Thinking,

Intelligence,
Learning & Memory
Thinking
 it means paying attention to information,
representing it mentally, reasoning about it,
What Is
and making judgments and decisions about it. Thinking?
refers to conscious, planned attempts to make
sense of and change the world.
 OTTFFSSE__?
What are the next two letter in the series?
 CONCEPTS
Elements of Cognition
MENTAL IMAGES
PROPOSITIONS

COGNITIVE
SCHEMAS
CONCEPT
A mental category that groups objects, relations,
activities, abstractions, or qualities having common
properties

It helps us summarize information about the world so

that it is manageable, so that we can make decisions
quickly and efficiently.
PROTOTYPE
An especially representative example of a concept

The words used to express concepts may influence

or shape how we think about them.

Benjamin Lee Whorf proposed that language molds

cognition and perception.
PROPOSITION
A unit of meaning that is made up of concepts and expresses a
single idea.

COGNITIVE SCHEMA
An integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and
expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world.

MENTAL IMAGES
A mental representation that mirrors or resembles the thing it
represents; mental images can occur in many and perhaps all
sensory modalities.
SUBCONSCIOUS PROCESS
Mental processes occuring outside of
conscious awareness but accessible to
consciousness when necessary.
How
conscious is
NONCONSCIOUS PROCESS Thought?
Mental processes occurring outside of
and not available to conscious
awareness
IMPLICIT LEARNING
Learning that occurs when you acquire
knowledge about something without being
aware of how you did so and without being
able to state exactly what it is you have How
learned.
conscious is
MINDLESSNESS Thought?
Mental inflexibility, inertia, and
obliviousness to the present context-
keeps people from recognizing when a
change in the situation requires a
change in behavior.
 REASONING
It is the purposeful mental
Reasoning activity that involves operating
Rationally on information in order to reach
conclusions. The drawing of
conclusions or inferences from
observations, facts, or
assumptions.
PROBLEM-SOLVING Successful understanding of a problem generally
requires three features:
is the process of finding
solutions to difficult or 1. The parts or elements of our mental representation of
complex issues. the problem relate to one another in a meaningful way.

Problem solving is the act 2. The elements of our mental representation of the
of defining a problem; problem correspond to the elements of the problem in
the outer world.
determining the cause of
the problem; identifying, 3. We have a storehouse of background knowledge that
prioritizing, and selecting we can apply to the problem.
alternatives for a solution;
and implementing a
solution.
 EXPERTISE
•Experts solve problems more efficiently and rapidly than novices
do.
Factors that affect •They know the particular area well and have a good memory for
PROBLEM SOLVING the elements in the problem.
•They form mental images or representations that facilitate
problem-solving.
•They relate the problem to similar problems.
a. your level of expertise
MENTAL SETS
•The tendency to respond to a new problem with the same
b. whether you fall prey to approach that helped solve similar problems.
a mental set •Usually make the work easier, but they can mislead us when the
similarity between problems in illusory.
c. whether you develop
insight into the problem INSIGHT
in Gestalt Psychology, a sudden perception of relationships
among elements of the mentally represented elements of a
problem that permits its solution.
 A stranger approached a museum curator and
offered him an ancient bronze coin. The coin had
an authentic appearance and was marked with

DNSUO the date 544 B.C. The curator had happily made
acquisitions from suspicious sources before, but
this time he promptly called the police and had

RCWDO the stranger arrested. Why?

IASYD
Use all the letters to
form an actual word.
 Systematic
ALGORITHM random
A systematic procedure for solving research
a problem that works invariably An algorithm for
when it is correctly applied.
solving problems in
Yield correct answers to problems which each
as long as the right formula is used. possible solution is
tested according to
Pythagorean Theorem: a particular set of
rules.
 DEDUCTIVE REASONING
A form of reasoning in which a conclusion follows
necessarily from certain premises; if the premises
Reasoning are true, the conclusion must be true.
Rationally Premise Premise Conclusion
True True must be True

