INDEX

S. No Topic Page No.

Week 1
Introduction to Design Algorithms: Flight Dynamics Point of
1 View 1
2 Thrust Generation and Power Required 11
3 Lift and Drag for Infinite Wing 27
4 Lift and Drag for an Infinite Wing... contd. 43
Week 2
5 Relation between Aerodynamic center and Center of Pressure 48
6 Aerodynamic Characteristics of Wing 67
7 Stability and Criteria for Longitudinal Static Stability 76
Week 3
8 Numericals 100
9 Longitudinal Static Stability- Wing Contribution 115
10 Flight Demonstration of Flat Plate 132
11 Numericals Cont. 137
Week 4
12 Example Problems for Wing alone Configuration 163
13 Wing-Tail Contribution and Neutral Point 185
Week 5
14 Example problems of wing and tail combination 200
15 Example problems of wing and tail combination Continued 215
16 Flight demonstration of same wing and tail combination 227
Week 6
17 Matlab Tutorial 230
18 Trim Requirements of UAV 240
19 Example on performance analysis of UAV 266
Week 7
20 Weight Estimation and wing Sizing with Example 282
21 Power Plant Selection with Example 300
22 Subroutine for takeoff performance (Powerplant selection) 318
 Week 8
23 Subroutine for Climb Performance (Powerplant Selection) 350
24 Subroutine for Weight Estimation 369
25 Subroutine for Planform Geometry Selection 387
26 Subroutine for Airfoil Selection 401
 UAV Design - Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture - 01
Introduction of Design Algorithm: Flight Dynamics Point of View

Hello all. Welcome back to the course, Design of Fixed Wing UAV. I hope all of you are safe and
sound. This is Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla from the Department of Aerospace Engineering, IIT
Kanpur. The second part is in fact the continuation of what we have covered during the Lecture
series-1. I do not consider this as a new course, and indeed it is not right. Also, I do not want to
reintroduce the content that we are going to cover in this course. In the first part, we have covered
about the performance aspects, starting with some introductory concepts, and then how
performance aspects help us in weight estimation. We have also started with some aspects of
stability. Previously, we studied about longitudinal static stability and then we reached up to a
point where we can find out neutral point, given a wing and tail combination. So that is where we
ended the previous course. I have got many requests from your friends saying that they were not
able to do the first part of this course and they want to participate in this current course.

I would like to structure this course in such a way that these newcomers will also find it
comfortable. I will not repeat the concepts that we have covered during the first lecture series. I
may not go into the detail derivations of those, but I will touch the basics of all those during the
first week of this course. I will try to cover a little bit about all the concepts that will be helpful
even for those who already completed the first part and also for the newcomers. We will cover
those concepts which will be useful in the current course in upcoming lecture series. Also, I would
like to add that this course will cover an algorithm. So, I would like to present a flowchart, an
algorithm of design. The main emphasis is the course will try to address some of the subroutines
of the design process.

Here, we develop our own codes since we all know design is an iterative process. Instead of
depending upon pen and paper repeatedly, let us develop codes parallelly during the course, and
then use them for solving some design problems or design subroutines. Basically part-2 is a
continuation from where we have left last time. So, as I mentioned, first week will be dedicated

1
for revisiting those concepts, which we will be using in this course. We will start with stability and
briefly derive those expressions which we have arrived at during the previous course. We will
revisit the concepts again and solve few example problems, and then proceed with our current
design process. Let us consider the following flowchart that is going to talk about a typical design
process. We will start with certain mission requirements, which are a set of statements that you
need to achieve right with a particular UAV.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:02)

From these statements, we will be able to figure out what will be the aim of this design. You will
have certain geometric constraints from mission requirement statements, as well as performance
constraints. For example, if you consider a high altitude and long endurance (HALE) UAV, you
are looking at a higher endurance UAV which may not be of typically high speed. You have to
know certain range of velocities at which you need to fly. That means, you definitely need to
concentrate on a subsonic, lower subsonic UAV. Then you understand it flies at a certain altitude.
So, you will try to figure out what kind of propulsion system that I need to use and also a medium.

For example, if you are asked to carry a payload of so many kgs, then you will try to figure out
what is the power requirement of the payload. To lift that payload along with the other accessories
you will start with certain geometric parameters. Here again, mission requirements corners your

2
focus area. When you talk about HALE, you will be concentrating on UAVs which can perform
flight at a lower subsonic speed. When you talk about combat UAV then you may be concentrating
on higher subsonic or supersonic speeds. So along with them, it basically constraints the kind of
aerodynamic model that you have to consider during the design process.

Apart from the mission requirements, it will also give you certain geometric constraints. May not
be all definitely, but to some extent they will pose certain geometric constraints. From this mission
requirements, with a basic estimation of geometry, we can do a proper weight estimation. We can
use this weight estimation for initial geometry or initial configuration selection. Again, this is an
iterative approach. It has multiple steps in achieving a particular configuration based upon mission
requirement. So, you start with geometric constraints. With those constraints, you will be able to
achieve certain geometry. At the same time, you will also analyze performance aspect as well. So,
all these subroutines we will work hand in hand in order to figure out a particular configuration.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:22)

Once you have this geometry, you can independently perform an empirical estimation. For this
what I require is a historical database as an input. With the historical database, the geometry
selection will enable me to perform certain stability and performance analysis that help me to
figure out the propulsion system or power plan selection. From this performance analysis, once we

3
are satisfied with it, we will go ahead for simulation. The simulation we will be talking about is as
an aircraft flight simulation.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:56)

For flight simulation subroutine, what we need is, a numerical model. We have 6 DOF (degrees of
freedom) equations of motion. Also, we have mathematical modeling which will be used along
with 6 DOF equations of motion and we will use a numerical integration. So, the equations of
motion, in general, result in first order differential equations, may be linear or nonlinear. In order
to solve them we have to use numerical integration for which we need to give initial flight
conditions as an input. And also, for the mathematical model you need to give aerodynamic
parameters as an input.

For the 6 DOF equations of motion, the input you need to provide is regarding inertial and
geometric parameters or details. This will help us to figure out how the system or the current design
behaves under various conditions. If you are happy with the simulation results, then you can
proceed to the next part, which is prototype fabrication.

In this prototype fabrication, you have a structural design. Once you have the structural vision, you
may now go for a scaled down configuration which I will include in the structural design itself. I

4
am not going in detail at each and every level. Once you have scaled down the configuration then
you may go for fabrication methodology.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:14)

In the structural design there is analysis as well. Once you have come up with the design then you
can use any of the existing analysis software that will help you to figure out what are the structural
stresses as well as loads acting on this. The fabrication again includes a scaled down prototyping
and manufacturing.

This subroutine of prototype development or fabrication includes structural analysis, design and
analysis, scaling down the configuration and then perform or carry out the manufacturing or
fabrication process. At each and every level, we have iterative approach and also at each and every
stage we should also make a decision. If you are satisfied with the analysis then you will be going
to the next step or else you will be going to step A (Refer Slide Time: 09:22). So, once you have
this done, we will go for the scaled down model for wind tunnel testing. Here, you will do an
experiment and analysis.

5
Once you have the design and you are satisfied with the simulation results, then you can go for the
initial experimental analysis using wind tunnel testing. Also, you can perform a scaled down flight
test with the acquired configuration before which you can take up instrumentation. This can be
either instrumented flight test or initial flight test without any instruments to see the flying
capabilities. This entire design approach is from flight dynamic point of view. Once you are happy
with the data after flight test go for the full-scale configuration. For flight test data, if you are not
able to accommodate a full-scale configuration in the wind tunnel, then you can directly go for the
instrumented flight test and perform experiments to analyze the performance as well as to estimate
the parameters using existing parameter estimation techniques.

If you need to change any of the parameters, say if you need to increase the damping, you can
again revisit the stability analysis here either without changing the configuration or by changing
the CG. So, in a way you can shift the loads, rearrange the loads and achieve different CG location
and see the simulated response of it. And then you can proceed with the structural design. See if
there is any change in the stresses that are acting at the joints or the change in CG location. Whether
it is changing the load distribution significantly? Look at that and then proceed with the flight test
to get the data. The wind tunnel test is a costly affair again, and of course, the flight test as well.

So, at each and every level, you have an iterative approach here. We may not be covering the entire
part in this course, so the emphasis of this course is to get an inverse solution. In any of the design
algorithms, we will talk about airfoil selection in the first place. I would like to approach this in an
inverse way where I will take the mission requirements. We will use those mission requirements
along with performance and stability analysis. We will get airfoil selection, geometry and other all
the geometric parameters say root chord, tip chord and the reference area. With all this, as an
output, we look at what should be the 𝐶𝐿 𝛼 of the entire aircraft? What should be the 𝐶𝐿0 of the
UAV? And What should be the two dimensional 𝐶𝐿0 and 𝐶𝐿 𝛼 ?

We will be concentrating on lower subsonic speeds so that the particular algorithm will correspond
to only lowest subsonic speeds. In order to get that as an output we need to give certain input in
terms of non-dimensional geometric parameters.

6
(Refer Slide Time: 23:21)

Weight estimation. In fact, everything we will be same, the flight conditions and constraints. But
in our previous algorithm, the empirical relation can be replaced by CFD simulations.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:46)

7
(Refer Slide Time: 25:00)

Similarly, the aerodynamic parameters here. Instead of using them, we can use the CFD
simulations as an input.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:10)

We will consider the issues of stability and performance. In order to figure out the stability criteria,
we need some inputs in terms of aerodynamic design parameters. And we also require some non-
dimensional geometric parameters as an input.

8
The output from this particular subroutine will be geometry, airfoil data and also engine
capabilities. Design is something which will not be able to achieve in a straightforward manner. It
is a closed form solution. But here with the particular algorithm we will try to achieve it with all
the inputs in terms of aerodynamic design parameters as well as non-dimensional geometric
parameters.

We will try to achieve these as a closed form solution from this algorithm. So basically, what you
are going to have is the details about the span, root chord, tip chord, tail sizing, tail setting and
location and wing characteristics in terms of 𝐶𝐿0 , 𝐶𝐿 𝛼 and airfoil characteristics in terms of two
dimensional properties 𝐶𝐿0 and 𝐶𝐿 𝛼 .

This will be the primary aim of the current lecture series. We will develop various subroutines in
order to achieve these particular parameters. This particular analysis can be used as a preliminary
design analysis. When you add optimization techniques to this that can be used for detailed design
analysis.

I would like to clear certain general misconceptions about this course. This course is not aimed at
aeromodelling. We are not going to do any aeromodelling stuff in this particular course. And
moreover, we are not going to talk about the structural and I am not an expert in that definitely.

We are not going to talk about the structural design and analysis as well as aerodynamic design
and optimization. Neither we are employing any of these optimization techniques here in order to
come up with an optimal design. As I mentioned this particular algorithm that we are going to
develop can be used only for preliminary design analysis. Once you have hands on experience
with this, then of course, optimization techniques can be learnt very easily. Applying the
optimization techniques for this particular algorithm, you will get optimized values of these
parameters.

9
We have two TAs in our course this time. Mr. Prabhijeet and Mr. Sallahuddin Quazi. Both of them
will be helping us. Ee are talking about an iterative approach here. So, we need to use any of the
programming language and I would prefer MATLAB and I wish you should start learning
MATLAB.

For those who are not comfortable with MATLAB, Prabhijeet and Quazi will help you with some
of the tutorials, in MATLAB. In coming lectures, we will try to revisit some of the important
concepts that we have already covered during our previous lecture series which will be useful for
the current design process that we are going to take up. See you soon.

10
 UAV Design - Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture - 02
Thrust Generation and Power Required

Hello all. Welcome back to this course, Design of Fixed Wing UAV.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:20)

We consider airflow, which is nothing but the ordered motion of this air. We have
represented this ordered motion through the straight lines called streamlines. What are
these streamlines? As per definition, we can say it is the path traced by the fluid element
to which tangent at any point represents the direction of the velocity vector. What does
it mean? Let us say if we draw the path traced by the fluid element as a curve line. Then
say at this particular point, consider a small fluid element here. Let its position be here.
And then, if you draw a tangent at this specific point, the direction of the velocity of
this fluid element is almost horizontal along this particular line. If you look at this
particular point, it is the tangent; it is more or less in this particular direction to this
curve. This gives you the direction of the velocity of this fluid element; that is going
forward and downward. At this particular position, it is going up. Say this is the tangent
here. Hence, this is the direction of this velocity vector.

Suppose we consider a fluid element here. This gives the tangent and the corresponding
direction of this particular fluid element here. The streamline itself is the tangent here.

11
Hence, the direction of the velocity vector is along these particular lines. Let it’s
velocity be 𝑉∞ . What we considered in our previous class to find out velocity is a steady
streamlined flow. And let say A be the point in the free-stream which is far ahead of
this particular sensor. This particular sensor or this particular measuring unit, we call it
as pitot tube, and there is a static pitot tube from that we measure the static pressure.
Let 𝑃𝑠 be the static pressure. This static pressure is measured through holes on the
periphery of the pitot-static tube. We made this tube to interact with the free stream
through these holes. And this total pressure is measured using this pitot tube. Let 𝑃0 be
the total pressure measured here. The incoming fluid element which is at point A with
free stream conditions as the pressure 𝑃∞ and velocity 𝑉∞ ; it is brought to the rest
isentropically. Let say, this particular fluid element is brought to rest isentropically at
point B and it is called the stagnation point. And the corresponding pressure at this point
is 𝑃0 and the velocity is zero. We are already able to deduce following relationship
using Bernoulli equation-
𝑃0 − 𝑃∞
𝑉∞ = √
1
2 𝜌∞
Where, 𝑉∞ is free stream velocity, 𝑃∞ is static pressure, 𝑃0 is dynamic pressure and
𝜌∞ is the air density.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:43)

Pressure, density, and temperature are a function of altitude. We have derived these
gradient layer equations and isothermal layer equations as follows. We have come up
with isothermal layer equations where the temperature almost remains constant in that
particular layer.

12
 𝑔0
𝑃2 𝑇2 −𝑎𝑅
=( )
𝑃1 𝑇1
𝑔0
𝜌2 𝑇2 −𝑎𝑅−1
=( )
𝜌1 𝑇1
𝑑𝑇
𝑎=
𝑑ℎ
𝑃2 𝜌2 𝑔0
= = 𝑒 −𝑅𝑇Δℎ
𝑃1 𝜌1
Δℎ = ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝑅 = 287 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1

Where, 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are the atmospheric pressure at altitude ℎ1 and ℎ2 , respectively. 𝑇1

and 𝑇2 are the atmospheric temperature at altitude ℎ1 and ℎ2 , respectively. 𝜌1 and 𝜌2
are the atmospheric air density at altitude ℎ1 and ℎ2 , respectively.

