obtain opinions, attitudes, and suggestions on this subject. It also
provided an appropriate tool for collecting a large amount of data, a practical framework for managing a large
sample of groups, and robust data reliability as opposed to other designs. Data from both primary and secondary
sources were used in this research. The primary sources included observations, questionnaires, and interviews, while
the secondary sources included a review of the relevant literature from relevant journals, books, government
documents, and other necessary documents. Besides, this research used quantitative and qualitative data; quantitative

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data was collected through questionnaires and analyzed through SPSS, while qualitative data was collected through
interviews, observation, and analysis of documents.
Given that the main objective was to explore the successes and challenges of the Standard Gauge Railway in
Kenya‟s Transport operations, ordinary train users were the most appropriate target population. They have had
first-hand experience with the SGR. The train users include passengers and freight forwarders. The researcher
focused on Nairobi and Mombasa for freight forwarders. The researcher decided on this population since they have a
better chance of providing credible information based on their SGR services experience.
For the sample size and sampling procedures, the train has a capacity of 1,260 passengers, which formed the target
population of passenger train users. This research used Yamane‟s (1967) sampling formula n =N/(1+Ne2) for the
sample size determination as posited in (Yamane, 1967) where n is the sample size, N is the population size, and „e‟
is the marginal error, for example at 95% level of confidence. From the formula, the sample size for ordinary train
users was calculated as follows:
Sample size for passengers = 1260 / (1 +1260(0.052)) =303
The sample size of the passengers was, therefore, 303 passengers. Simple random sampling was used to select the
train survey respondents. In this method, each member of the sample population has a known and equal chance of
being selected (Kothari, 2004). Twelve freight forwarders were sampled for interviews, both from Nairobi and
Mombasa, for representation purposes, as these are the two main hubs for freight transport. Purposeful sampling was
used to select freight forwarders for interviews. Purpose sampling is argued to be appropriate when sampling for
proportionality is not critical (Trochim, Donnelly, & Arora, 2015). Before filling out the questionnaires or being
interviewed, the respondents gave their oral consent. The data collected was analyzed using SPSS software,
descriptive statistics. The findings were presented in the form of reports, tables, and figures. The data collected was
checked for any errors that were corrected at the data analysis stage prior to the actual data analysis. Quantitative
data from the questionnaire were encoded and entered on the computer for the computation of descriptive statistics.
Descriptive analysis was carried out, which, as (Kothari, 2004) suggests, is an analysis of distributions of one
variable, which provides profiles of groups, individuals, and other subjects on any of the multiple characteristics,
such as size, frequency, preferences, and efficiency. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to
run descriptive analyses to generate frequency distribution and percentages. Tables and graphs were used to
summarize the data while qualitative data from interviews were categorized into research objectives and reported in
narrative form and quantitative presentation. Qualitative data was used to reinforce quantitative data.
5. Results & Discussion
5.1 Response Rate and Demographic Information
Out of the 303 questionnaires distributed to SGR passenger users, 289 were found complete and valid for analysis
representing a 95% response rate. All the twelve cargo transporters were interviewed; eight males and four females.
The average response rate for all the respondents was found to be 95.6%. The high response rate indicated that the
data collected was sufficient to carry out the study (Field, 2005). The questionnaire respondents in this research were
determined through simple random sampling. Considering that all population members had an equal chance of being
selected, the data collected was unbiased. The quantitative results presented here include those collected from the
respondents using questionnaires, while qualitative results were obtained from interviews and questionnaire
open-ended questions.
As Table 1 shows, there were no significant gender issues for SGR use as there was a small gender disparity in the
rate of turnout; male respondents were 58.1%, while 49.1% were female. On age, there was a disproportionately
large number of young people using the SGR, particularly in the age group between 18-30 and 30-40 years of age, at
50.9% and 38.8% respectively, representing 89.7% of the total passenger respondents. 41-50 years and over 51 years
averaged 8.7% and 1.7%, respectively. The majority of travelers used the SGR for 2-5 times at 58%, while those
who used it for more than 5 times followed at 29%, and the least were those who used it once at 13%.