INDUCTIVE REASONING
A form of reasoning in which the premises provide
support for a conclusion, but it is still possible for
the conclusion to be false.
Premise Premise Possibility of
Conclusion
discrepant
True True information must be True
 Informal Reasoning: Heuristics and
Dialectical Thinking
Choose a topic below: DIALECTICAL
A process in which opposing facts or ideas
Should are weighed and compared with a view to
marijuana be determining the best solution or to resolving
legalized differences.
Death penalty Pro Con
should be
Pro Con
revoked
Abortion Pro Con
8, 5, 4, 9, 1, 7, 6, 3, 2, 0
Look at the following numbers and find
the rule that governs their order.
 REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC
A decision-making heuristic in which people make
judgments about samples according to the populations
they appear to represent.
Barriers to
Reasoning Ability AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC
A heuristic in which you make a decision based on an
example, information, or recent experience that is that
readily available to you, even though it may not be the best
HEURISTIC example to inform your decision.
A rule of thumb that
ANCHORING HEURISTIC
suggests a course of Tendency to focus on one particular piece of
action or guides problem information when making decisions or problem-solving.
solving but does not
guarantee an optimal AFFECT HEURISTIC
solution The tendency to consult one’s emotions instead of
estimating probabilities objectively.
 HINDSIGHT BIAS
BARRIERS TO The tendency to overestimate one’s ability to have
REASONING ABILITY predicted an event once the outcome is known;
the “I knew it all along” phenomenon.

AVOIDING LOSS CONFIRMATION BIAS

The tendency to look for or pay attention only to
People try to avoid or
information that confirms one’s own belief.
minimize risks and losses
when making decisions.
FRAMING BIAS
Refers to the way in which wording, or the context in
FAIRNESS BIAS which information is presented, affects decision
making.
In some circumstances, we
do not try to avoid loss OVERCONFIDENCE
altogether, because we are Whether our decisions are correct or incorrect,
subject to a fairness bias. most of us tend to be overconfident about them.
 1. When you need to justify a choice or decision that you freely made.

POSTDECISION DISSONANCE
THE NEED FOR In the theory of cognitive dissonance, tension that
occurs when you believe you may havemade a bad
COGNITIVE decision
CONSISTENCY 2. When you need to justify behavior that conflicts with your view.

3. When you need to justify a choice or decision that you freely made.
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
A state of tension that occurs JUSTIFICATION OF EFFORT
when a person simultaneously The tendency of individuals to increase their liking
holds two cognitions that are for something that they have worked hard or
psychologically inconsistent, suffered to attain; a common form of dissonance
or when a person’s belief is reduction.
incongruent with his or her
behavior.
 Sometimes, biases are a good thing.
Mental biases, however, can also cause us to
OVERCOMING
make poor decisions. OUR COGNITIVE
BIASES
Most people have a ‘bias blind spot’: They
acknowledge that other people have biases that
distort reality, but they think that they themselves
are free of bias and see the world as it really is.
Intelligence
INTELLIGENCE
A general mental
capability that involves the
ability to reason, plan,
solve problems, think
abstractly, comprehend
complex ideas, learn
quickly and learn from
experience.
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
GENERAL I NTELLI GENCE
PRI MARY MENTAL ABI LI TI ES
MULTI PLE I NTELLI GENCES
THE TRI ARCHI C APPROACH TO I NTELLI GENCE
General Intelligence - g factor
AFTER USING FACTOR ANALYSIS TO EXAMINE MENTAL APTITUDE
TESTS, CHARLES SPEARMAN CONCLUDED THAT SCORES ON THESE
TESTS WERE REMARKABLY SIMILAR.