We have used these two equations and solved one example problem. We want to find
out the aircraft's velocity at 12 kilometers altitude using the measured total pressure.
We have solved that using the geopotential altitude. Let us now look at what happens
when we create a pressure difference. We have ambient conditions or atmospheric
conditions here. Let us assume we make a sudden pressure difference. Can you give
one such example? Let us consider a fan. When you switch on the fan, what happens
immediately, you start feeling the wind or some stream of air. That is because the fan
is creating a pressure difference here.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:08)

13
Let us assume this is one such disc called an actuator disc, capable of creating a pressure
difference. Let say there is pressure on the left and right side of the actuator disc. I will
label these as pressure on the left and right. Let us assume the thickness of this actuator
disc is minimal or very small. And let A be the cross-sectional area of this disc. What
happens when there is a pressure difference here? What exactly a fan does? It will try
to draw air from the backside, and it used to throw air on us. But let us assume this
particular disc is trying to draw the air from ahead of it and try to throw it behind it. In
a fan, it is a reverse case. It will draw air from behind and throw it ahead. Let us now
first look at far ahead for this actuator disc. If I place a fan here, somebody who is sitting
at hundred meters from here, is he going to feel any difference because of this? Most
likely no with the ordinary fan that we generally use.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:40)

This particular stream is far ahead of this disc, which we call it upstream of this disc.
What we have here is the atmospheric conditions which is 𝑃∞ one atmosphere.
Considering, this is station 1. If I stand behind hundred meters of this fan, do I feel any
different because of it? Most likely no. Let us say this is my station 2, which is again
at atmospheric pressure conditions 𝑃∞ 1 atm. What we can observe there is the static
pressure. But here at some distance this static pressure can come close to 𝑃∞ , which is
atmospheric pressure. Far ahead, the velocity is 0. And these two particular lines
represent the boundary or the circumference of the stream tube. What is the stream
tube? If we have a bunch of streamlines together, we can consider it a stream tube. At
station 1, I have 𝑃∞ and V is 0. And at station 2, this disc is inducing certain velocity to
this flow, which is nothing but 𝑉𝑖 here. Let 𝑉𝑖 be the velocity induced to the flow
because of this disc. Let 𝑉2 be the velocity at the station 2 where pressure is equals to

14
𝑃∞ and let A 2 be the corresponding cross-sectional area of this stream tube here. At
this point A, velocity to be close to 0. This area of the stream tube to very high right.

Let us look at what we know about the pressure here and how the pressure is varying
here if this is the location of the disc. What is happening initially to this static pressure
𝑃∞ , which is atmospheric pressure? It drops as we go close to this disc. Let us say this
is the location of this disc. At this particular location, the pressure drops to 𝑃𝑙 and then
there is a sudden increase. Why because, here the there is an induced velocity here.
What is happening in this particular portion, there is no addition of energy. According
to Bernoulli what happens? The pressure from static condition is now converted to the
static pressure plus dynamic pressure here. Because the flow is set into motion here and
it is moving. Almost close to ahead of this, let us consider it is moving at a velocity 𝑉𝑖 .
We consider disc is thin. Hence, this velocity remains constant across this disc section
here because the area of the disc is very minimal here. According to continuity equation
this velocity remains constant across this particular disc. What is happening? We are
importing some additional energy. This energy increases the pressure here and the
nature will take care of the rest once you have increased the pressure here.

Now the air or the fluid, which is at high pressure tries to accelerate so that the raised
pressure becomes equal to the ambient conditions. Here, it is trying to get back to this.
Let this be P on right side pressure and there is a discontinuity here. Now let us see
what happens to the velocity. We know that this is the initial velocity or say this is at
rest. Now, this is V infinity. This is at rest at station 1. Say this is my station 1. This is
the disc and this is my station 2. What happens here? The velocity increased to 𝑉𝑖 and
we do not know what is happening after that? That we will see. There is a sudden
increase in pressure because of this disc and this pressure needs to be equal to the
ambient condition after a certain distance like downstream of this disc.

In the slipstream, this particular air pressure has to drop, and it has to accelerate. Am I
correct or not? Within this particular portion, again there is no addition of energy. Only
at this disc there is an addition of energy here. Within this particular portion, we can
1
still apply this Bernoulli’s principle. So (𝑃 + 2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) is constant. If P drop down

dynamic pressure has to increase. Let us see will it follow this or not? The velocity

15
increases. What do you think is the variation of total pressure? Till disc it is 𝑃0 and
constant. And at the disc there is an addition in 𝑃0 . There is an addition in pressure
because of this particular disc. This is the total pressure here. Let us now look at the
mathematics. Again, we are trying to look at what the pressure difference does to this
particular disc. What is happening here; the air is pushed back by this propeller disc and
accounting to Newton’s third law. The air will also push. How it is pushing? This disc
will be in the opposite direction. That push must be equal.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:25)

There is a force because of this pressure difference across this particular disc. What is
that pressure difference?
𝑇 = (𝑃𝑅 − 𝑃𝐿 )𝐴 .......A15
This T is the force with which the air is pushing this disc forward. Let us say this
particular force is known as T which is thrust, where T is the thrust acting on the disc.
For example, if I rigidly hold this rotating disc, I will also experience the same force T.
If it is more than my frictional force, I will try to move in that particular direction. T is
thrust here. Let us say this is our equation number A17. This is our equation A15. And
what is happening here? There is a force that is generated here, is it not because of the
flowing mass of air? Am I correct or not? This mass of air is entering this stream tube
at a velocity 𝑉0 and leaving the stream tube at a velocity 𝑉2. That means there is a
change in momentum. This change in momentum is going to create this force. Am I
correct or not? This can also be related by this. This mass flow rate is due to this disc,

16
rotating disc? This disc is what that is creating mass flow rate. What is that value? Mass
flow rate is equals to 𝜌𝐴𝑉?
𝑑
𝑇= (𝑚𝑉) = 𝑚̇𝑉2 − 𝑚̇𝑉1
𝑑𝑡
𝑇 = 𝑚̇[𝑉2 − 0]
𝑇 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑖 𝑉2 .......A16

Where, 𝜌 is air density, 𝑉𝑖 is induced velocity, 𝑉2 is air velocity at station 2, A actuator

disk area, 𝑚̇ is mass flow rate.

Let 0 be the velocity with which this mass is entering in this particular stream tube.
What we have is 𝜌A. The mass flow rate is due to this disc. At this disc, we can have
𝜌AV as the mass flow rate 𝑚̇. This T is the thrust generated because of this mass flow
rate and change in moment. Now equations A15 and A16 represents one and the same,
the same thrust that is being generated.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:57)

1
Now let me just note it down. What we have is (𝑃 + 2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) is equals to constant along

a streamline here. Now let us look at this mass conservation here.

𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑖 = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴1 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 .......A17

17
Now let us apply Bernoulli’s equation ahead of the disc and behind the disc because
here there is an addition of energy, because of which we cannot use this Bernoulli
equation throughout this right. We can use it in the section 1. What we have here is 𝑃∞ ,
which is the static pressure when the velocity is 0. The pressure left side of this disc
which is 𝑃𝐿 just immediate to the disc. And then the corresponding dynamic pressure is
due to the velocity induced velocity 𝑉𝑖 . Similarly, if you apply this Bernoulli’s equation
to the part B, from A to B what we have
1
𝑃∞ = 𝑃𝐿 + 𝜌𝑉𝑖2
2
1 1
𝑃𝑅 + 𝜌𝑉12 = 𝑃∞ + 𝜌𝑉∞2
2 2
Just remember this A15 and A16. We will call back these equations.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:40)

Using these two equations what we have is

1
𝑃𝑅 − 𝑃𝐿 = 2 𝜌𝑉22 .......A18

Let us say this is my equation A18. Now comparing this equation 18 and then previous
equations 15 and 16, what we can write the thrust generated
𝑇 = (𝑃𝑅 − 𝑃𝐿 )𝐴
Using equations, A15, A 16 and A18, right.
𝑉2 = 2𝑉𝑖 .......A19

18
Am I correct or not? 𝑉2 is twice the induced velocity here. That means the flow is
accelerating here.

And what will be the cross-section area 𝐴2 here? Using this particular A17 we can
relate, using A17 what we have is,
𝐴
𝐴2 = .......A20
2

Cross-section area of this stream tube is half the area of this disc. That is why it is
accelerating right. Let this be A19 and A20. We can also express this induced velocity
in terms of this thrust loading. That is also a good equation to note it down.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:19)

From this 15 and 16 again, what I have is

𝑇 = 2𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑖2
1 𝑇
𝑉𝑖 = √2𝜌 × √𝐴 .......A21

𝑇
Since 𝑉2 is 2𝑉𝑖 . This implies the corresponding induced velocity depends upon √𝐴 .
𝑇
This particular factor 𝐴 is known as thrust loading. That is the amount of force generated

across this particular area of this disc. It is known as thrust loading which is 𝑁/𝑚2.
𝑉𝑖 here is the induced velocity depends upon this particular thrust loading factor. How

19
much power we need to spend in order to create so much thrust? Is my question clear?
That means if this disc is generating thrust T that means this disc is also pushing the air
with the same force but in the opposite direction? And it is pushing that air with a
velocity 𝑉𝑖 ? The power induced or the power that we need to put in is equals to power
induced
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑇𝑉𝑖 .......A22

The force times the velocity. What are the units of this power, which is watts. This
equation be A22. That means in order to generate a thrust T I need to produce this much
of pressure difference across a disc of cross-sectional area A. And if I produce this
much of thrust or this much of pressure difference, it creates a velocity at a downstream
where the pressure equals to 𝑃∞ . It creates a velocity of twice of induced velocity. It
accelerates the flow at this particular velocity. It is worth noting down non-dimensional
analysis or non-dimensional parameters for this particular actuator disc theory. With
that we will be able to compare propellers of various configurations. What are we
dealing with is Froude’s momentum theory or actuator disc theory? That is what we are
discussing here. We know now, this thrust will propel your aircraft, so this will take
your aircraft forward, if it overcomes the resisting forces. This is the main idea of thrust.
This is how we can generate thrust. This is one of the mean that we can generate T to
accelerate our aircraft.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:57)

Now let us look at some non-dimensional parameters. If I had to compare propellers of

different dimensions and different geometric characteristics. I have to bring them onto

20
a single platform for comparison, and I need certain non-dimensional parameters. Let
us first look at one important factor that we look at is the induced velocity. Let us define
a non-dimensional induced velocity, which is
𝑉
𝜆𝑖 = 𝑉 𝑖 .......A23
𝑇

Where, 𝑉𝑇 is a tip velocity. Velocity at the tip of this disc. Induced velocity keep varying
along the disc. 𝑉𝑇 remains constant for a given propeller at a particular rpm. 𝜆𝑖 keep
varying along the radius of the disc. Similarly, let us now define thrust coefficient which
is
𝑇
𝐶𝑇 = 1 .......A24
𝜌𝑉𝑇2 𝐴
2

Dynamic pressure times the area will help you to non-dimensionalize this thrust. This
V is nothing but here is the tip velocity. Where 𝐶𝑇 is called non-dimensional thrust
coefficient. And now can we rewrite this equation? Can we look at this equation? What
is 𝑉𝑖

𝑇 1
𝑉𝑖 = √ ×
𝜌𝐴 √2

What I can do this with this is like bellow

𝐶𝑇 𝑉𝑇2
𝑉𝑖 = √
4

𝜆𝑖 can be represented in terms of 𝐶𝑇

√𝐶𝑇
𝜆𝑖 = .......A25
2

Let this be 24 and this be 25. Can we also convert this? Similarly, you can do this.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:18)

21
Let us say 𝐶𝑃 𝑖 is defined as
𝑃𝑖
𝐶𝑃 𝑖 =
1 3
2 𝜌𝑉𝑇 𝐴
Similarly, you can relate them. We can substitute this in this particular equation and
then for T again you can convert in terms of coefficient 𝐶𝑇 , you will be able to arrive
at this particular non-dimensional pressure coefficient 𝐶𝑃𝑖 . 𝐶𝑃𝑖 is pressure coefficient
which is a non-dimensional number, and which is induced power coefficient. 𝐶𝑃𝑖 is the
induced power coefficient, which is
𝑃𝑖
𝐶𝑃 𝑖 =
1 3
2 𝜌𝑉𝑇 𝐴
𝐶𝑃 𝑖 is a power coefficient, which is the induced power coefficient. You need to spend
so much of power in order to throw the air at this particular velocity with the thrust T
backward. What we can observe here, pressure difference across a disc created a force
called thrust in the forward direction. Say if that forward direction is nothing but the
direction of our motion then if you hold or if you fix that particular setup, rigidly to our
aircraft then the aircraft will also move with a thrust T, and will also experience thrust
T in that particular direction. Later on, we will again come back to that point. We will
solve an example about this particular momentum theory. And then we will get back to
know that how thrust is going to help us. Let us solve a small example.
(Refer Slide Time: 37:18)

This is our next example A4, example number 4 in this particular introductory topic.
Consider the data of a brushless motor with propeller tested on a bench. The data

22
corresponds to the slipstream measurements. What are these measurements? P in the
slipstream is equals to 1 atmosphere. V in the slipstream is identified as 20 meters per
second and these measurements are effective within an area of 0.0707 meter square.
These are the measurements here. What do you mean from this slipstream
measurement? We have a BLDC motor, which is rigidly mounted on a bench and we
have a propeller.

We have a propeller here. This is mounted on a bench by means of an adapter. When

this BLDC motor is operated the propeller rotates due to which there is a change in
downstream conditions here and it is identified at a far downstream. Let us say this is
my particular location at which P is equals to 1 atmosphere that is measured here. 𝑉∞ is
equals to 20 meters per second. Then the corresponding area of effectiveness is 0.0707
meter square.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:08)

Now what do you need to find? Find the thrust degenerated by the motor and find the
thrust generated by the motor and propeller combination. That is what we had to find.
The second one is what is the change in total pressure due to this BLDC and propeller
combination? And also power required to generate this thrust. These are the three
questions that we need to answer. Let us assume the interference is negligible with this
setup and all. With this attachment and the rest of the setup, let us assume that they are
not going to interfere with the flow here. Find the thrust generated by the motor and the
propeller combination. With this information, V at this particular station is about 20

23
meters per second. What I can do is, we know the relationship between this 𝑉𝑖 and V.
V at this particular station is
𝑉 = 2𝑉𝑖
because the pressure is 1 atmosphere right. 𝑉𝑖 is equals to 10 meter per second. V is 20
meters per second. Similarly, once we have this , I know
𝐴𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐴2 𝑉∞
Since, 𝑉 is equal to 𝑉∞
𝐴 = 2𝐴2
There is a small correction here. Let us consider this area as 0.0353 meter square. What
we have here is area is equals to 0.0707 meter square. This is the area of the disc.
(Refer Slide Time: 45:32)

The thrust generated is

𝑇 = (𝑃𝑅 − 𝑃𝐿 )𝐴
How can I get it? You can use this use the thrust formula, but I am not doing that. You
better do this. 𝑃∞ which is far ahead of this disc is equal to
1
𝑃∞ = 𝑃𝐿 + 𝜌𝑉𝑖2
2
1
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑃∞ − 𝜌𝑉𝑖2
2
𝑃𝐿 = 1.01325 × 105 − 0.5 × 1.225 × 102
𝑃𝐿 = 1.0126 × 105 𝑃𝑎
This is the pressure on the left side of the disc. Similarly, I can find out what is the
pressure on the right side of this.