Table 1. Respondents‟ demographic information

VARIABLE DEMOGRAPHIC FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
GENDER Male 168 58.1
Female 121 41.9

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EDUCATION LEVEL Primary Or Less 2 0.7

High School 36 12.5
Diploma 98 33.9
Bachelor Degree 118 40.8
Master Degree 32 11.1
Doctorate 3 1

AGE 18– 30 147 50.9

31 – 40 112 38.8
41 – 50 25 8.7
51 And Above 5 1.7

NUMBER OF TIMES USING SGR Once 37 12.8

2-5 Times 168 58.1
More Than 5 Times 84 29.1

Figure 2 shows that the most potent factor influencing the travelers‟ choice of the train as opposed to other means
was speed/time at 86.3 %. Safety was the second most potent factor at 83.2 %. Punctuality was the third factor as to
why travelers chose the SGR to travel at 60.6 %. Reliability followed closely at 58.1 %. Reduced traffic came in as
the fifth reason at 49.8 %. The cost of travel using the SGR was not a significant factor as the results indicated that
only 36.3 % chose it as a reason for their choice of SGR use. „Other reasons‟ came in as the last factor at 5.2 %.

Reasons for SGR Choice

90
80 Speed/time
70
safety
60
Percentage

Puntuality
50
40 Reliability
30 Reduced traffic
20 Cheap fare
10 Others
0
Reasons
.
Figure 2. Reasons for choosing SGR

5.2 Descriptive Statistics for Transport Operations

The variables under transport operations are represented in three classifications; travel time and cost, safety and
security, mobility, and accessibility, as shown in table 2. The majority of the items had a strong impact since the

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mean was far below 2.5 on a five-point Likert scale. Additionally, most of the items displayed a small deviation from
the mean, indicating that the data was homogeneous.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the individual construct variables under transport operations
Variable N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Time and Cost
SGR faster to travel than road 289 1 5 1.74 .734
SGR cheaper to travel 289 1 5 1.96 .920
Sgr faster in goods transport 289 1 5 1.79 .679
SGR increased the transport capacity of goods and289 1 5 1.86 .792
services

Safety and Security

Traffic Congestion reduction 289 1 5 1.70 .683
Reduced accidents on Msa/Nrb Highway 289 1 5 1.88 .725
Minimal Train accidents 289 1 5 1.81 .863
SGR safer compared to road 289 1 5 1.84 .791
Increased transport safety due to transporting goods289 1 5 1.85 .790
on SGR
Personal security guarantee during the trip 289 1 5 2.06 .919
Safety Equipment clearly labelled 289 1 5 1.82 .764
Safety signs clearly labelled 289 1 5 1.80 .777

Mobility and Accessibility

Convenient to get to and from the station 289 1 5 3.62 1.190
SGR has generally enhanced mobility and289 1 5 1.80 .721
accessibility
Easier to access more areas along289 1 5 1.62 .630
Mombasa/Nairobi
Available means of transport to and from the station289 1 5 1.72 .590
Number of train stations are enough 289 1 5 3.52 1.216
Enough security at the stations 289 1 5 1.73 .748

Valid N (listwise) 289

Table 3. Descriptive statistics for mean rate scores for the construct variables under transport operations
N Mean Std. Deviation
Time 289 1.7647 .51875
Cost 289 1.96 .920
Safety &Security 289 1.8331 .42026
Mobility& Accessibility 289 1.7751 .54448
Valid N (listwise) 289