PEOPLE WHO PERFORMED WELL ON ONE COGNITIVE TEST TENDED

TO PERFORM WELL ON OTHER TESTS, WHILE THOSE WHO SCORED
BADLY ON ONE TEST TENDED TO SCORE BADLY ON OTHERS. HE
CONCLUDED THAT INTELLIGENCE IS A GENERAL COGNITIVE
ABILITY THAT RESEARCHERS CAN MEASURE AND EXPRESS
NUMERICALLY
Primary Mental Abilities
PSYCHOLOGIST LOUIS L. THURSTONE (1887–1955) FOCUSED ON SEVEN
PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES RATHER THAN A SINGLE, GENERAL
ABILITY.
ASSOCIATIVE MEMORY: THE ABILITY TO MEMORIZE AND RECALL
NUMERICAL ABILITY : THE ABILITY TO SOLVE MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS
PERCEPTUAL SPEED: THE ABILITY TO SEE DIFFERENCES AND
SIMILARITIES AMONG OBJECTS
REASONING: THE ABILITY TO FIND RULES
SPATIAL VISUALIZATION: THE ABILITY TO VISUALIZE RELATIONSHIPS
VERBAL COMPREHENSION: THE ABILITY TO DEFINE AND UNDERSTAND
WORDS
WORD FLUENCY: THE ABILITY TO PRODUCE WORDS RAPIDLY
Multiple Intelligences
HOWARD GARDNER
PROPOSED THAT
TRADITIONAL IQ TESTING
DOES NOT FULLY AND
ACCURATELY DEPICT A
PERSON'S ABILITIES.
The Triarchic Approach
to Intelligence
ROBERT STERNBERG DEFINED
INTELLIGENCE AS "MENTAL
ACTIVITY DIRECTED TOWARD
PURPOSIVE ADAPTATION TO,
SELECTION, AND SHAPING OF
REAL-WORLD ENVIRONMENTS
RELEVANT TO ONE'S LIFE."
RAYMOND CATTELL

CRYSTALLIZED
FLUID INTELLIGENCE
INTELLIGENCE
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EQ)
THE ABILITY TO APPLY KNOWLEDGE ABOUT
EMOTIONS TO EVERYDAY LIFE, INVOLVES AN
AWARENESS OF AND AN ABILITY TO MANAGE
ONE’S OWN EMOTIONS, SELF-MOTIVATION,
EMPATHY, AND THE ABILITY TO HANDLE
RELATIONSHIPS
 ALFRED BINET (1857-1911)
The first widely used intelligence test
INTELLIGENCE was devised in 1904.

TESTING Find ways on how to identify children

who were slow learners so they could be
given remedial work.

Binet was the first to introduce the

concept of mental age: a set of abilities
that children of a certain age possess.
 The following is a brief history of IQ tests as they were developed:
Binet-Simon intelligence scale: This was the first IQ test ever made, and
was developed in 1905 by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon.
Stanford-Binet IQ test: This was psychologist Lewis Terman's adaptation of
the Binet-Simon test. Scores are based on a person's mental age divided by
their chronological age (mental age/chronological age x 100).
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): This was the first intelligence
test for adults, developed by David Wechsler in 1939. It was the first to use
standardized normal distribution in scoring and is commonly used today. It is
divided into verbal and performance measures. Like most modern tests, it
scores on a bell curve.
INTELLIGENCE TESTING
Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale
•Yields a score called mental age (MA) – shows the intellectual level at
which a child is functioning.

•Also yields an intelligence quotient (IQ) – reflects the relationship between

a child’s mental age and his or her actual or chronological age (CA).
INTELLIGENCE TESTING
WECHSLER SCALES
•A family of individually administered instruments for assessing the
intellectual functioning of children and adults across the lifespan
continuum.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition (WAIS)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fifth Edition (WISC)
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Children – 4th Edition (WPPSI)
DIFFERENCES IN INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONING
Socioeconomic and Ethnic Differences
Consideration of social class
Lower-class U.S. children score 10 – 15 IQ points lower
than middle- and upper-class
Consideration of ethnicity
Impact of social class
Asian Americans more likely to graduate high school and
complete college
DO INTELLIGENCE TESTS CONTAIN CULTURAL
BIASES?
Tests may measure familiarity with dominant middle-class
culture:
example: Caesar is to salad as______ is to brandy.
a. Churchill b. Napoleon c. Hitler d. Lincoln