24
 1 1
𝑃𝑅 + 𝜌𝑉𝑖2 = 𝑃∞ + 𝜌𝑉22
2 2
1
𝑃𝑅 = 1.01325 × 105 + × 1.225 × (400 − 100)
2
𝑃𝑅 = 1.015 × 105 𝑃𝑎
Substituting these numbers we can get the corresponding thrust which is
𝑇 = (1.0151 − 1.0126) × 105 × 0.707
𝑇 = 17.66 Newtons
close to 1.7 kg. This is the thrust generated by this particular engine.

This is the thrust generated by this engine and the corresponding power generated is
𝑃 = 𝑇𝑉𝑖
𝑃 = 176.6 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
This is answer for the third question. What is the change in the total pressure? What is
total pressure ahead of the disc? Total pressure ahead of the disc is nothing but
atmospheric pressure here 1 atmosphere and total pressure behind the disc is (𝑃𝐿 +
1
𝜌 𝑉 2 ). You can see so pressure on the left side has dropped below the atmospheric
2

pressure. It is 𝑃∞ minus this particular quantity and beyond the right side, it is like 𝑃∞
plus the total increase in the velocity is the P on the right side. This particular quantity
is the total pressure on right side.
(Refer Slide Time: 51:01)

The change in the total pressure

Δ𝑃0 = 𝑃0𝑅 − 𝑃0𝐿

25
 = (1.015 × 105 + 0.5 × 1.225 × 102 ) − 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
= 246.25 𝑃𝑎
This is equals to 246.25 Pascal is the additional pressure that is added because of this
particular disc. The power required to generate this thrust is close to 177 watts here.
Thank you.

26
 UAV Design - Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture - 03
Lift and Drag for an Infinite Wing

Welcome back. In our previous lecture, we discussed about axial momentum theory,
where the velocity is constrained to a single axis.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:25)

We talked about axial momentum theory. Where the flow is assumed to be uniform,
incompressible and in viscid. Flow is also unidirectional where the velocity has only
one component from left to right. And then we also assumed that the thrust generated
is uniform or equally distributed throughout the disc of area A. Because of this disc’s
induces velocity 𝑉𝑖 to the flow there is a jump in total pressure and the static pressure
across the disc. This thrust is generated by a very thin disc.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:51)

27
With these assumptions, we witnessed at a location 2 where the pressure in the
downstream is equals to atmospheric pressure. The cross-sectional area of the stream
tube is figured out to be half the cross-section area of this disc. And the velocity at this
particular location is equal to twice the velocity induced by the disc. Let 𝑉𝑖 be the
velocity induced by the disc, 𝑃𝐿 is a pressure to the left of the disc and 𝑃𝑅 is a pressure
to the right of the disc, and we are talking about static pressure here. 𝑃∞ be the pressure
far ahead of this disc where 𝑉∞ is close to 0 here. We have also figured out how the
thrust generated can be calculated. It can be estimated by means of the pressure
difference generated by the disc across the cross-section area A. Thrust generated can
also be calculated my means of momentum change.
𝑇 = (𝑃𝑅 − 𝑃𝐿 )𝐴 = (𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑖 )𝑉2

1 𝑇
𝑉𝑖 = √ ×√
2𝜌 𝐴

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑇 × 𝑉𝑖
𝑇
𝑉𝑖 induced velocity depends upon this thrust loading factor 𝐴. We have also witnessed

that the power induced depends on thrust generated and induced velocity.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:56)

Now, let us look at the circular cylinder. This is the side view of the circular cylinder.
When you place this circular cylinder in the atmosphere; what do you think about the
forces acting on it? It is surrounded by the gas or atmosphere here, which exerts equal
pressure in all directions. The pressure exerted by the atmosphere on this cylinder is
equal in all directions and the corresponding net force due to this will be 0. Because

28
pressure acts in all directions and the net force is 0. If I want to lift the cylinder up, the
force that I need to overcome is weight of the cylinder 𝑚𝑔. I need to apply a force
which will overcome the weight of this object here. We have surrounding atmosphere
and that exerts some static pressure on this. But that is equal in all directions. Hence,
the total force exerted from any direction because of this atmospheric pressure is
canceled out from the opposite direction on this cylinder. We do not get any useful lift.
I try to constrain myself using the word lift for the time being. We do not get useful
force that will lift this body in the atmosphere under static condition.

Let us look at what happens when we place this circular cylinder in a flow. In other
words, we now know that we can generate a thrust from this disc. If I attach the disc
rigidly at some other location, this body will be along with that disc because there is
thrust. It will try to move forward, and we somehow attached this circular cylinder to
this disc. It starts moving forward. Now when it is moving forward, we know that the
air will also move in the opposite direction with the equal velocity. That means, it is
equivalent to see as a disc like this. Say this is 𝑉∞ . If the disc is moving with 𝑉∞ , I will
have a flow opposite to it at the same velocity 𝑉∞ . Assume that it is circular. Now what
happens in an ideal flow? What is an ideal flow? It is a flow of fluids in which the
viscous forces are neglected. Here viscosity is nothing but fluid friction. When an object
is trying to move in a fluid, the fluid try to resist its motion. That is nothing but viscosity;
a fluid friction.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:36)

29
Let us consider ideal flow over bodies. If I see the main aim of looking at the flow
around this object is whether this flow can create any pressure difference here. Which
can generate lift or a force that acts against weight of this body. That is the whole area
for that we are trying to first look at what is the ideal flow. What happens when there
is an ideal flow across this cylinder? The ideal flow means what? We have neglected
viscous effect in the fluid flow. The study that talks about this is known as
hydrodynamic theory. This theory deals with invicid fluid flow. One of the important
predictions of this hydrodynamic theory is that when there is a flow across an object,
the flow has to close behind the object no matter what the shape of the object is. We
will look into that.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:39)

This is my one of the stagnation points. More or less, flow tries to achieve the same
profile of object. Even the profile behind the object is more or less same as profile ahead
of the object. One of the important predictions of the theory is that the flow has to close
behind the body no matter what the body shape is. It also claims that no energy loss
throughout the flow but in reality, for a real fluid flows, there is definitely some
viscosity to some degree. And due to viscosity, what happens the fluid particles try to
stick to the surface of the body. In other words, the velocity of the fluid particles on the
body surface is equals to zero. This is contradicting the ideal flow theory where the
ideal flow theory predicts that the fluid velocity on the body will be equal to the flow
velocity or even more than that. Why is that?

30
(Refer Slide Time: 13:19)

Real fluid flow has viscosity to some degree or of varying degree. Due to which, the
velocity of fluid on the body surface will be zero. This is in contradiction to the ideal
flow theory which predicts that the velocity on the body surface can be equal to or more
than the free stream velocity. But the aforementioned theory predicts a finite nonzero
velocity. In fact, this theory considers the body surface or the boundary of the object as
a part of the flow itself. If you look at this particular streamline, this is known as
stagnation streamline, where the body itself forms the stagnation. On the body there are
two stagnation points here 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 and that itself forms this particular stagnation
streamline here. The velocity of the fluid particle is zero at these two points 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 .

(Refer Slide Time: 16:12)

According to this theory, we have finite velocity of the flow on the object which can be
more than the free stream velocity. In this particular case, the object’s or the surface of

31
the object itself is a part of the flow, which forms the stagnation streamline of this flow.
Let 𝑠1 be the first stagnation point which is on the front part of this body and 𝑠2 be the
second stagnation point which is on the rear part of this body. Along the stagnation
streamline the flow initially which is at rest tries to accelerate and it reaches a certain
velocity and then drops backs to the zero velocity at 𝑠2 . Let us now look at what is the
pressure distribution because of this flow. That is what we are most interested in, is it
not? Because of the stagnation points we have positive pressure. As the flow accelerates
the static pressure decreases and we have a negative pressure because we are not adding
any energy in this entire part. We have a total pressure 𝑃0 here, which is completely the
static pressure at the stagnation point.

As the flow accelerates towards the second the stagnation point, the dynamic pressure
increases, and the static pressure drops down. This is the representation of static
pressure here. The flow again drops back to zero velocity at 𝑠2 after reaching certain
velocity. At 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 , we have stagnation points where it is total static pressure. And
here on the surface and below the surface there is certain velocity for the flow according
to this theory. There is a drop in the static pressure because the total pressure still has
to be same here. Hence, there is a drop in static pressure. That drop in static pressure
compared to the ambient conditions, let us call it a negative pressure. We will discuss
about this negative pressure in detail, very soon. We have negative pressure and positive
pressure here. On both sides we have positive pressure and on the top and bottom we
have negative pressure.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:43)

32
Similarly, let us look at ideal flow around a streamline body. Okay. You have the initial
stagnation points and the object’s boundary itself forms the stagnation streamline. Let
𝑠2 be the second stagnation point behind to this flow. Since according to this theory,
the flow cannot separate from this body, hence it has to close. It will try to curl around
this particular trailing edge and then closes the flow. You have two stagnation points
again here in 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 . If you look at the pressure distribution here, similar to earlier
discussion, we have positive pressure near the stagnation point and negative pressure
on top and bottom sides of this airfoil. This particular streamlined object is known as
airfoil. Let us say this is our airfoil and this is negative pressure, and this is positive
pressure. What we are talking about is this ideal flow or typical ideal flow over bodies.
This is the figure; I am going to talking about. We have a bluff body, and we have a
streamlined body here. This is how a typical pressure distribution is. Let us look at the
velocity distribution here.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:01)

Say V be the local velocity and 𝑉∞ be the free stream velocity here. Let theta represents
a location here. Zero degree corresponds to stagnation point 1 and 180 degrees
corresponds to stagnation point 2. For a circular cylinder, a typical variation is
something like this. And this corresponds to the airfoil. You can observe for a circular
cylinder the maximum thickness point P is at 90 degrees. At this point, the local
velocity is almost twice of the free stream velocity if you observe closely, according to
ideal hydrostatic theory which is ideal flow theory. But will it happen in reality? What
does happen in reality? As we mentioned earlier, real flows have some viscosity. Hence,
the flow which is close to the surface of the object will experience a lot of retardation

33
due to viscosity and it will come to rest on the body surface. Within certain distance
from the surface of the body, the flow will try to reach the velocity, within very short
distance, from zero to the free stream. Zero because it has fluid friction. It will stick to
the surface and on the surface the velocity will be zero for the fluid flow

Let us say if you take a perpendicular distance to the surface. Within a small
perpendicular distance from the surface, it will try to reach to the free stream velocity
at that particular location. This small thickness in which the velocity reaches from zero
to the free stream velocity is called boundary layer. We will see why we are talking
about boundary layer at the same time. Because we are dealing with non-ideal fluids.
We are talking about the flow of air around the streamline body. We need to know how
this air, which is a real fluid, behaves on this particular object at different conditions.
That is what we are trying to do. How the lift force is generated, which is our main aim.
We know already how the thrust is generated. Now we would like to know how lift is
generated. When we were talking about the thrust generation, we were talking about
reaction from the air. The propeller rotates and pushes air behind, and air pushes the
propeller forward. This particular phenomenon is producing certain thrust. There is a
pressure difference across the disc. That is what we witnessed. Why we have to depend
upon air to generate thrust? Because that is the only medium on which we can apply
force and can get reaction from.

For example, if you talk about car, your car wheels are connected to the engine by
means of some drives such as a gearbox, shaft axle and shaft. You have certain linkage
that connect the tires of your car and that linkage is connected with your car engine.
What happens when the engine starts generating the power? It will start rotating the
shaft and shaft rotates the wheels. The wheels get the reaction force because of the
friction on the ground. On the ground force direction is backward but on the tires the
friction acts in the forward direction, which will take your car forward. Hence, friction
helps your car to move forward. If you put an ice beneath it, your tires will start slipping,
your car will not be able to move forward. The car is moving forward because of
friction. That means you are getting reaction from the ground due to friction. Your car
is still in atmosphere, but you are using reaction from the ground. But when you are off
the ground, the only medium which can give you the reaction force is air. That means
we need reaction that is the reason why we are depending on air for the generation of

34
thrust. Similarly, we have to depend on air. Of course, we know that for generation of
lift.

If you want to know how this air behaves in reality on this, then we need to talk a bit
about this boundary layer theory as well. That will help us to understand why there is a
flow separation. When you talk about the airfoil see this streamlined body which is
known as airfoil. When we talk about the characteristics of airfoil, we will be using this
flow separation concept. In order to understand what is flow separation, how it happens,
we first need to talk about boundary layer. This lecture maybe with bit more
aerodynamics and maybe boring to some of you, but still there is no shortcut. We have
to go through this lecture.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:11)

Let us say y be the perpendicular distance to the surface. And V is the corresponding
velocity. Let us say 𝑉1 be the local velocity here. On the body, when y is 0 which is on
the body, the velocity of the fluid is 0 and it slowly increases to the free stream velocity.
This is almost close to that point. This is the loss. We will talk about this. But first let
us look at this curve. The magnitude velocity increase gradually. Let us say if I have an
object like this. At this particular point say this is my tangent to the surface and this is
my normal to the surface. Along this normal let us say there is flow here. This object is
in flow, we place this object in flow. At this particular point what is the corresponding
magnitude of velocity? Is it not that these arrows represent the velocity at these points?
These arrows represent the magnitude of velocity at these different points, that is right.

35
Hence, arrows represent the magnitude at this particular point. If you have multiple
pitot tubes or say multiple of the static tubes arranged in a stack. If you have a vertical
column and we have multiple ports and use that particular frame with multiple ports to
measure this particular velocity profile.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:34)

A thin layer in which the velocity of the flow rises rapidly from zero to local velocity
𝑉1 is known as boundary layer. Prandtl in the year 1904 proposed this theory. He
postulated that this delta the thickness of the boundary layer is very small compared to
the characteristic dimension of the object. Let us say, in this particular circular cylinder
case, we can consider the characteristic dimension as the diameter. In this particular
case, we can consider some length which can join the first point and the last point here
that can be the characteristic length. According to him,
𝛿
≪1
𝐿
where L is the characteristic length and 𝛿 is the boundary layer thickness.

Now typically within this 𝛿 thickness, all viscous effects are dominant. We can say
these viscous effects are confined within this particular boundary layer and also outside
this boundary layer, we can deal with the same potential flow theory or the
hydrodynamic theory. Outside this boundary layer, the fluid flow behaves as if it is
inviscid. We can consider the conditions to be inviscid.