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5.2.1 Cost and Time

Quantitative results indicated that most passengers agreed that SGR is a cheaper means to travel than other modes of
transport with an aggregate mean of 1.96 and a faster means of travel than road transport with an aggregate mean of
1.76. Qualitative data from the interviews indicated that 90% of freight forwarders noted that the total cost of
transporting freight to SGR was relatively higher than that of Mombasa Road to Nairobi Inland Container
Deportation (ICD). They noted that the additional charges, once the goods arrive at the ICD, make it more expensive
to transport cargo using the SGR than to transport it by road. They cited costs such as storage costs by the Kenya
Ports Authority, last-mile transport costs from the ICD to the consignee‟s destination, cancellation charges due to
delays in the return of empty containers to Mombasa, as well as costs for the return of empty containers from Nairobi
to Mombasa. Besides, 87% of the sampled freight forwarders agreed that all factors held constant; transporting goods
using the SGR from Mombasa to the ICD in Nairobi is significantly faster than the truck system, taking only
approximately 6-8 hours.
The SGR has led to travel cost reduction and the fare is relatively affordable compared to other means like air and
roads. The Madaraka Express fare for the passenger service economy class is 10 US dollars, which is cheaper than
the public bus fare (14-20 US dollars). Children under three years travel free of charge, while those between three
and 11 years old pay half the fare for both the first and the economy class. Those over 11 years of age pay full fare.
Overall, these findings are per the findings from Australia where cost was quantified and revealed that railway led to
reduced travel costs (Regional Development, 2014) as well as the colonial Kenya-Uganda railway, which cut
transport costs by 90-95% (Kerby et al., 2018; Rodney, 1982). Generally, the railway has added value in Kenya‟s
public transport and made the sector competitive to the advantage of the passengers in terms of cost; there is
diversification in the transport sector providing passengers with a cheaper mode of transport in the SGR.
However, the total cost of transporting freight was found to be expensive and even higher than that of road transport.
This was mainly due to additional charges once the cargo arrived at the ICD and the last mile‟s cost. Previous
research shows that rail transport still offers the most cost-effective solution for long-distance non-time-sensitive
freight transport in sub-Saharan Africa (Havenga et al., 2014), but this is not the case with Kenya‟s SGR. This could
be due to a variety of factors; a report by the „Joint Technical Committee on the Improvement of Efficiency and
Cost-Effectiveness of Transportation of Cargo Using SGR‟ shows that the current average total transport for 20ft and
40ft containers from Mombasa to Nairobi by road is US$ 650 and US$ 850 respectively compared to the rail
transport which is US$ 1,420 and US$ 2,120 respectively. The difference between road and rail for 20ft and 40ft is
US$ 770 (118% increases) and US$ 1,270 (149% increase). As outlined in the report, additional costs in SGR cargo
transport are storage, re-marshalling, demurrage, shipping line margin cost of returning empty containers by rail, and
Kenya Ports Authority (KPA) moving of empties to container depots. Removing the shipping line margins, the cost
of empty return by rail, and KPA moving of empties to container depots, the cost of 20ft would significantly reduce
to US$ 780, and 40ft to US$ 1,095/1,170 (Committee, 2018). Though previous research indicates additional costs
incurred in a rail journey cannot be eliminated due to railway transport‟s nature (Vierth et al., 2008), there is a need
to reduce standard tariffs for cargo to promote regular volumes via the SGR. Railway transport is expected to cut
freight costs, and goods should be transported from the origin to the destination at a minimal cost.
The SGR was also found to be a faster means of travel and cargo transport than other modes like road transport.
Passenger travel time from Mombasa to Nairobi was shortened by rail from more than ten hours to approximately
five hours, while freight trains are completed in less than eight hours; the journey could take up to 48hours by road.
One of the most critical indicators of passenger and freight transport‟s economic and social efficiency is the value of
travel time and cost savings (Lingaitis & Sinkevičius, 2014). Time and cost savings are prerequisites for promoting
business productivity for business users and are a direct economic benefit. They also lead to household and welfare
gains for non-business users, which indirectly impact the economy.
5.2.2 Safety and Security
On safety and security issues, quantitative data indicated that the majority of passengers were satisfied with an
overall mean of 1.83. This was further demonstrated by individual means. For example, they agreed that the SGR
was safer than road transport (mean=1.84) because the train experienced minimal accidents, if any (mean=1.81). In
addition, they agreed that the SGR increased road safety due to rail freight transport (mean=1.85), leading to a
reduction in accidents (mean=1.88) and congestion (mean=1.70) along the Mombasa-Nairobi highway. Also,
qualitative data showed that all freight transporters interviewed noted that the SGR is significantly safer and more
secure in transporting their cargo than road transport. Thus, the results generally suggested that the SGR is a safer
and more secure means of transport than the road, both in passenger and goods transport. A similar conclusion was