•Culture-free Intelligence Tests

•Cattell’s Culture-Fair Intelligence Test
 CULTURE-FAIR INTELLIGENCE TEST

•This a non-verbal test of intelligence that requires

examinees to perceive relationships in shapes and figures.
•Each scale has four subtests, involving different
perceptual tasks, so that composite intelligence measure
avoids spurious reliance on a single skill.
CULTURE-FAIR INTELLIGENCE TEST
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE TESTS
Intelligence tests do not show overall differences in
cognitive ability
Girls superior to boys in verbal ability
Boys excel in visual-spatial ability
Boys tend to score higher on math tests
Group scores represent greater variation within the
group than between the groups
 DO YOU THINK OF
INTELLIGENCE AS AN
INHERITED OR A LEARNED
CHARACTERISTIC?
COMMUNICATION BY NONHUMANS
Allen & Beatrix Gardner (1969)-
Washoe used sign language
beginning 1y.o.
-181 signs by the age of 32
-For researchers to consider
that Washoe had learned a
sign, she had to use it
spontaneously and
appropriately for 14
consecutive days.
 LANGUAGE
A means of communicating of
thoughts and feelings, using a
system of socially shared but
arbitrary symbols (sounds, signs,
or written symbols) arranged
according to rules of grammar.
 PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE
SEMANTICITY: The sound (or signs) of a language have meaning.
Words serve as symbols for actions, objects, relational concepts,
and other ideas.
INFINITE CREATIVITY: The capacity to create rather than
imitate sentences.

DISPLACEMENT: the quality of language in which words are

used as symbols for objects, events or ideas.
 PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE
LANGUAGE & COGNITION:
Language is not necessary for thinking
Concepts can be understood without knowing the word for
the concept (e.g. roundness)

LANGUAGE & CULTURE:

Different languages have different words for the same
concepts, and concepts do not necessarily overlap.
 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

PRELINGUISTIC VOCALIZATIONS
Crying, cooing, babbling
All children babble the same sounds (even deaf children)
First word is spoken about 1 year
HOLOPHRASE
Single words that express complex meanings
“Cookie” means “this is cookie” “I want cookie” “where is
cookie?”
 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
TELEGRAPHIC SPEECH (2 YEARS)
Two-word sentences
Grammatically correct
Sequence of emergence of various two-word
sentences is universal
OVERREGULATION
Application of regular grammatical rules to irregular
verbs and nouns
LINGUISTIC-RELATIVITY HYPOTHESIS
The view that language structures the way we view
the world.
According to Whorf (1956), the categories and
relationships we use to understand the world are
derived from our language.
 LEARNING THEORY
Usually refer to the concepts of imitation and
reinforcement.
From a social cognitive perspective, parents serve as
models.
 PSYCHOLINGUISTIC THEORY
The view that language acquisition involves the
interaction of environmental influences – such as
exposure to parental speech and reinforcement –
and the inborn tendency to acquire language.
Learning
Learning is?
A change in behavior as a result of
experience or practice.
The process of gaining knowledge.
A process by which behavior is
changed, shaped, or controlled.
 The Learning Process
1. Perceiving 3. Acting
Input Output
Learner perceives or Move or movement
develops and idea of what has
to be done.
2. Deciding 4. Deciding
Process in the brain Asked to practice
How do we put the info in a further, cycle starts
response again
Behaviorism
is a theory of animal and human learning that only
focuses on objectively observable behaviors and
discounts mental activities.

Watson’s work was based on the experiment of Ivan

Pavlov, who had studied animals’ response to
conditioning
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
It is a learning process A learning process in which likelyhood
that occurs through the of a specific behavior is increased or
association between decreased through positive or
environmental stimulus negative reinforcement each time
and a naturally occurring the behavior is exhibited, so that the
stimulus subject comes to associate the
pleasure or displeasure of the
reinforcement with the behavior.
Rewards cause an increase in
behavior, while punishment decrease
the behavior
 Aspects in Classical Conditioning:
Unconditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that naturally causes a particular response
Unconditioned Response
is an unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to the
unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus
Is a previously neutral stimulus that, after being associated with the
unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a condition
response
Neutral Stimulus
This stimulus does not naturally cause the subject to respond in a
certain way
The Little Albert Experiment
by John B. Watson
demonstrated that classical
conditioning—the
association of a particular
stimulus or behavior with an
unrelated stimulus or
behavior—works in human
beings
 Aspects in Operant Conditioning:
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an
individual finds rewarding.
Negative Reinforcement
The removal of an unpleasant reinforcement can also strengthen behavior.
This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an
adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal or person. Negative
reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an pleasant
experience.
Positive Punishment
something is “added” to the mix that makes the behavior less likely to continue
or reoccur
Negative Punishment
something is “taken away” from the mix that makes the behavior less likely to
continue or reoccur
A Skinner box, also known
an operant conditioning
chamber, is an enclosed
apparatus that contains a
bar or key that an animal
can press or manipulate in
order to obtain food or
water as a type of
reinforcement.
 SHAPING
The gradual process of rewarding successful approximation
of a skill in working toward an end goal.
a conditioning technique that involves working toward a
target behavior by breaking it down into gradual, successive
steps and rewarding each step on the path toward the
desired outcome.