36
(Refer Slide Time: 35:48)

Now what happens actually, when you have an aerofoil. This is your given object. Let
us say this is your given body and there is a flow. You have a boundary layer. You have
given body with boundary layer. What is happening within boundary layer? We know
the velocity at any given point on this airfoil will try to rise from zero to the local
velocity. Velocity depends on how the pressure is. The velocity keeps changing from
zero to free stream velocity. When you say zero velocity, what do you mean by that?
Are you not bringing the particle of mass m to rest at that particular point? It is nothing
but you are accumulating mass. Am I correct? The concept of equivalent bodies
introduced in order to show what happens, we can actually replace this particular
boundary layer with this body by means of a body of thickness 𝛿 ⋆ added to this
particular given body.

We have this given body and add a delta star thickness, which accounts for this
boundary layer effect. Add that particular thickness and replace this body with that
particular thickness then what you have is a potential flow solution or ideal flow
solution. All those viscous effects are now constrained within this 𝛿 ⋆ and 𝛿 ⋆ is now
become a part of this body itself. That is what we call it as equivalent body here.
According to Kutta condition, the flow has to leave parallel to this trailing edge. You
can read about that fact. We can replace our given body by means of this equivalent
body and consider the flow is inviscid. You can figure out what is the corresponding
pressure distribution as well as velocity distribution using ideal flow theory. This is
called as equivalent body. According to this equivalent body theory, what are we doing?

37
We are displacing the surface of the boundary by means of an equivalent boundary
layer thickness.

(Refer Slide Time: 39:57)

Let us say 𝛿 ⋆ represents the equivalent boundary layer thickness. Say this is my 𝛿 ⋆ . Let
us say 𝛿 ⋆ represents equivalent boundary layer thickness. Why are we using this
equivalent boundary layer thickness? If we shift the flow by this particular 𝛿 ⋆ , what
will happen? We will lose some mass flow. If you consider a particular control volume,
whatever the mass that is entering may not be leaving because of the retardation faced
by the fluid element and it is being trapped in this particular boundary layer. The bottom
most particle will face higher retardation compared to the others here. That is why it
will come to the rest soon compared to the other particles in that particular boundary
layer. What we can say at a particular location? Say this is my y. Consider a small
element 𝑑𝑦 here. Where 𝑉𝑦 is the corresponding velocity at that particular location.
What is this difference? This particular difference will be ( 𝑉1 − 𝑉(𝑦) ). 𝑉(𝑦) is the
velocity at that particular location. ( 𝑉1 − 𝑉(𝑦) ) represents this particular loss in mass
flow rate. This mass flow is equal to the loss in mass flow. This talks about the loss in
mass flow. The actual mass flow should be what? Ideally it should be 𝜌𝐴𝑉1.

But in this particular strip what you have is 𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑦 where A is the cross section here. Let
us say, the area of cross section of this thin strip will be 𝑑𝑦 × 1 through which the mass
flow is happening. 𝜌 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1 × 𝑉𝑦 will be the corresponding mass flow through that

38
particular strip in the boundary layer. And then what will be the loss of the mass flow?
It would be 𝜌𝑑𝑦 × 1 × (𝑉1 − 𝑉(𝑦)). (𝑉1 − 𝑉(𝑦)) is the loss in velocity. If you integrate
it from 0 to infinity. At a location when 𝑉(𝑦) becomes 0.99 times of 𝑉1. This particular
integral will not have any meaning. You can say zero to some value where 𝑑𝑦 value
where velocity at that particular y location becomes close to local velocity. Again,
coming back to this equivalent body. What is the concept here? Now coming back to
this equivalent body. What we have is 𝛿 ⋆ just to replace the given body so that the flow
solution becomes invicid flow solution. That means, whatever the mass flow rate that
was lost must be compensated by this 𝛿 ⋆ . Let us say the mass flow rate compensated
by this is the corresponding cross section area times the density times the corresponding
velocity will be V1 because for a invicid solution even the velocity in the boundary
layer will be same.
∞
𝜌𝛿 ⋆ 𝑉1 = ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑦(1)[𝑉1 − 𝑉(𝑦)]
0

⋆
1 ∞
𝛿 = ∫ [𝑉1 − 𝑉(𝑦)]𝑑𝑦
𝑉1 0
∞
𝑉(𝑦)
𝛿 ⋆ = ∫ [1 − ] 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑉1
This is what we are going to have. You can look at the detailed derivation. This is just
like a one-dimensional thing that we have used. You can look at the detailed derivation
for this.

(Refer Slide Time: 47:34)

39
Let us talk about flow separation. Since we know what boundary layer and equivalent
boundary layer is. We now try to use them for our concept of flow separation.
According to ideal flow theory, what it predicts? According to this we have stagnation
𝑠1 and 𝑠2 stagnation points. Which is on the front and rear sides of the object. According
to this, flow reaches some maximum velocity on the surface. Maximum velocity on
surface downstream 𝑠1 and drops back zero at 𝑠2 . Due to which there is pressure in the
front and pressure in the back. Positive pressure acting in the front and back. The net
force generated by the pressure acting on the front and the rear side of this cylinder will
be canceled out. Similarly, there is a stagnation point in the rear end of this object. This
force in the front end and the rear end will get cancelled out.

That means it will result in zero net axial horizontal force. I am trying not to use these
words drag and lift for the time being. We will soon define them, and we can start using
them. Till then let me talk in terms of axial force and vertical force. Similarly, you have
negative pressure on the top and negative pressure on the bottom. Because of this net
pressure cancels out and there is no net vertical force. Let us look at an analogy in order
to understand what happens in reality for this flow. This is again from the ideal flow
which we just discussed. We will talk about the actual flow once we look at this
analogy.

(Refer Slide Time: 51:27)

Let us consider a road which is flat on the top and then there is a slope down and you
need to climb the slope up and then there is a flat road which is almost at the same

40
height of this initial road, which is here. Let us say I am on the skating board. Let us
say this is point A, which is at height h. It possesses some potential energy definitely.
And now as I go down the slope, my potential energy is converted to maximum kinetic
energy at point B. And then ideally, I should reach point C to attain same potential
energy, which is at point A. This is when there are no losses. But when there is loss, of
course there is friction here friction generates heat and there is loss in energy. You may
not be able to reach point C what you desired, but practically you may end up reaching
point C prime here. The desired point is C, you may end up reaching C prime because
of the loss in energy. Similar thing happens in real flows as well. Let us look at that.
Say this is my 𝑠1 and this is my 𝑠2 . That is what we have for this circular cylinder.

Now say at 𝑠1 you have high static pressure. According to ideal fluid flow, where there
is no viscosity, you achieved a maximum velocity here. That means when you have
maximum velocity what you will have a low static pressure. And then there is again
some high static pressure. And there is no loss of energy in this entire process for this
ideal flows. What happens, we know how gas flows, how a fluid flow. When you have
a fluid flow from high pressure to low pressure. When there is a pressure difference
from high pressure to low pressure, the fluid flow happens. Such a condition is a
favorable condition for us. What we have is pressure gradient. It is a slope. We have a
favorable pressure gradient. When reaching from 𝑠1 to this particular point P. In invicid
flow, this is my local velocity. What I have is same local velocity perpendicular to the
surface starting from the body. This is my local velocity 𝑉1 at this particular location.
And I am reaching almost two times 𝑉∞ here. Then what is happening, we have high
pressure, and we have low pressure here; because of which the fluid retards.

It is an adverse condition of flow. The fluid here is trying to push itself from low
pressure to high pressure, which is an adverse pressure condition for us, which is known
as adverse. This particular direction is adverse pressure gradient. Again, from the ideal
fluid flow, close to this it is zero and then ahead of this the velocity reduces compared
to the velocity at points P and this velocity will be equal to the local velocity at that
particular location. Let us say this is my point A here. Let us look at what is 𝐴′. What
happens at 𝐴′. If I draw a perpendicular to the surface here at 𝐴’. The fluid element
which is having certain velocity here because of the adverse pressure conditions and

41
also because of the fluid friction, it will try to retard. The velocity profile will
completely change compared to what is at A. The fluid maybe something like this. Say
that V 1 is the local velocity at that particular location. Let us move ahead and then go
to this point 𝐴′′ which is here and see what happens now. Now say the innermost particle
which is on the surface because of this adverse, it will retard to rest. That means, the
pressure profile here be completely different, where the molecules in this boundary
layer may almost reach there.

The molecules on the surface definitely is at zero velocity. And in the boundary layer
as well it has come almost to the rest. Now if you move ahead, what happens here?
There can be a reverse flow happening. Because these molecules are at rest here. There
will be a reverse flow from high pressure to the low-pressure present. And then there is
something called flow separation. The flow tries to separate from this surface. This is
called flow separation and what you end up seeing is a vertex formation. Under the
adverse pressure conditions there will be a flow separation from the surface. When there
is a flow separation, the pressure distribution on the body will altogether get
redistributed. It will change. The pressure distribution completely changes compared to
the attached flow condition. We will use this flow separation concept very regularly in
the coming lectures, while discussing the characteristics of aerofoil. Thank you.

42
 UAV Design - Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture - 04
Lift and Drag for an Infinite Wing (contd.)

Welcome back. In our previous lecture, we discussed about boundary layer and the
concepts about hydrodynamic theory and also, we looked at how the flow separation
happens because of the adverse pressure gradient. Now let us look at how lift is
generated?

(Refer Slide Time: 00:31)

What is lift? We will define. What is lift and drag of an airfoil. Now let us consider an
airfoil, which is a cross section of the wing as most of you are aware of. Let us place
this airfoil in the flow, which means the airfoil is also moving at a velocity 𝑉∞ here. Let
us assume that this flow happens in a stream tube. Now let us say this stream tube as
soon as it encounters the leading edge of this aero foil; we will talk about that what is
leading edge. What happens is this parent stream tube will get split into two daughter
stream tubes. There are many other explanations about how the lift is generated. This
is one that I believe is more realistic. Let us say the initial cross section area of the
stream tube to be A. Let 1 be on the top of this aero foil and let 2 be on the bottom
surface of this aero foil. The corresponding areas here, you can say 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 .

43
Here what happens? Because of the presence of this body, the flow gets split across this
and which results in a reduction in cross section area of the flow above and below the
airfoil. This flow happens again in the stream tubes. We call them as daughter stream
tubes here. 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are less than the area of the parent stream tube. Since the area is
reduced, the flow tries to accelerate on the top and bottom surfaces. That means you
will have velocity 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 and these are greater than 𝑉∞ . Which results a drop in the
pressure according to Bernoulli’s theorem. Let us say 𝑃1 be the static pressure at this
point and 𝑃2 be the static pressure on the bottom side of this aero foil. 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are less
than the static pressure in the free stream velocity 𝑉∞ . Now can we observe something
here? There is a drop in static pressure. Hence, there is an increase in velocity on either
side of this airfoil. When 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are equal, there would be no pressure difference.

Which means there is no net force in this vertical plane. If 𝑃1 is less than 𝑃2 , which
means there is a differential pressure in the vertical plane and there will be a force in
vertical direction because the static pressure on the bottom will try to push this aero foil
up. The difference of this pressure times the area will give you the corresponding force.
That means, when we have a pressure difference, we can create a force called
aerodynamic force, a force due to aerodynamics. Now again, this is from pressure
contribution. We also witnessed that while discussing about the initial concepts of the
boundary layer theory. We talked about viscous flows. What is viscosity doing here? It
is trying to stop this boy’s movement in fluid. When we represent 𝑉∞ in this direction,
which means the body is moving in the opposite direction. Because of viscosity what
will be the direction of obstructing force? Opposite to the motion.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:34)

44
Let us say, viscosity is acting on the surface because of that there is a force acting on
the surface. There is surface and there is a tangential force, what we can expect is a
shear stress acting in the tangential direction on the surface. Let 𝜏𝑠 represents this
particular tangential stress is called shear stress. When you have flow due to viscosity
you have shear stress. When you have flow you have pressure distribution. You have
pressure distribution here. This negative pressure is nothing but drop in pressure
compared to the surrounding static pressure. Let us assume there is no energy addition
in this particular flow. We have an actuator disk attached to an aircraft near the fuselage.
And let us assume the wings are far away from the influence of the free stream from
this particular setup, the propeller and the engine there. Now this propeller is generating
a thrust T, which is rigidly attached to the aircraft. Now the aircraft is being pulled with
the same force and wings are rigidly attached to this aircraft, and wings also experience
the same forward velocity. In a fluid when there is a forward velocity, you have equal
and opposite flow velocity.

That means, the wing, which is not under the influence of this propeller, ideally the
pressure far ahead is the static pressure which is atmospheric pressure. When it starts
moving that means the atmospheric pressure drops down and your dynamic pressure
increases to maintain the same total pressure. When this happens in that particular
stream tube compare to the ambient conditions, let us say if you consider an offset
distance from that particular stream tube, you have static pressure conditions.
Compared to that ambient conditions, the pressure inside that stream tube which is
upstream is less. And it is further less on the wings because the velocity is increasing.
But the static pressure inside this particular stream tube is far lesser compared to static
pressure. When we compare the pressure on the upper and bottom surface, we have
higher pressure drop on the top and lower pressure drop on the bottom part of airfoil.
We will see why is it? Once we look at the nomenclature of this aero foil and then we
will get back to that. Why there is higher pressure drop on the top and lower pressure
drop on the bottom? There is pressure drop on either side, but there is a higher pressure
drop on the top and low lower pressure drop on the bottom phase. That is why these
arrows represent that negative pressure, that pressure drop compared the ambient
conditions. These two are happening together. And there is flow, there is viscosity, there
is shear stress, there is static pressure and there is certain pressure distribution.

45
this talks about a typical pressure distribution on airfoil. Figure B talks about shear
stress distribution. Combining them what we have is a resultant aerodynamic force.
This airfoil is moving in the fluid and it experienced the pressure as well as shear stress
distribution. That result in aerodynamic force. Let us say this is some reference line for
the time being and say this is moving with 𝑉∞ . What do you mean by this 𝑉∞ ? We are
representing this entire flow field by means of this particular vector 𝑉∞ , which means
the airfoil is actually moving in this direction. Though it is oriented in a particular
fashion, but still it is moving downward. Let us say if there is an arrow in this direction
that means the object is moving in this particular direction. Now a component of this
resultant aerodynamic forces, which is acting perpendicular to this 𝑉∞ , is called lift. We
have a component from this resultant aerodynamic force which is acting perpendicular
to 𝑉∞ . 𝑉∞ and lift makes an angle 90 degrees here. A component of this resultant
aerodynamic forces acting along 𝑉∞ is called drag. Now we have defined what is lift
and drag.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:50)

Lift is a component of resultant aerodynamic force acting perpendicular to free stream

and drag is a component of resultant aerodynamic force which is acting in the direction
of free stream, which is the direction of 𝑉∞ here. We know drag is in this negative
direction of the motion. When we represent 𝑉∞ in this direction, which means the object
is moving in this direction and we know drag is acting in the negative direction of
motion. That means drag retards the motion of this object in the fluid. Let us now
quickly look at what is the nomenclature of this airfoil.