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reached by (Litman, 2006; Winston & Langer, 2004), indicating that as the rail‟s mileage expands in a city, truck
congestion and motorist costs decrease, increasing road safety and security. Several studies have also shown that rail
transport is associated with fewer road accidents than alternative modes of transport (Litman, 2006). In Kenya, the
SGR has been very significant in reducing traffic congestion, accidents, and related costs along the
Mombasa-Nairobi highway by reducing freight trucks and buses on the roads. Transportation of freight and people
by rail has enhanced overall transport safety and security for goods and services.
Furthermore, there has not yet been a documented major accident of the train wagons on the SGR, further reinforcing
the SGR‟s safety thesis. It has been argued that the cost of accidents is 50 times lower for rail than for road transport,
according to the African Development Bank report (2015), and in the event of train accidents, the damage may not
be as severe compared to other means of transport. Data from the US Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) for
both passenger rail and rail freight from 1998 to 2007 show that train accidents resulted in a single death and 98
injuries, while road-rail grade-crossing accidents resulted in 45 fatalities and 172 injuries (Ortiz, Weatherford,
Greenberg, & Ecola, 2008). Transport of hazardous freight to the SGR could also improve transport safety,
particularly on the roads. As far as safety in freight transport is concerned, the transport of hazardous materials
(flammable liquids, gases, and corrosive materials) is critical, and research has confirmed the large-scale damage
caused by accidental or deliberate release of hazardous substances. Rail is therefore preferred when it comes to
transporting these, and it increases road safety and, in the event of an accident, effective emergency response can
significantly reduce the scale of human consequences on the rail, unlike on roads (Ortiz et al., 2008). As a result, the
rail sector is believed to experience minimal accidents, and most rail accidents do not result in significant direct
damage to equipment, track, and infrastructure. Thousands of road accidents are reported every year in Kenya, along
the Nairobi-Mombasa highway, the main route for trucks transporting freight from Mombasa to other parts of the
country and the region. The African Development Bank (AfDB) estimates that road traffic accidents in developing
countries could be as severe as AIDS deaths by 2030 (AFrica Development Bank 2015). Therefore, developing mass
transit systems could reduce these costs by moving from road to rail, and the SGR has played a significant role in
enhancing transport safety and security.
5.2.3 Mobility and Accessibility
The majority of the passenger respondents agreed that the SGR has generally enhanced mobility and accessibility
with an aggregate mean of 1.77. This was further demonstrated by individual means. For instance, it is now easier to
access more areas along the Mombasa/ Nairobi route than before (mean=1.62), the train is easily accessible
(mean=1.78), and there are available means of transport to and from the stations (mean=1.72). However, the majority
noted that it was not convenient to get to and from the main terminal (Mombasa and Nairobi terminals) (mean=3.62
and were not satisfied with the number of stations (mean=3.52).
The results suggest that the SGR has increased mobility and accessibility between Nairobi and Mombasa as it is now
easier to access more areas along Mombasa/Nairobi than before. Overall, these findings are consistent with the
research findings reported by (Shin, 2005) which argued that improving the accessibility and connectivity of the
various regions using trains provides greater convenience for travel, attracts more people to use rail transport
(mobility), and thus makes rail transport more economically viable. Irrespective of its objective, mobility enhances
cultural, social, economic, and political activities. Regions with better mobility are more likely to develop than those
with limited mobility; therefore, it is one of the indicators of development, improving the efficiency of labor
interactions while reducing the cost of distribution due to the resulting competitive gains (Feigenbaum, 2013). SGR
has created a better transport alternative, thus addressing accessibility challenges between Nairobi and Mombasa. It
has also encouraged the creation of a new economic corridor with high inter-regional accessibility.
5.3 Challenges and Concerns
This was an open-ended question in the questionnaire where the respondents were supposed to note any concerns
they had with the passenger services. At the same time, it was an interview question to the cargo transporters. As
shown in figure 3, the most salient concerns for passengers were on ticketing at 86% and „first mile and last-mile‟
mobility and accessibility challenges at 89%, while for cargo transporters, it was the administrative and logistical
challenges at the Nairobi ICD at 93% and the loss of income for cargo freighters and truck owners at 96%.