For example, when a person or an animal engages in a behavior similar to the behavior
you are trying to teach, you would reward it, even though it’s not exactly right. As the
behavior is repeated, you reward steps that bring them closer and closer to the final goal.
Memory
 EXERCISE
What is the date today?
When did you graduate from primary
school? (exact date)
What is your best friend’s middle name?
MEMORY
As a process, memory refers to the
dynamic mechanisms associated with
storing, retaining, and retrieving
information about past experience.
Operations of Memory
1. Encoding – transform sensory data into a
form of mental representation.
2. Storage – keep encoded information in
memory.
3. Retrieval – pull out or use information stored
in memory.
 Tasks Used for Measuring Memory
1. Recall – a person produce a fact, a word or other item from
memory (fill-in the blanks & essays).
a. Serial recall – recall items in exact order.
b. Free recall – recall items in any order.
c. Cued recall (paired-associates recall) – in which, you are
first shown items in pairs, but during recall you are cued
with only one member of each pair and are asked to recall
each mate.
2. Recognition – a person select or otherwise identify an item
being one that you learned previously (multiple choice & true-
false).
Types of Tasks Used for Measuring Memory
(Expressive Knowledge)

Who wrote Hamlet?

Explicit memory is also known as declarative
memory since you can consciously recall and
explain the information.
Types of Tasks Used for Measuring Memory
(Expressive Knowledge)
Types of Tasks Used for Measuring Memory

What word can you think thru the following…

_ot_n_i_l

haept
 Types of Tasks Used for Measuring Memory

Implicit memory, also known as unconscious memory or

automatic memory, refers to perceptional and emotional
unconscious memories which influence our behavior
2 STRUCTURES OF
MEMORY
Primary memory – which holds temporary
information currently in use.
Secondary memory – which holds information
permanently or at least for a very long time.
 ATKINSON-SHRIFFIN MODEL

Sensory memory – capable of storing relatively limited

amounts of information for very brief periods (milliseconds to
5 seconds).
Short-term memory – capable of storing information for
somewhat longer periods but also of relatively limited
capacity (30 seconds to 2 minutes or even several hours, can
hold about 7 to 9 items).
Long-term memory – capable of storing information, of very
large capacity, for very long periods (can be indefinitely).
 ATKINSON-SHRIFFIN MODEL

Sensory memory – capable of storing relatively limited

amounts of information for very brief periods (milliseconds to
5 seconds).
Short-term memory – capable of storing information for
somewhat longer periods but also of relatively limited
capacity (30 seconds to 2 minutes or even several hours, can
hold about 7 to 9 items).
Long-term memory – capable of storing information, of very
large capacity, for very long periods (can be indefinitely).
HBST
AZMG 5 7 0 9 2 4 6 11 3

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RUNP
 LEVELS OF PROCESSING FRAMEWORK
Postulates that memory does not comprise three or
even any specific number of separate stores but
rather varies along a continuous dimension in terms
of depth of encoding.
The deeper level of processing, the higher the
probability that an item may be retrieved.
THREE LEVELS OF
PROCESSING
 TWO KINDS OF EXPLICIT MEMORY

SEMANTIC MEMORY
stores general knowledge.