46
(Refer Slide Time: 15:01)

Lift is defined as-

1
𝐿 = ( 𝜌𝑉∞2 ) (𝑆)𝐶𝐿 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 (𝑁)
2
1
𝑞∞ = 𝜌𝑉∞2
2

And drag is defined as

1
𝐷 = ( 𝜌𝑉∞2 ) (𝑆)𝐶𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷 (𝑁)
2

Where, L is lift, D is drag, 𝑞∞ is dynamic pressure, S is wing reference area, 𝐶𝐿 is

nondimensional lift coefficient and 𝐶𝐷 is nondimensional drag coefficient.

We will see what 𝐶𝐿 and 𝐶𝐷 depends upon. As we progress, we will talk about that.
Thank you.

47
 UAV Design - Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture - 05
Relation Between Aerodynamic Center and Center of Pressure

Hello all. Welcome back. In our previous lecture, we discussed about how aerodynamic
forces namely lift and drag are produced on an aerofoil and we have defined what is lift
and drag.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:28)

Let us consider an airfoil. When there is flow and the orientation of this airfoil with
respect to flow is the angle of attack represented by 𝛼 and lift is a component of the
resultant aerodynamic force which is acting perpendicular to the free stream. and Drag
is another component of resultant force acting along 𝑉∞ . We have defined lift
1 2
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶 = 𝑓1 (𝜌∞ , 𝑉∞ , 𝑆, 𝛼, 𝜇∞ , 𝑎∞ )
2 ∞ 𝐿(2𝐷)
and at the same time, we have also defined what is drag,
1 2
𝐷= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶 = 𝑓2 (𝜌∞ , 𝑉∞ , 𝑆, 𝛼, 𝜇∞ , 𝑎∞ )
2 ∞ 𝐷(2𝐷)
The corresponding lift coefficient and drag coefficient for this aerofoil is considered as
2D, why because aerofoil is also known as the infinite wing. It is a sectional property.
This lift and drag, we are talking about is about a sectional property of an airfoil. The
section here is a two dimensional section of the wing, which is aerofoil also known as
infinite wing or 2D wing. If we look at the 𝐶𝐿(2𝐷) what we can write it as

48
 𝐿
𝐶𝐿(2𝐷) = = 𝜁(𝛼, 𝑅𝑒, 𝑀)
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆
At the same time drag coefficient can be given by this expression following expression
𝐷
𝐶𝐷(2𝐷) = = 𝜂(𝛼, 𝑅𝑒, 𝑀)
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆

The lift and drag are the function of density 𝜌∞ , free stream velocity 𝑉∞ and size of the
lifting surface, angle of attack and also dynamic viscosity as well as speed of sound.
Where 𝜇∞ is a dynamic viscosity of air, we will define it very soon. For example, if I
have to understand the variation of lift, I have to vary all these parameters and see how
the corresponding lift variation is with respect to the density, 𝑉∞ , surface area as well
as angle of attack, dynamic viscosity and speed of sound. There are quite a lot of
variables. Instead of dealing with so many variables, we talk in terms of these non-
dimensional parameters. Let us say lift coefficient is a function of angle of attack,
Reynolds number and Mach number. Similarly, drag coefficient is a function of angle
of attack, Reynolds number and Mach number. Whatever we are talking about these
coefficients here, we will consider two dimensional coefficients. That is not for the
entire wing. Now apart from reducing the workload, let us say how to generate the 𝐶𝐿
with 𝛼 in the first place. How do we generally get lift variation with angle of attack?

(Refer Slide Time: 04:39)

49
Previously, we looked at how 𝐶𝐿 varies with angle of attack. For example, this is for an
aerofoil and within the linear regime, we assume a straight line equation. We can
represent this variation of lift in the linear regime as
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0(2𝐷) + 𝐶𝐿_𝛼(2𝐷) 𝛼
How have we generated this data, how have we got this information? By testing this
airfoil in a wind tunnel. Wind tunnel is an experimental setup, where we can drive the
air at the desired speed and test our airfoil. Which is equivalent to airfoil moving at the
same velocity in the static air. We use that principle. We place aerofoil inside that wing
and try to measure the corresponding forces acting on it. Why do you want to deal in
this with these parameters? One thing is if I want to know about the lift and drag
characteristics of a particular aircraft, I have to vary all these six parameters. Initially I
have to keep density, reference area, 𝛼 and all the other parameters constant and vary
the velocity. At different velocity what will be the corresponding variation of lift
coefficient and at the same time, I can keep velocity constant with rest of these
parameters constant and I can vary the angle of attack. And for example, if I am using
the same cross-section, but different, wings of different size, how should I compare.

Let us say if I am using different aerofoil here, the lifting characteristics of the aerofoil
will be different and it changes with shape as well. In order to reduce the number of
variables as well as the complexity, we try to deal in terms of non-dimensional
coefficients. Let us consider a small example where a Boeing Dreamliner is flying at
an altitude of 30,000 feet, which is approximately 10 kilometers. Moving at a velocity
of 0.8 Mach number. First of all, let us define this Reynolds number
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝜏𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑑
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = (𝑚𝑉)
𝑑𝑡

If you solve this what you have Reynolds number

𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑙
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇∞

50
For air 𝜇∞ at 18 degrees Celsius is about 1.789 × 10–5 Newton second/meter2. And l
is a characteristic length. When you talk about an aerofoil, you can consider the
characteristic length to be the chord length of the airfoil.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:15)

Mach number is defined as

𝑉∞
𝑀=
𝑎∞
Where, 𝑎∞ is the velocity of sound which is
𝑎∞ = √𝛾𝑅𝑇
Where, 𝛾 is a ratio of specific heats which is 1.44 for air. And then R is the universal
gas constant and T is the corresponding temperature ambient temperature. This talks
about how fast we are moving. If you are moving at a Mach number which is less than
0.3, we call it as low subsonic speed. This is like negligible compressibility effect.
When if moving anything less than 0.8 Mach number and greater than 0.3 Mach
number, is called high subsonic flow, where the flow is dominated by compressibility
effects. If you are flying in between 0.8 and 1.3 Mach number, this particular regime is
known as transonic speed. If the Mach number is equals to 1 that means you are flying
at sonic speed. Effectively you are flying at velocity of sound. You will cover about
close to 1200 kilometers per an hour.
𝑀 ≤ 0.3 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
0.3 < 𝑀 ≤ 0.8 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
0.8 < 𝑀 ≤ 1.3 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

51
 1.3 < 𝑀 ≤ 5 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
5<𝑀 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

(Refer Slide Time: 12:31)

The Mach number which is greater than 5 is hypersonic speed. Where the concepts
about rarefied gas dynamics will come into the picture. Now coming back to this
discussion, now we want to look into these non-dimensional aerodynamic parameters,
which indeed a function of this non-dimensional variables. Here, Reynolds number is
a non-dimensional variable and Mach number is also a non-dimensional variable.
Instead of handling six variables to find out the forces, we will be able to find out their
force coefficients with three variables. Apart from that, I will just get back to that
example what we were discussing. We have considered a Boeing Dreamliner. It is
flying at an altitude of 30,000 feet which is approximately 10 kilometers.

It is flying at a Mach number of 0.80. In the first place, how can we allow that aircraft
to fly. Can you dare to allow it to fly in straightaway after manufacturing? You will not.
You first have to simulate the conditions on ground. How do you simulate those similar
conditions is? By performing wind tunnel test. As I discussed wind tunnel is an
experimental setup where you can place your scaled down models or your models inside
the test section, where test section is the place where you actually measure the test data
from the model that it experiences from the wind. The tunnel is equipped with a fan
which runs the air at a desired speed. Fan will basically try to throw air at a desired
speed.

52
(Refer Slide Time: 14:34)

I may not be drawing it to the scale. You have some filtering chambers. And there is a
honeycomb structure, it is not an obstruction here. There is something called
honeycomb structure to streamline the flow. And then there will be a convergent comb
or convergent chamber. Followed by this we will have a settling chamber where the
flow now tries to settle in this particular chamber. You have the test section right. This
is where we generally place our models and perform the testing. Let us say this is the
test section followed by that you will have a diverging chamber. This particular setup
runs the air at desired speed. Now this motor will try to through the air. We can vary
the rpm of this so that the air inside will run at different forward velocities that is the
aircraft faces. Now, how should I generate this two-dimensional data? What can I do?
Let us say this is the sidewall of this test section, one side vertical wall. And then let us
assume this is the vertical wall on the other side. This is my front face and this is my
back face right. Now let us consider an airfoil and extrude this airfoil. What you have
is a wing. Now extrude this aerofoil till the other face of this test section. What happens
by doing that is the flow anyway we know that it is always parallel to the test section
here inside the wind tunnel.

The flow will remain always parallel to the test section here. This is how the wind tunnel
will be. Now what I can do is if I take a plane which is exactly the midway of the span
of this airfoil. If I can put holes on the surface and then tap the corresponding pressure
at each and every location. I will be able to measure the pressure distribution over an
airfoil at a given location. I have extended this aerofoil till the ends of this test section

53
walls. What I am trying to do is with respect to flow, it is like a continuous infinite
body. The flow happens within this confined regime, which is inside the test section.
Till the ends of the walls we have covered it with n number of aerofoils. There is an
airfoil here as well. You can imagine this as an extrusion of this particular airfoil. If this
is not to the scale, then I can reduce it a bit. Everywhere we have airfoil sections. At the
midpoint of this length, let us take a vertical plane. Let us make holes on the surface of
this object. By tapping the pressure from the surface of this object, I will be able to find
out pressure distribution across this aerofoil, on the top and bottom surface. By
integrating that, I will be able to figure out what is lift and what is drag. Now that is
how we get lift and drag.

Now coming back to our example again, if I have to test this Dreamliner inside a wind
tunnel, will I be able to do it? I need such a big test section is not possible. For an
aerofoil we can definitely do it, but what about the Dreamliner? Can I bring it and place
it inside the test section? That may not be a feasible idea. Instead what I what can I
think of is to reduce it, scale it down the dimensions and then bring it into the test section
and perform the required test. In doing so can I generate the same lift? Why because if
I have to generate same lift for example, the one which is flying at 10 kilometers. It
experiences certain lift based upon its surface, the velocity of flight and the
corresponding ambient conditions there. Can I get the same force what you call
duplicated inside the wind tunnel? That may be a very difficult task. Instead, what I can
do is I can find out what is non-dimensional lift coefficient at that particular flight
conditions. If I can simulate the same conditions here like if I can measure the same 𝐶𝐿
by simulating the same Reynolds number what the aircraft is actually facing and then
the same Mach number what the aircraft is facing in the real time. If I can simulate both
Reynolds number and Mach number on a scaled down model, what actually the aircraft
is facing or going through.

If I can simulate the similar conditions, I will be able to get the same lift coefficient for
the actual flight as well as scaled down model inside the wind tunnel. This similarity of
flows is known as dynamic similarity. If I can achieve such dynamic similarity
condition, I will be able to attain the same 𝐶𝐿 value as that of actual flight test value.
Yes of course, you may have to maintain the same angle of attack even inside the wind
tunnel. How do you vary angle of attack here? For example, if I have a rod coming out

54
of this aerofoil and I connect that rod to a motor, stepper motor here, the angle of stepper
motor, I can control it. There is a shaft running throughout this airfoil and the shaft is
out here. If I can rotate this shaft, I will be able to rotate the airfoil altogether, the entire
wing section that we are using here. By rotating, I am trying to change the orientation
of this object with respect to the free stream velocity.

Here in our case, we call it as angle of attack. If I can rotate it, hold it at different angles
and take the corresponding pressure readings from the pressure tapping there. I will be
able to figure out what is the pressure distribution at that particular angle of attack, and
I can find out what is the corresponding lift and drag coefficient at that particular angle
of attack. By varying the angle of attack, I will be able to generate the data. For different
𝛼, I will be able to generate pressure on the upper and lower surface. Physically, I know
the location of these ports. I will be able to get pressure data from each port and I will
be able to integrate them to figure out what is the lift coefficient as well as drag
coefficient. That is how I will be able to generate 𝐶𝐿 versus 𝛼 graph. That is the
advantage if you can deal in terms of non-dimensional force coefficients here. You will
be able to achieve, the same characteristics as that of real flight at a very less expensive
way in terms of both time and money right as well as your efforts. The main aim of the
wind tunnel designer is to achieve this dynamic similarity.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:01)

The ideal wind tunnel is the one which can generate the required Reynolds number as
well as Mach number together. But in reality, it is very difficult. Hence, the aim of the
wind tunnel design is guided by either desired Reynolds number or desired Mach

55
number. That is why in general these wind tunnel tests are performed in multiple wind
tunnels. The same model is tested in multiple wind tunnels where one wind tunnel can
generate your desired Reynolds number, the other one can generate the desired Mach
number.

Let us get back to this figure again, where we know when there is flow. There is lift
and drag. These aerodynamic forces will also produce a moment. When there is flow,
apart from the aerodynamic forces there is also a moment called aerodynamic moment
here. Let us consider one such moment called pitching moment. Very soon we will
discuss about what are all the degrees of freedom of an aircraft have or a rigid body in
space have. It will rotate in a direction which increases the angle of attack. Then we call
it as positive 𝛼. If it is increasing the direction of angle of attack, then we will call it as
positive pitching moment, which is also known as nose-up. If the moment reduces the
angle of attack, we will call a negative pitching moment or pitch down moment. This
is a convention that we have adapted. First let us define this pitching moment, which is
𝑀 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚
where 𝑐̅ is mean aerodynamic chord. We will discuss about the 𝑐̅ when we talk about
that wing planform. 𝐶𝑚 is pitching moment coefficient which is non-dimensional
similar to 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐶𝐿 . You can assume,
𝐶𝑚 = 𝑓(𝛼, 𝑅𝑒, 𝑀)
Understanding the C m is also very important in order to characterize a particular
aerofoil as well as aircraft.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:30)

56
Now, let us write a pitching moment about an arbitrary point-
𝑀 = 𝑀′ + 𝜁 ′ 𝐿2𝐷
1 2 1 1
𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚
′
+ 𝜁 ′ 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿(2𝐷)
2 2 2
In nondimesional form, we can write
′
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚 + 𝜁 ′ 𝐶𝐿(2𝐷)
′
where 𝐶𝑚 is pitching moment when C L is 0. We will see whether such thing exist or
′
not. What is the significance of the 𝐶𝑚 . 𝜁′ be the be an empirical constant that depends
′
upon moment reference point. Now, what is this 𝐶𝑚 ? What do you mean by that? What
′
is the significance of 𝐶𝑚 ? We said this is what when pitching when lift is zero. We have
discussed about symmetric as well as cambered aerofoils earlier. For a symmetric
aerofoil, when is the lift zero for a symmetric aerofoil? When angle of attack is zero.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:03)

What happens at zero angle of attack for a symmetric aerofoil? Why lift is zero? If you
remember, this is how the variation is of 𝐶𝐿 and 𝛼. At 𝛼 = 0, 𝐶𝐿 is also 0. What do you
mean 𝐶𝐿 is 0? Lift is 0. When can you achieve such condition? What do you think is
happening? When can we have such condition lift is zero? You can simply say that,
when the body is not moving. But here we said at angle of attack zero, which means
that we are defining an orientation with respect to flow. That means the body is moving
ahead. There is flow. But still there is zero lift. When that can happen? We know that
there is pressure distribution when there is flow across this aerofoil. There is pressure
distribution on top and bottom surface. A resultant force is acting because of this

57
pressure distribution acting on this top surface. It may act at the centroid of this
distribution, maybe. That can be an easy guess. It may be acting at the centroid of this
pressure distribution on the top surface.