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Challenges &Concerns

96
94

Percentage
92
90
88
86
84
82
80

Figure 3. Challenges & concerns

5.3.1 Ticketing Challenges

86% of the passengers surveyed expressed dissatisfaction with the SGR‟s ticketing operations. Specifically, they
cited inefficiencies in the online ticketing system, where it often indicates that tickets are sold in full, but they can
purchase the same tickets through third parties (agents) at a higher price or through the counter at the train stations.
The respondents noted that this was due to the hoarding of tickets by agents, the deliberate cancelation of last-minute
tickets (by agents and individuals), and insider trading. Hoarding creates an artificial shortage of tickets, while agents‟
calculated last-minute cancellations affect ridership, leading to the train operating on a significant number of empty
seats. At the same time, prospective customers are unable to access tickets.
An efficient ticketing system is a core in railway operations as it generally lowers costs, saves time on queuing, and
increases operational efficiency (Zhao, Zhang, & Li, 2019). While it is reasonable to have empty seats due to various
factors such as passengers being left by the train or actual cancellations, the respondents‟ concerns are serious and
warrant investigation. Whereas bulk purchases are not illegal, hoarding and other related malpractices such as
deliberate cancellations should not be allowed as the SGR is a public resource. The SGR was built on a loan and is
expected to generate revenue for its self-sustainability, including the loan repayment (Githaiga & Bing, 2019); this
will not happen if it is not efficiently run. While Kenya Railways has made great strides by investing in e-ticketing
technology, which has increased the efficiency and attractiveness of rail transport usage, more needs to be done to
address the current concerns. There is a need to audit the ticketing system to identify cartels that engage in such
malpractice and impose penalties on them. Furthermore, agents‟ issues should be seriously addressed and the
cancelation policy reviewed for a more practical and financially sound one, e.g. more severe penalties, increased
cancelation fees for agents, reduced access to bulk tickets, among others. If ticketing issues arise from the train‟s full
capacity, operators should increase the number of trains per day to allow maximum SGR use, which will improve
operations and generate more revenue.
5.3.2 “First Mile” and “Last mile” Transport Challenges for Passengers
89% of the respondents indicated that access to Nairobi and Mombasa‟s central terminals is not convenient. The
Mombasa and Nairobi terminals are located outside the cities, unlike the old train stations, and travelers need to use
shuttles to access them. The Mombasa terminus is located in Miritini, which is out of town, and the shuttle from the
old railway station to the terminus usually costs US$2.5. At the same time, the CBD from Syokimau (Nairobi
Terminal) to Nairobi costs US$ as the researcher experienced.” First mile” and “Last mile” Transport Challenges for
Passengers not only increases the total cost of travel but also leads to a waste of time and other inconveniences.
Previous research shows that improving the accessibility and connectivity of the various regions using trains makes it
easier to travel, attracts more people to use rail transport (mobility), making rail transport more economically
viable(Shin, 2005). There is a need for a readily available transport link between the two central railway stations and
the central shopping/cultural area in these two major cities. An extension of passenger services termination to the old
railway stations both in Nairobi and Mombasa is recommended. This will improve accessibility and aid in the
restoration of Mombasa as an export city.