EPISODIC MEMORY
stores personally experienced events or episodes
 OUTSTANDING MEMORY
MNEMONIST
someone who demonstrates extraordinary keen
memory ability, usually by using special memory
techniques for memory enhancement.
SYNESTHESIA
is the experience of sensations in a sensory
modality different from the sense that has been
physically stimulated.
 DEFICIENT MEMORY
AMNESIA
is severe loss of explicit memory.
RETROGRADE AMNESIA
when someone sustains a concussion, events
immediately prior to the concussive episode are not
well remembered. The memories that return
typically do so starting from the more distant past.
They then progressively return up to the time of the
trauma.
 DEFICIENT MEMORY
INFANTILE AMNESIA
the inability to recall events that happened when we
were very young. Generally, we can remember little
or nothing that has happened to us before the age
of about 5 years.
ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA
the inability to remember events that occur after a
traumatic event; lost the ability to recollect any new
memories.
 DEFICIENT MEMORY
SELECTIVE AMNESIA
loss of memory regarding certain issues, events, and
individuals which is too wide ranging to be accounted
for by typical forgetfulness.
ALZHEIMER‘S DISEASE
is a disease of older adults that causes dementia as
well as progressive memory loss.
DEMENTIA
is a loss of intellectual function that is severe
enough to impair one’s everyday life.
 BRAIN STRUCTURES
RESPONSIBLE FOR MEMORY
Cerebral Cortex - involved in short-term and long-term
memory.
Prefrontal Cortex - is responsible for short-lived
sensory memory.
Hippocampus - takes some short-term memories from
the cortex, turns them into long-term memories, and
transfers them back to the cortex, where they are
stored.
 MEMORY PROCESS
Sensory memory – the information stored in sensory
memory is very short-lived. It allows us to move around
in our surroundings without accident. We notice and
remember possible obstacles ---usually without
thinking about it--- and then, forget about them.
 MEMORY PROCESS
Long-term memory –stored facts, such as faces, words, dates, and
skills. These memories may be stored because they are significant,
or because they have been rehearsed or repeated.

Short-term memory – can last for a few seconds to several hours.

We might use it to look up a telephone number, remember it long
enough to dial it, and then forget it. Much of the information stored
in short-term memory is lost, but some of it ---if reused, rehearsed,
or associated with old memories--- may be transferred to long-
term memory.
FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT
INFORMATION STORAGE
Encoding
Attention
Rehearsal
Interference
 ENCODING
Visual encoding – visual cues or representations
Acoustic encoding – sound cues
Semantic encoding – based on word meaning
Consolidation – the process of integrating new
information into stored information.
ATTENTION-RETENTION
Selective attention
Presence of distractors
 REHEARSAL
Overt – aloud and obvious to anyone watching
Covert – silent and hidden
Distributed practice – learning in which various sessions are
spaced over time
Massed practice – learning in which sessions are crammed
together in a very short space of time
Elaborative rehearsal – makes the item meaningful by
connecting it to other previous learnings
Maintenance rehearsal – repetitiously rehearses the items
 MNEMONIC DEVICES

Categorical Clustering – Organize a list of items into a

set of categories

Interactive Images – Create interactive images that

link the isolated words in a list

Pegword system – utilized by creating mental

associations between items to be remembered and
items that are already associated with numbers
 MNEMONIC DEVICES

Method of loci – Visualize walking around an area with

distinctive landmarks that you know well, and then link
the various landmarks to specific items to be
remembered

Acronym – Devise a word or expression in which each

of its letters stands for a certain other word or concept
 MNEMONIC DEVICES
Keyword System – Form an interactive image that
links the sound and meaning of a foreign word with the
sound and meaning of the familiar word

Acrostic – Form a sentence rather than a single word

to help you remember the new words
 FORGETTING
Loss of retention, extinction of what has been
learned or the failure to be able to retrieve
previously learned material.
PROCESS OF FORGETTING
Interference – occurs when competing
information causes us to forget something.

Interference theory – view that forgetting

occurs because recall of certain words
interferes with recall of other words
(replacement of memory trace).
PROCESS OF FORGETTING
Retroactive interference – is caused by activity
occurring after we learn something but before
we are asked to recall that thing.
Proactive interference – occurs when the
interfering material occurs before, rather than
after, learning of the to-be-remembered
material.