If there is an equal force that is acting in the opposite direction. The resultant force
would be zero. That means there is some force acting on this. The same force acts on
each and every particle that is rigidly attached with this body. Entire body will
experience. Similarly, I am just transferring the force that may be acting on the surface
just to undo the chord line. Similarly, the bottom the resultant force acting on the bottom
face is also transferred to the chord line here. Now when the top and bottom forces are
equal for a symmetric airfoil, it happens that these two acts at the same point. When lift
is zero, these two are acting at the same point, that means there is no moment as well.
This moment when lift is zero, for a symmetric aerofoil is zero right. In case of
cambered aerofoil you have what should be the condition?

When can be lift, when lift is zero for a cambered aerofoil? Yes, you have to, for a
cambered aerofoil I need to orientate a negative angle of attack. 𝛼 at which 𝐶𝐿 is zero
is negative. This is alpha, this is 𝐶𝐿 . This is my negative angle of attack at which I have
to orient my aerofoil, this cambered airfoil with respect to flow, that lift is zero. But in
that case what happens is this is that alpha at which 𝐶𝐿 is equals to zero. Though the lift
distribution, the pressure distribution on the top and bottom they are equal in magnitude
but may not be acting at the same point. They may be acting at an offset point. For a
cambered aerofoil because of which there is a pure couple it is an independent of
moment reference point here. It is like pure couple. It is generally less than zero for a
cambered airfoil, positively cambered airfoil. Let us get back to this equation. If you
′
can, we now are clear with what is 𝐶𝑚 ? It is moment when lift independent of lift here
right and is equals to zero for symmetric airfoil and also discussed that it is negative for
cambered aerofoil. What about this zeta?

Let us consider a moment reference point towards close to the leading edge here. You
know, when there is at certain angle of attack right there is some lift already acting on
this as well as drag. And because of this lift and also now we are in a position to
represent what is this moment in, let us not do that for the time being. Because of this,

58
when you change the angle of attack, right, so when you change this angle of attack the
reason so let us say that angle of attack changes positive and there will be an incremental
lift here acting. This incremental lift will try to produce a pitch down on moment right.
This is negative why because there will be an increase in angle of attack here. Let us
say if I increase this angle of attack alpha plus delta alpha. Because of which there is
an increase in lift right, there is an incremental lift. That incremental lift will produce a
pitched-on moment here. If this negative moment. The contribution of lift towards this
moment is negative that means this particular factor is the moment factor. This
particular factor has to be negative, which forces data has to be negative right.

(Refer Slide Time: 41:59)

In that case, If I consider, moment reference point, at leading edge, these forces when
there is an incremental 𝛼 like, 𝛼 is positive, 𝐶𝐿 will be positive. Which implies 𝐶𝐿 will
also increase. This increase in 𝐶𝐿 will produce negative moment. How this is possible?
This since, this condition forces zeta has to this implies zeta has to be less than zero.
Let us consider this moment reference point at the trailing edge. And let us say we shift
our focus to this trailing edge now, and with respect to that point, the any change in the
lift positive change in angle of attack will produce lift. That lift will try to give a pitch
up moment, that gives a positive value of 𝐶𝑚 here. This 𝐶𝐿 this particular term
contributes for a positive value, which means that 𝜁 has to be positive. 𝜁 has to be
greater than zero. If we look at this 𝜁 again depends upon moment reference point. If
the moment reference point is changing the value of this particular empirical constant

59
is changing. And it is changing from negative to positive. For a particular location on
this chord line, this 𝜁 value can be zero.

When it is changing from negative to positive this zeta can also be zero here for certain
location on this chord line here. That particular location is known as aerodynamic
′
center. What does it mean? 𝐶𝑚 now becomes 𝐶𝑚 , which is independent of when 𝜁 is
zero, there is no change in 𝐶𝐿 . That means, even if you change the angle of attack, 𝐶𝐿
will change but it will not affect the overall pitching moment about that particular point.
That particular point is known as aerodynamic center. Let us define it.

(Refer Slide Time: 44:29)

Aerodynamic center. Let us define aerodynamic center. This place a crucial, AC, this
plays a crucial role throughout, throughout our flight dynamic analysis, as well as in
the coming course as well. Pitching moment remains constant with angle of attack. Or
we can say independent of 𝛼. Independent of angle of attack, which means change in
pitching moment with respect to 𝛼 is zero about that point. That is for the airfoil. We
call the corresponding moment about that particular point is 𝐶𝑚 𝑎𝑐 is pitching moment
′
about aerodynamic center, which is nothing but our 𝐶𝑚 . We have our previous equation
which is
′
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚 + 𝜁𝐶𝑙
That is nothing but our aerodynamic center here, fine. How do you find this
aerodynamic center? Given 𝐶𝑙 , 𝐶𝑑 , this 𝐶𝑙 again two-dimensional 𝐶𝑑 two dimensional

60
which is 𝐶𝐷 times that is one and the same here and 𝐶𝑚 about a point. Given 𝐶𝑙 , 𝐶𝑑 , 𝐶𝑚
about a point we will be able to find aerodynamic center. What do you mean by that?

(Refer Slide Time: 47:31)

Let us consider an airfoil is at an angle of attack 𝛼. Let us say with respect to point O I
know what is 𝐶𝑙 , 𝐶𝑑 and 𝐶𝑚 . And say there is an aerodynamic center ac. Let the positive,
𝑥𝑎𝑐 is positive behind this O, point O. Let us say the offset between aerodynamic center
and O is 𝑥𝑎𝑐 . Since as I told earlier if I know lift drag at a point these are forces, I can
translate to the aerodynamics as well as lift and drag here. As well as there is certain
moment about this aerodynamic center that we got to know. For moment about
aerodynamic center for a symmetric aerofoil is zero here. Which we witnessed earlier.
And is negative for cambered aerofoil, positively cambered. And is positive for reflex
aerofoil. Let us, right moment about O is
𝑀 = 𝑀𝑎𝑐 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐 𝐿
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 𝐶𝑙
𝑑𝐶𝑚
= −𝑥̅𝑎𝑐
𝑑𝐶𝑙
𝑑𝐶𝑚
𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 = −
𝑑𝐶𝑙
𝑑𝐶𝑚
I can find out the location with respect to that point is equals to − . If I know the lift
𝑑𝐶𝑙
𝑑𝐶𝑚
curve slope of this 𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝑙 curve slope, if I know it is a pitching moment and lift
𝑑𝐶𝑙

coefficient curve slope right, if I know that within the linear regime, I will be able to

61
 𝑑𝐶𝑚
find out what is 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 . If is negative, let us say if the slope is negative that means 𝑥𝑎𝑐
𝑑𝐶𝑙

is positive, which positive is aft. That means the aerodynamic center lies aft the moment
reference point right. If this is positive, then this is negative. That means the
aerodynamic center lies ahead of the moment reference point. If I know the data of
pitching moment 𝐶𝑚 , 𝐶𝑙 , 𝐶𝑑 with alpha at a given point.

If I am variation with at a given point, then I will be able to figure out what is the
corresponding at least I need two data points there. To figure out the slope I need at
least three to four data points is it not? Two minimum and then for accuracy higher
number of data points. Within the linear regime, why because we are writing this
equation for the linear regime here. Now, let us discuss about one more interesting right
reference point. Have you ever wondered where these forces are acting aerodynamic
forces are acting?

(Refer Slide Time: 51:57)

There is some point called or reference point called center of pressure. Let us say 𝑥𝑐𝑝 ,
its location is represented by 𝑥𝑐𝑝 . It is the location on airfoil say close to chord line right
about which resultant forces act. That means, there is no moment about that particular
point, pitching moment is zero. How to find the relation between this 𝑥𝑐𝑝 and 𝑥𝑎𝑐 ? Let
us say ac and is represented by 𝑥𝑎𝑐 and then this way this is cp represented by 𝑥𝑐𝑝 . How
to find the relationship between them? Let us consider an airfoil. When there is flow if
it is oriented at certain angle of attack. There will be lift and drag. Let us say this is my
moment reference point O. This is my moment reference point O and ac be the
aerodynamic center with respect to this O. This ac is at a location 𝑥𝑎𝑐 . And then let us

62
say there is center of pressure. About aerodynamics center what can we expect?
Moment about aerodynamic center and then lift is it not? Lift acting perpendicular to
𝑉∞ ? And then at center of pressure, lift and drag of course. About center of pressure
what we have is same magnitude of lift because it is a rigid body again lift and drag but
there will not be any moment about this 𝑥𝑐𝑝 . If I write pitching moment equation about
point O, the moment
𝑀 = 𝑀𝑎𝑐 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐 𝐿 = −𝑥𝑐𝑝 𝐿
The moment due to, the same moment I can achieve by considering forces acting at
𝑥𝑐𝑝 . That is equals to minus lift or 𝑥𝑐𝑝 times lift acting here. Neglecting the drag
components which are very small. For the for this discussion, we are not considering
them. This talks about the same moment. Because moment about O with respect to ac
and with respect to cp.
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐
𝑥̅𝑐𝑝 = 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 −
𝐶𝐿(2𝐷)
This is the relation between aerodynamic center and center of pressure. What happens
as the angle of attack increases the 𝐶𝑙 value increases here. If the 𝐶𝑙 value increases,
this is not going to change with angle of attack of course. The 𝐶𝑙 value is increasing
why because the 𝐶𝑙 𝛼 × 𝛼 that is how you modeled it. In the linear resume this is
approaching. When it approaches high angle of attack there is a higher value of 𝐶𝑙
before stall. This makes this quantity this particular ratio smaller. That means, 𝑥𝑐𝑝 is
trying to move close to this x aerodynamic center. Let us say for cambered aerofoil
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 is negative, positively cambered aerofoil. That means, 𝑥𝑐𝑝 lies aft the aerodynamic
center because this particular quantity is positive. 𝑥𝑐𝑝 is behind 𝑥𝑎𝑐 .
(Refer Slide Time: 57:06)

63
Otherwise, 𝑥̅𝑐𝑝 is greater than 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 for cambered aerofoil. It is equals to zero this
particular quantity for a symmetric aerofoil, this particular ratio is zero because 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 is
zero. In that case 𝑥̅ 𝑐𝑝 and 𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐 coincides. And at 𝛼 approaches 𝛼 stall higher 𝐶𝑙 . 𝐶𝑙
approaches 𝐶𝑙 max. Which means 𝑥𝑐𝑝 approaches 𝑥𝑎𝑐 . We will see why it is. The typical
variation of lift coefficient with angle of attack right for an airfoil here, this is 2D again.
This is where alpha at which 𝐶𝑙 is equals to zero. Within this linear regime of angle of
attack or say at low angles of attack you have an airfoil. We have flow. The pressure
distribution is the flow is completely attached you have pressure mostly most of the
part for most of the part the flow is attached. You will have larger pressure distribution.
That means, the centroid is more or less equals to the center of pressure here. You will
have center of pressure almost like close to this centroid, which is distributed
throughout the aerofoil, right.

But at the higher angles of attack what happens? The same aerofoil now placed at higher
angle of attack. What happens is, there is a flow separation. That means the flow the
pressure distribution is mainly concentrated near the region where there is a test flow
here. That means, the centroid of this has moved forward compared to the centroid for
the previous case, which is this one. That means the center of pressure is moving
forward right close to the center of pressure. Aerodynamic center, close to aerodynamic
center. The center of pressure is shifting towards the aerodynamic center.

(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

64
Let us now look at wing planform geometry. Let us consider the top view of an aircraft
right. Say this is my fuselage. I have a vertical tail in the top view here. The wing right
we are talking about wing here. Say this is a center line of the fuselage and it is
symmetric about this particular center line. This is called the wing, leading edge of the
wing, trailing edge of the wing. We have trailing edge of wing. And what we have is,
if you take a cross section here, we will have an airfoil. And the airfoil characteristic
length of airfoil is chord here. What we call it as it is towards the root here right, root
of this particular wing what we call it is root chord. 𝐶𝑟 . And we call this as tip, root and
tip. What we have is root chord and tip chord which is 𝐶𝑡 .

The chord near the tip is tip chord and the chord near the root is root chord, it makes
sense here. And let us define the span of this wing, which is the distance between the
two tips here. Let it be b and the reference planform, reference area of this wing is
denoted by S. 𝐶𝑟 is called root chord. 𝐶𝑡 is called tip chord. S is a reference planform
area. And b is a span of wing measured between tips, two tips here. And let us look at
some of the non-dimensional parameters here that talks about the geometry. Again,
when we non-dimensionalize them, it will be helpful for us to compare aircrafts of
different sizes.

(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

The first non-dimensional parameter we will introduce here is aspect ratio, which is
𝑏2
𝐴𝑅 =
𝑆

65
How long your wings are, how big your wings are. Higher the aspect ratio higher is
your wingspan. For a rectangular wing, this will be b/c. Why because S is equals to
𝑏 × 𝑐 for a rectangular wing. Let me do it this way. Our rectangular wing say aspect
ratio is b/c. And 𝜆 is called taper ratio. This is called aspect ratio. Higher is the aspect
ratio longer is the length of your wing, larger is the length of your wing.
𝐶𝑡
𝜆=
𝐶𝑟
For a rectangular wing lambda is equals to 1 and is equals to 0 for triangular wing. This
is for delta; we call it as delta wing. It is a pure for a pure delta wing the taper ratio is
zero. And then so this chord at tip and root are different. There can be mean, there will
be definitely mean location for this chord, is known as mean aerodynamic chord, which
is known as 𝑐̅. 𝑐̅ for a rectangular tapered wing.
1 + 𝜆 + 𝜆2
𝑐̅ =
1+𝜆

For a rectangular wing 𝜆=1. What you have is 𝑐̅ is equals to 𝑐𝑅 or 𝐶𝑡 , both the same for
a rectangular wing. And then the corresponding y location of this mac, mac is known
as mean aerodynamic chord. This is called 𝑐 ̅, which is known as mac.
𝑏 (1 + 2𝜆)
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑐 =
6 (1 + 𝜆)
These are some of the geometric parameters of this wing platform. Let us look at what
are the aerodynamic characteristics of this finite wings. Till now we are talking about
infinite wings, which is airfoils. Will there be any difference between this finite wings
and infinite wings? We will look at this during our next lecture.