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5.3.3 Logistical and Administrative Challenges for Cargo Transporters

Logistical and administrative challenges at the Nairobi ICD were cited as severe setbacks in cargo transportation by
93% of the interviewed cargo transporters. As outlined by the respondents, these challenges include a long clearance
and verification process due to unstreamlined services from various independent government agencies, congestion
due to insufficient storage at the yards, inadequate human resources, and a strained number of terminal tractors.
These challenges cause unnecessary clearance delays that adversely affect the cargo‟s time and cost to the final
destination. The freighters noted that it is challenging to clear goods within the stipulated four days, which leads to
additional storage costs.
Independent reports confirm the goods clearance delays due to duplication of roles with KRA and KEBS requiring
physical and manual re-inspection and verification of goods (Muchira, 2019). Seven container trains depart daily
from Mombasa port to Nairobi, and the ICD yard population is sometimes up to 9,200 Twenty-Foot Equivalent Units
(TEUs) compared to a yard capacity of 3,000 TEUs, which confirms the congestion challenges (Kazungu, 2018).
These ICD inefficiencies increase the time and cost of cargo clearance and lead to severe business losses. It is
estimated that losses of up to USD 100,000 are incurred daily (Kazungu, 2018). Previous research shows that in
some developing countries, export and import administrative procedures alone prevent local producers from
importing and exporting time-sensitive products (Blancas, Isbell, Isbell, Tan, & Tao, 2013). For entrepreneurs in
these countries, lengthy administrative procedures and inadequate logistics services are a significant disincentive to
invest in quality and upgrade their products. As a result, firms are confined to the domestic market and import and
export commodities with standard value-added products where customers are less demanding (Kumar, 2014).
Cargo clearance should be supported by legislation that defines the roles of each agency. Otherwise, the
administrative and logistical challenges will remain. Addressing these inefficiencies at the ICD will have significant
positive effects on improving the efficiency of freight transport. The SGR should improve freight and truck
turnaround times by eliminating documentation and operational interruptions and delays, which will improve and
smoothen the cargo clearance operation.
5.3.4 Loss of Income for Freighters and Truck Owners
Loss of revenue for freighters, truck owners, drivers, and loaders was also cited as a primary concern by 96% of the
freight transporters interviewed. This is particularly the case in Mombasa, where the port is located, and other areas
of the coastal province. These findings are consistent with the findings of previous research by (Kerby et al., 2018;
Rodney, 1982), which showed that while colonial Kenya-Uganda rail transport lowered transport costs by 90-95 %,
many people who earned their livelihood as porters were out of work as a result.
Several factors have led to this loss of income. First, the introduction of freight trains and the current Kenya Revenue
Authority (KRA) and the Kenya Ports Authority (KPA) policies to shift operations of the Mombasa port to Nairobi
have had detrimental effects on Mombasa city and its dwellers leading to the economic slowdown of the city.
Presently, clearing of cargo is done at the ICD in Nairobi; Clearing and forwarding agencies in Mombasa, which
employed many Kenyans, are now out of business. This has resulted in hundreds of businesses being shut down and
hundreds of thousands of job losses in Mombasa and, more generally, the Coast Region for Container Freight Station
(CFS) workers, drivers, and truck loaders. Second, the move by the Kenyan government in 2017 to have all cargo
destined for local clearance transported through the SGR (Mutua, 2019) had significant adverse effects, with the
trucks being the worst hit. This means that thousands of drivers and turn boys previously employed by these truck
companies have been laid off. The go-downs and freight stations where the cargo was stored in anticipation of
ferrying have also been shut down. Loss of income could lead to various harmful consequences on the social front,
where families and SMEs could be forced to relocate in search of greener pastures. Some of these SMEs, like food
retailers depended on truckers as their primary customers. Affected Mombasa residents will need to find alternative
ways to earn a living. According to a report by the University of Nairobi, Mombasa county had a loss of Sh17.4
billion and 2,987 jobs equal to 8.4 per cent of annual revenue since the government ordered all freight destined for
local clearance to be transported through the SGR (Ogolla, Rucha, Aroni, & Ndua, 2019). Research shows that
shifting from road to rail to freight transport leads to significant reallocation of transport, combined with job losses
and the closure of freight access points and sidings (UNIFE, 2014). However, Kenya Railways should make
arrangements that will allow former truck owners to become shareholders in freight forwarding. Where possible,
truck owners should be empowered and allowed to purchase freight trains so that they are not entirely driven out of
the transport business. This way, the SGR could make swift and profitable market entry by aiming to realize cargo
owners‟ expectations and create win-win partnerships with clearing agents and road haulers.