66
 UAV Design - Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture - 06
Aerodynamic Characteristics of Wings

Dear friends, welcome back. In our previous lecture we were discussing about wing
platform geometry. Now we are going to talk about, is there a difference between lifting
characteristic of a 3D object which is wing here and a 2D object which was aerofoil
that we discussed earlier, which is a cross section of wing.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:38)

What we discussed about is the wing geometry. We talked about some of these non-
dimensional parameters. We talked about following parameters-
𝑏2
𝐴𝑅 =
𝑆
𝜆 = 𝐶𝑡 /𝐶𝑅
2 1 + 𝜆 + 𝜆2
𝑀𝐴𝐶 = 𝑐̅ = 𝐶𝑅 ( )
3 1+ 𝜆
𝑏 1 + 2𝜆
𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑐 = ( )
6 1+ 𝜆
Now how do we proceed? First let us look at the theoretical aspects here how to figure
out the lifting characteristics of wing. We are talking about aerodynamic characteristics
of wings. There are two theories that talks about these two main theories that talks about
this lifting characteristics of wings. The first one is lifting line theory. The second one

67
is lifting surface theory. What lifting line theory talks about is high aspect ratio wings.
It considers the span wise variation of lift. Whereas it neglects the chord wise
distribution of lift. The span wise distribution is considered in this lifting line theory
whereas the chord wise variation is neglected. In lifting line theory span wise
distribution is accounted. Chord wise variation is not considered and hence this theory
is suitable for high aspect ratio wings. Whereas lifting surface theory it accounts for
chord wise variation as well, but it is very complex in nature and right now we are not
going to talk about that. We are going to talk about this lifting line theory. It requires
higher computational capabilities as well for this lifting surface theory. Let us consider
this wing made out of Styrofoam. You can see there is, a cross section is aerofoil here.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:28)

You have an aerofoil cross section. And it is about 0.75 meters approximately. And
moreover, it is a rectangular wing here. Now what happens what will be the major
difference. How the lifting characteristics varies with from an aerofoil to that of a wing.
What is the difference here? Now consider, as we know there is a pressure distribution,
if you consider a cross section. At a given location what you have is an aerofoil. Similar
to the pressure distribution on aerofoil you will have pressure distribution on wing as
well. There is low pressure and high pressure, low pressure on the top surface, high
pressure on the bottom surface. This abrupt ending, so wing is a finite object here, 3D
object and of finite length. That means there is certain end here. At this abrupt end, the
airfoil still has the same characteristics. There is a higher-pressure distribution on the
bottom surface and lower pressure distribution on the top surface. Because of this

68
pressure difference across this tip, the flow tries to curl around from high pressure area
to low pressure area. That curling will form this tip vertices.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:53)

Now, according to this lifting line theory, this wing is replaced say this is the wing that
we are talking about. This according to this lifting line theory, this wing is replaced by
or the lifting characteristics of this wing is replaced by a vortex sheet, the horseshoe
vortex. Now, the part of this vortex sheet which is on the surface of the wing is known
as bound vortex. This is called bound vortex, right. This and it is followed in the
downstream by a trailing vortex, two trailing vertices. This is how the trailing vortex
will be. The flow tries to rotate from about the tips from, from the region right from the
regions of high pressure to low pressure. You have trailing vortex here and then this
vortex sheet is closed by means of a starting vortex.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:21)

We will see what this starting vortex is. What these two are the trailing vertices, trailing
vortex and then what we have is a starting vortex. This is how a horseshoe vortex is

69
found. This figure is about horse shoe vertex. Do you remember our discussion about
the two stagnation points right that forms on the airfoil? Do you remember the
discussion? We have an aerofoil. We discussed about this earlier.

You have two stagnation points 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 on this aerofoil. The streamline itself the body
itself is one of the stagnations, forms a part of the stagnation streamline. Let us say at
time t is equals to 0. This is what is going to happen at time t 0 what happens? The
airfoil started moving ahead impulsively. That means, initially the fluid particles will
try to flow around this. It does not have any obstruction. There is no flow earlier there
is no pressure distribution here. When as the time progress that will develop. At t is
equals to 0 this will be able to smoothly pass over and then form these two stagnation
points, which we discussed. This will curl, according to the potential flow solution it
will curl around this tip and then close this particular flow.

Now, at time t greater than 0, we discussed about boundary layer and all and adverse
pressure gradient because of which the flow tries to separate here and the initial thing
that has formed the smooth flow that has formed, so this curl will be swept away in the
[Link] example, if you look at time lapse picture of this. At t greater than 0 what
happens. Because the flow develops after the initial fluid particles move across the
airfoil. And then the pressure gradients develop. This initial vortex which was formed
here the starting vortex which is formed here was swept away in the flow to the in the
downstream of the flow. This particular vortex is the starting vortex that was considered
here. What is this doing, this bound vortex?

(Refer Slide Time: 11:54)

70
When we have an airfoil right. Say this is my location of this lifting line. What I have
is upwash and also a downwash here. This bound vortex will try to push the flow up
which is ahead of this aerofoil, ahead of this vortex and then also push, it will also push
down the flow which is behind this airfoil. You have an upwash as well as downwash.
This is what this is due to bound vortex. And this trailing vortex will try to push down,
incorporate downwash. It will try to induce downwash ahead as well as behind the flow.
It will induce everywhere including on the wing, but the influence of this downwash is
negligible in presence of this bound vortex. It will try to induce downwash. Do not
consider these arrows as the magnitude here. This is just for understanding the concept
about this downwash and upwash induced by this bound vortex and trailing vortex. A
cumulative effect of this two, bound vortex and the trailing vortex will have this upwash
and downwash effect. The second color code is for this trailing vortex in the cumulative
effect. Now this is a cumulative effect by these two.

What is the immediate consequence of this lifting line theory? At a given span wise
location, it will try to disturb the flow. It is inducing an upwash, which means it will
make the flow to move upward and there is a downwash behind in the downstream.
That push the flow downward about this lifting line. This is my lifting line. That means,
the direction of the flow is altered at various span wise location. That is what we have
to take away from this particular theory.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:19)

If the direction of this flow is altered, which means the angle of attack at that particular
span wise location will also alter. And we know the lift generated at this particular
location will always act perpendicular to that free stream velocity or local velocity, not

71
the actual free stream velocity right. Now, the lift at a given span wise location will be
perpendicular to the local velocity, local velocity vector not the free stream velocity
vector. To elaborate it more we will consider this picture again.

Say this is an aerofoil of our interest such as span wise location. We have taken a span
wise location across this wing. Let that be the corresponding span wise location. We
have wing here. If you take any of this span wise location here. What you have is
aerofoil everywhere. This particular aerofoil is represented here. Now, let us say this is
my free stream velocity 𝑉∞ and the corresponding angle of attack is 𝛼. There is a
downwash. There is some downwash. May not be of this magnitude; just to make it
scale more realistic. Let this represent the downwash w here. In general, w at the lifting
line, because of which the resultant velocity or the local velocity will be tilted down.
This particular change in angle of attack is a induced angle of attack by the downwash
here. How I can represent? I can represent it by the same arrow w and then this will be
my resultant velocity 𝑉𝑅 . And this angle is 𝛼𝑖 and this particular angle is called 𝛼𝑙 , is a
local angle of attack. Let me write 𝛼𝑖 .

Say this is the actual lift direction of this entire wing because, we define lift is
perpendicular to 𝑉∞ . Force component of the force resultant force which is acting
perpendicular to free stream velocity is lift and along the free stream direction is drag.
But now, because of this local angle of attack the lift has to act perpendicular to this
resultant velocity or the local velocity here, which is 𝑉𝑅 here. This is the direction of
this local lift here. It has a component along the direction of actual lift, overall lift as
well as along the direction of overall drag. This additional drag due to this lift is known
as induced drag, induced by the lift. You so this particular angle is what, 𝛼𝑖 . This is 𝛼𝑖 .
These two are perpendicular. The corresponding included angle here is 𝛼𝑖 .
𝛼𝑖 = 𝛼 − 𝛼𝑙
𝐶𝐿
𝛼𝑖 =
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Where, AR is aspect ration of wing. e is Oswalds efficiency factor (e = 1 for elliptical
wing). That means, it has minimum induced drag and for rest of the wings it will be
less than 1. How the elliptic, how the lift distribution is deviating from the elliptic lift
distribution. This factor talks about that particular parameter. What is the drag that is
induced because of the lift?

72
 𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝐶𝐿 sin(𝛼𝑖 ) = 𝐶𝐿 𝛼𝑖 =
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
This is an important result, which we will be using later on when we discuss about
drag. This is the induced drag because of this upwash and downwash effect. Which
varies the local velocity vector and hence the lift at that particular location. It has a
component along the overall lift, direction of the overall lift as well as overall drag. The
corresponding component of this lift in the drag direction is the lift induced drag. This
is what we intended to use this theory right for this, we intended to use this theory for
this particular derivation. Apart from this we can also look at how the lift coefficient is
varying with respect to angle of attack for finite wings. What do you mean by finite
wings? How it is characterized by definite length. When there is definite length there is
aspect ratio, different aspect ratio here.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:25)

Let us say 𝐶𝐿 , it is 3D, is varying with angle of attack here. Let us say this is for an
airfoil okay. This is for an airfoil. This is how 𝐶𝐿 is varying with angle of attack. Let us
assume 𝛼 at with 𝐶𝐿 is equal to 0. Again, coming back to this concept when there is no
lift that means the pressure distribution on the top and the pressure distribution on the
bottom has to be same. When there is no pressure difference on the top and bottom, do
you think the flow will be curling around? It may not be able to curl around right? There
is no driving force for the flow to curl around the tips. That means, at zero angle at zero
lift condition, the pressure distribution over the wing and a particular cross section
should be same. That means, the angle of attack for wing at with 𝐶𝐿 is equal to zero and

73
for the airfoil at which 𝐶𝐿 is equals to zero can be same. Because there is no induced
angle of attack there. Is it not a decent assumption here? For with the increasing in
aspect ratio, what happens is there is a drop in this 𝐶𝐿 𝛼 .

The slope is decreasing. This is more or less a decent assumption here according to me.
This is for aspect ratio infinite. This is for aspect ratio 1 say this is aspect ratio 2 and
this is the increasing direction of aspect ratio. Now let us relate the lift produced by
aerofoil and the lift produced by the wing made out of same aerofoil. Let us consider a
particular lift coefficient value 𝐶𝐿 here. Say this is my 𝐶𝐿 of my interest and then the
same the lift by this aerofoil is produced at an angle of attack alpha here. But, whereas,
because of induced angle of attack what happens is let us assume it is produced by the
wing at an angle of attack, which is 𝛼 + Δ𝛼 , otherwise 𝛼𝑖 . This particular difference
in airfoil 2D section and the 3D section is because of this induced angle of attack 𝛼
here. Let us assume this three-dimensional slope here.
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝑙
𝑎= ;𝑎 =
𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛼
So where so the same lift again is produced by different angles of attack for aerofoil
and wing respectively.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:05)

𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝑙𝛼 (𝛼 − 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 ) = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝛼 + 𝛼𝑖 − 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 )

𝐶𝑙𝛼 (𝛼 − 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 )
𝐶𝐿𝛼 =
(𝛼 + 𝛼𝑖 − 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 )

74
 𝐶𝑙𝛼
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 𝛼
1 + 𝛼 − 𝛼𝑖
𝐶𝐿 =0

Where, 𝐶𝑙𝛼 is the lift curve slope of aerofoil and 𝐶𝐿𝛼 is lift curve slope for wing. 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0
is angle of attack at zero lift.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:55)

From lifting line theory.

𝐶𝑙𝛼
𝐶𝐿𝛼 =
𝐶𝐿
1+
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅(𝛼 − 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 )
𝐶𝑙𝛼
𝐶𝐿𝛼 =
𝐶𝑙𝛼
1 + 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

This is the relation between lift curve slopes of finite wing and infinite wing. Thank
you.

75
 UAV Design - Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture - 07
Stability and Criteria for Longitudinal Static Stability

Dear all, welcome back. During our previous discussion, we considered aircraft as a
rigid body which has six degrees of freedom in space. And we classified the motion of
the aircraft into two phases, the first one is longitudinal case and the second is lateral
directional case. And the longitudinal case is a single vertical plane motion, where it
can translate along the body x and body z axis. And all associated with the rotation
about y axis call pitching moment. And we also looked at what is lateral directional
motion which is which involves two rotations and one translation along y axis and the
rotations here or rolling motion as well as yawing motion, which is about x axis and z
axis respectively.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:02)

We have an aircraft. Let us define an axis with respect to which all the components of
this aircrafts are mounted. Let us say this as fuselage reference line. We will use this
fuselage reference line while talking about stability of an aircraft here. Now let us
consider a body access system. We have wing, let us quickly go through these major
components of this aircraft. We have wing, a horizontal tail and a vertical tail. These
are the three major components which are indeed fixed components of aircraft along
with the propulsion system. We also have some small moving surfaces that are attached

76
to this aircraft, fixed components. These moving surfaces, when deflected at certain
angle with respect to the flow right, say this aircraft is moving at certain velocity 𝑉∞
making an angle of attack 𝛼 with respect to this free stream velocity. When we deflect
this control surface with respect to this flow at a certain angle, this will alter the local
aerodynamic forces which generates momentum about CG. Let us say this is my CG.
This is my CG. The change in aerodynamic force aft this CG or at an offset location
with respect to CG will produce a moment because of it. This moment is, because of
this moment the aircraft orientation changes, orientation in space changes. The surfaces
with which we control the aircraft orientation is known as control surface.

The control surface on the horizontal plane is elevator horizontal tail, which is on the
vertical tail is rudder and on wings we have ailerons and we also have some high lifting
devices called flaps attached to the wings. Flaps are majorly to enhance the lifting
characteristics while takeoff and landing whereas ailerons, rudder and elevator are to
control the orientation of the aircraft throughout the flight. We call them as control
surfaces. These are the moving components here. Of course, we have propulsion system
either a propeller driven or a jet driven aircraft or a UAV. And we said that we have six
degrees of freedom of motion here. Let us consider the origin of this coordinate system
at the CG itself, which we discussed during the previous course. And let the x axis be
pointed towards the nose of this aircraft from the CG location. This is our x axis of this
body coordinate system. And then we have z axis which is towards the undercarriage.
Let O be the origin of this coordinate system, which is coinciding with the CG of the
aircraft. Let z be towards the undercarriage and we are considering a right-handed
coordinate system, z is in the downward. x cross y is z. What we have is the second axis
which is y axis here, which is into this board here. We have defined the aircraft motion
in two modes.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:56)

77
The first one corresponds to longitudinal motion. You can also say this as a single plane
motion. For an aircraft or a UAV, we assume there exists a plane of symmetry. What
exactly it is? We have a vertical plane about which the geometry though it is it does not
look symmetric here, but in reality, we have the geometric symmetry about that vertical
plane as well as mass distribution, the symmetry in mass distribution. If the aircraft is
moving in this in that particular vertical plane or the motion is constrained to that
particular vertical plane or the plane of symmetry, we call such a motion corresponds
to longitudinal motion. The aircraft can translate along x axis and z axis which
corresponds to this vertical plane of symmetry right. There are two translation motions.
And it can also have a rotational motion in this vertical plane. The aircraft is not
crossing this vertical plane. The motion is still constrained to this vertical plane even
during that rotation. We have translation along x. In longitudinal plane we have 3
degrees of freedom, 2 translation, which is along x axis and z axis and 1 rotation.