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6. Conclusion
The aim of this research was to explore the successes and challenges of the SGR in transport operations for users in
Kenya. The research also examined users‟ concerns and attempted to verify whether the available literature was
consistent with what was observable on the ground. This is very important in filling the gap of the hitherto missing
empirical research and contributing to the current discussions on the impact of the SGR on Kenya‟s transport
operations, particularly from users‟ point of view. This is necessary because Kenya‟s colonial rail system has been
constrained in many ways, leading to the systematic destruction of the road network, increased road accidents, and
the loss of regional and international trade opportunities, among others. This pressure on existing infrastructure
support has resulted in challenges for the country‟s transport sector and economic development in general.
The findings of this research show that the SGR has significantly improved transport operations for users in Kenya.
In general, the SGR has enhanced passenger and freight transport operations through reduced travel time, improved
transport safety and security, as well as improved mobility and accessibility. Although travel costs for passengers
have been reduced, the cost of freight transport remains relatively high. The SGR has eased vehicle pressure on the
country‟s road network since most freight is transported by rail, thus enhancing traffic and inter-relationship between
the significant economic strongholds in Kenya. This means reduced congestion, reduced risk of road accidents and,
most importantly, reduced road maintenance costs, mostly on the Mombasa-Nairobi highway, which has traditionally
had serious traffic jams from trucks and other vehicles. Modern economies are after transport that enhances people‟s
mobility and freight movement at the lowest possible cost, alongside safer conditions.
Improvement of physical transport infrastructure and connectivity is significant; however, current and potential
challenges need to be addressed. Although the SGR has provided an alternative for freight and passenger transport
between Mombasa and Nairobi, the high cost of transporting goods due to additional charges, logistical and
administrative challenges for transporters, ticketing challenges and “First and Last Mile” accessibility challenges for
passengers, need to be addressed. It should be noted that the cargo owners are interested in the lowest total cost of
freight and the shortest turnaround time of the cargo. The Nairobi Internal Container Depot‟s logistical challenges
need to be addressed by the relevant government agencies to realize the full potential of the SGR for freight transport.
Transfer of cargo clearance and forwarding documents must be carried out effectively from Mombasa to Nairobi by
integrating the Kenya Ports Authority‟s systems, the Kenya Revenue Authority and the SGR into effective and
efficient real-time 24hours systems. Also, stakeholders should approximate global benchmarks in reducing the time
from loaded trucks to ICD yards. Besides, security improvements could improve the productivity of the ICD for
24-hour operations. There is also a clear need for a readily available transport link between the railway and the two
major cities to solve the “first mile” and “last mile” transport challenges for passengers. Also, an efficient ticketing
system is a core in railway operations. Thus, there is a need to audit the system to identify the cartels that engage in
ticketing malpractices and punitive sanctions taken against them. Besides, the government and relevant stakeholders
could develop policies to ensure healthy competition and a sustainable environment for freight transport stakeholders
and strategies to enhance sustainable employment opportunities. Such policies could include creating special
economic zones and other potential industrial parks for a sustainable environment for all stakeholders. Strong
industrial links and competitive industrial sectors are built up with efficient and reliable transport infrastructure.
Kenya‟s economic take-off cannot be achieved without the development of infrastructure. This includes modern
technology and efficient means of transport for cargo and passengers such as the SGR. Further, freight and passenger
transport are at the center of sustainable socio-economic development as it enhances economic growth, improves
access and connects societies, promotes trade, and aids in poverty alleviation. Safe, secure, affordable,
energy-efficient, reliable, environmentally friendly and regulated freight and passenger transport contribute to
economically efficient, environmentally sound and socially equitable development. In conclusion, the SGR is a
transformative infrastructure project for Kenya, symbolizing the country‟s urgent need to transform itself into a
middle-income economy supported by modern infrastructure.
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