Rotation is due to moment as we discussed. We have a pitching moment, which is the

rotation about y axis. What we have is pitching moment, which is given by q. The
pitching moment is for a longitudinal motion, what we have is, let u be the translational
velocity along x and w be the translation velocity along z axis and say v be the
translation velocity along y axis. Now, what you have u, w and u, w and q. The
corresponding what is q is the corresponding pitch rate, the rate at which it is the aircraft
is changing its pitch orientation. Because of this pitching moment say M, let this
pitching moment be M in the longitudinal plane denoted by M, which is given by

78
 1 2
𝑀= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝑚 𝑐̅
2

Where 𝐶𝑚 is non-dimensional pitching moment coefficient. This pitching moment

creates a change in orientation and the corresponding changes are the orientation
change in 𝜃. Because we have a rotation about y axis, which changes the orientation of
this aircraft given by 𝜃. And the rate at which this theta is changing is q, right when
there is no other rotation involved. q is the pitch rate. We call it as pitch rate. Theta is
the corresponding pitch orientation. u and w are the translation velocities here. How
can we generate this pitching motion? How this moment is generated? We know if we
can generate a force at an offset distance from the CG in the longitudinal plane that can
create a moment here. About y axis if I have to produce a moment, then I have to
produce a force in this vertical plane at an offset to the CG. We have a control surface
for this longitudinal control called elevator. When you deflect an elevator, it produces,
it changes the aerodynamic force there, which produce a moment about the CG.

The corresponding deflection at this control surface, let us say if I take the cross-section
of this tail. This particular attachment is a moving surface for this horizontal tail, which
is a shorter version a smaller version of this wing. And in general, this is a symmetric
wing. We will discuss why it is. When we deflect this particular control surface, say if
you deflect this control surface down. This deflection obstructs the flow here. You can
say changes the camber of the airfoil or you can say you obstruct the flow right. The
flow gives a reaction in the upward direction. This produces a force net force upward
direction. About CG this force produces a moment, pitch down here, pitching down.
Let us also define the convention here. About y axis so if you stretch your thumb along
the positive y axis the curl of your fingers will give you the corresponding positive
rotation. Pitch-up is positive. Nose-up, what is a positive rotation about y if the aircraft
rotates its nose up. Whatever the moment that helps the aircraft to rotate its nose up is
called positive moment. Corresponding moment is the positive moment. And if the
aircraft rotates its nose down due to that moment, we call it as pitch-down moment, and
it is considered negative. And q is considered positive when it is pitching up and the t
rate is changing in the like with the nose-up direction and theta is also considered
positive when the aircraft nose is up. Pitch-up is positive. For moment is positive when

79
it is pitch up, which is nose up. And this moment is negative if it is pitch down or nose
down. Similarly, we have lateral directional motion.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:24)

Any motion that cuts this vertical plane of symmetry is known corresponds to a lateral
direction corresponds to this lateral directional motion. What are all the possible cases?
Translation along y axis. This aircraft has to cut this plane of symmetry say let this
blackboard be the vertical, this board be the vertical plane of symmetry. Aircraft craft
moving in and out of this aircraft, sorry of this blackboard is translation along y axis
and this corresponds to lateral directional motion. It has again 3 degrees of freedom
where the first degree of freedom is due to translation along the y axis. And you have
two degrees of freedom by means of rotation here. One rotation can be the wings
rolling, rolling up and down. And the rotation about x axis is known as rolling motion.
What we have is roll and what x axis and we have pitch about y axis, and you have
about z axis. The positive roll is given by stretch your thumb along the positive x axis
and the curl of your finger will give you the direction of positive roll.

Corresponding roll rate here given by p. What you have is roll and yaw. These two are
rolling motion and yawing motion are due to rotations. Which are caused by moments.
The corresponding moment about x axis is known as rolling moment. Rolling moment
is represented by small l.
1 2
𝑙= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑏𝐶𝑙
2 ∞

80
where 𝐶𝑙 is the coefficient of rolling moment and b is the span of this span of the wing.
We also have a moment about z axis which makes the aircraft to rotate about this
particular axis that will help to orient the nose in the horizontal plane. That change the
orientation of this aircraft in the horizontal plane. That is known as yawing motion.
That particular motion is known as yawing motion. This is rolling motion which is
rotation about x axis and rotation aboard z axis. About z axis is yawing motion and the
corresponding yaw rate is given by r. Due to this it results in an orientation, change in
orientation in the horizontal plane. The aircraft nose initially along this particular
direction. Now due to rotation about yaw axis or say z axis the aircraft nose is now
oriented in a different direction. This particular change in orientation is given by 𝜓.
Under no other rotations, this 𝜓̇ is equals to r.

That is single plane rotation. 𝜓̇ is equals to r. And the positive yaw is given by right
wing going back. If you stretch your thumb along the positive z axis, the curl of your
fingers will give you the corresponding positive rotation where the right wing going
back is corresponds to a positive yaw moment, yawing moment. Right wing going down
is positive rolling moment. Stretch your thumb along positive x the corresponding curl
of your fingers will give you the rotation, positive rotation of roll. Yawing moment,
1
𝑁 = 𝜌𝑉∞2 𝑆𝑏𝐶𝑛
2
Where, 𝐶𝑛 is the coefficient of yawing moment. Now what will be the positive control
surface deflections? Let us say we deflect a control surface and if that control if that
deflection produces a corresponding negative moment then we can consider that
particular deflection as positive. For example, in case of elevator stretch your thumb
along positive y axis again, y axis and the curl of your fingers will give you the
corresponding positive rotation here. This is the current deflection of this elevator. This
particular angle is known as 𝛿𝑒 . When you deflect it down there is some upward force
because of the change in camber here there will be increased lift at the same for angle
of attack that we are seeing. You can say, we are obstructing the flow. That flow will
give you a reaction as an upward force. And this change in force at the tail will produce
a moment here.

This moment will be rotating the aircraft nose down. Nose down is negative moment.
The moment that you have is negative pitching moment. If the deflection contributes

81
towards negative pitching corresponding negative moment. Then we consider that as
positive deflection. 𝛿 is positive when it is deflected downwards and negative when it
is deflected upwards. You can say so if this is 𝛿𝑒 then it is negative. Elevator is what
that creates the orientation control along the pitch axis. Controlled by elevator here. The
corresponding moment that is generated due to elevated deflection is a pitching
moment. If this elevator produces a negative pitching moment, deflection of this
elevator helps the aircraft with a negative moment then we say that particular deflection
is positive deflection. Now similarly, we have ailerons here. When we deflect an
aileron. The deflection the rotation, the corresponding rotation will be about x axis.

Why because with respect to CG we have two ailerons on the both the wings right at an
offset location along y axis. When there is a force, upward force at an offset, y offset
that creates a rolling moment. Let us say this is my aircraft, that is the nose of the aircraft
and this is or say this is the nose and that is the tail. Say I have one wing here. Let us
say I have a wing here. This is my nose, and these are my wings. I have one control
surface here and there is another control surface here. We have two ailerons located on
the wing. One on the right and the one on the left wing or one on the port side the other
one is on the starboard side. When we deflect this particular aileron, and again we see
it is located towards the tip of the wing. This aileron when deflected will produce a
force. When I deflect let us say stretch your thumb along the positive x axis. Now say
the x axis is towards the nose here. The corresponding curl of your fingers will give
you the corresponding positive rotation of the control surface as well. Not only the
rotation of the aircraft about that axis, but also the control surface rotation.

My fingers are pointing towards downward motion of this particular control surface.
When I deflect this downward, what happens is it produces a force upward. These two
ailerons are deflected in opposite direction. When I deflect it that right aileron down the
left aileron will be deflected upward. This is how in general the convention is and the
average of these two deflections is the actual control surface deflection of the ailerons.
When you deflect this up and this down; when you deflect it down, we have an upward
force. When you deflect it up you have a downward force. This upward force will
contribute towards the negative moment. Even the downward force from here
multiplied by this offset distance contributes towards a negative moment. The positive
deflection is deflecting right aileron downwards. If we deflect this downwards, deflect

82
this aileron down, let us say this is the new location of the deflection. If you deflect this
downwards, we say this is positive.

Here if I take a cross-section, if I take a cross section there, say this is my wing section
and this is the corresponding control surface attached to this wing section. If deflect this
downward the right aileron. if I deflect this aileron downward, I consider this deflection
as positive 𝛿𝑎 . On the other hand, when I deflect it up right, let us say gain this is my
nose. If I deflect this up this the aileron will change the local aerodynamic force there.
The resultant local aerodynamic force will be acting downward. And then when I
deflect that up, I have to deflect this down. That is how the convention for these ailerons
are. If I deflect this down, I this will produce an upward force, that will produce a
positive rolling which is the downward force and the upward force. Multiplied by the
corresponding momentum here will produce a positive rolling moment. Positive rolling
moment is right wing going down. Say this is my right wing and this is my left wing.
Positive deflection is right wing going down. And if I have to consider rudder here, if
you look at from the top view, if we look at from this from this top view.

The rudder cross-section will be, again it is a symmetric tail, symmetric vertical tail.
This is how the rudder looks like and then it is attached with a small moving surface
called rudder. That is what we discussed just now. And when you deflect this rudder it
has to produce the corresponding yawing moment right. This the usage of rudder is to
change the orientation in the horizontal plane. We generally call it as heading. We try
to change the heading of this aircraft by deflecting this rudder. Which direction if what
should be the deflection of this rudder that it produces a negative moment. Towards the
left or towards the right? When you deflect this rudder towards the left, what happens I
deflect this rudder towards my yeah towards me, let us say.

If this is the control surface if I deflect this rudder towards me, this produces a force
into the board right. That force acting at an offset distance with respect to CG. It has a
longitudinal offset here as well as vertical offset. But let us talk about the longitudinal
offset here. This longitudinal offset and the multiplied with that force that is produced
by the rudder creates a yawing moment. That yawing moment is negative. It is rotating
left wing out, left wing back. The yawing moment that rotates the left-wing back is
negative yawing moment. That is what we just discussed. That means when the rudder

83
deflection is producing a negative yawing moment, the corresponding deflection of that
rudder is known as positive. If I have this rudder deflected towards left side, here. That
means what is, if you place it like this, you just translate it and place it like this. If you
deflect this outside, then it is considered as positive 𝛿𝑟 . Positive 𝛿𝑟 results in negative
and negative yawing moment. What we can conclude from here? Positive 𝛿𝑒 produces
negative pitching moment. And positive rudder deflection will produce negative
yawing moment. And positive aileron deflection produces negative rolling moment.
What is positive elevator deflection? Deflecting it down. The corresponding positive
deflection is deflecting it down.

Here it is towards left. When you are facing the aircraft from the tail right, when you
are facing the aircraft from the tail. Then the corresponding deflection towards, rudder
deflection towards left side is considered positive. Similarly, aileron deflection right
down, right aileron down. If I deflect this right aileron down that is considered as
positive aileron deflection. And in general, this is taken as average no? The aileron
deflection in general is average of this value plus I mean left side and right-side aileron
deflection value. If you want to talk about the flying characteristics of this aircraft, first
we need to talk about an important property called stability of this aircraft right.
Stability is a property of equilibrium state right and we have defined earlier what is
equilibrium and we all know it is a state about which resultant forces and moments are
zero. If you want this aircraft to fly right, first of all we need to talk about whether the
aircraft can fly or not. Stability is a concept that talks about whether the about the flying
qualities of this aircraft. Stability is a property of equilibrium. And equilibrium is a state
about which resultant forces and moments are zero.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:19)

84
What we are going to talk about is stability. As I mentioned it is a property of
equilibrium. What is equilibrium? When we say a body is in equilibrium? When the
resultant forces and moments acting on that body at that particular state are zero.
∑𝐹̅ = 0̅
̅ = 0̅
∑𝑀
We say equilibrium corresponds to it is a state of system about which the return forces
and moments are zero. Or no net forces and moments acting on the system. Let us
consider the following three cases. Just to talk about the equilibrium state, what are the
various equilibrium states. We should first consider an example.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:51)

Let us talk about that with the help of this example. Let us consider a concave up right
surface and let us place a ball on this particular surface. Let this point be O. Say this

85
one is concave up. At the same time consider another surface on which the ball is again
resting. Let this position or the location be 𝑂’. This is convex up. Let us assume this as
a flat surface. And the same ball is placed on this flat surface here. Let this location or
position be 𝑂′′. This is on flat surface. Let us understand what various types of
equilibrium with the help of this example are. In all these cases, if you observe the ball
is at rest. That means the resultant forces and moments acting are zero. Which implies
the ball is in equilibrium. In all the three cases irrespective of their, of the surface on
which it is resting in all the three cases the ball is at equilibrium. In the first case, when
we displace this ball from this equilibrium, let us see what happens in these different
cases. Now how can we display this? With a gentle push. Let us use such a gentle push
for this case a where the ball.

Due to this push the ball will try to roll up the surface. It will try to go up the surface
here and then it may reach a location say A. This corresponds to the point where the
velocity of this wall becomes zero. And once it becomes zero then what happens, we
know it will come down and it will come down towards O and then it will overshoot O
and my reach point B. The same ball may reach point B. B corresponds to zero velocity.
After that again it may start moving back towards O and these oscillations continues.
At some point, let us say once the disturbance is dissipated. This particular ball will try
to attain this point O, which is the initial equilibrium state. That particular equilibrium
is known as or is defined as a stable equilibrium. Consider the second case. We and the
ball is at equilibrium which is O prime here. When you displace this ball, what happens
is it will try to roll down the surface. It will try to move up the surface completely. It
may not come back to its 𝑂′. It is same case like even if you displace to the other side.
It the ball may not come back to this 𝑂′.

The system here the ball is not able to attain the initial equilibrium, which is 𝑂′. In this
particular equilibrium is defined as unstable equilibrium for this system. In the third
case, we have a ball here. When you displace this what happens it will translate to a
new location and try to attain a new equilibrium let us say𝑂′′′. In this case, it is not
coming back to the new equilibrium, but it is trying to attain another. It is not coming
back to the previous equilibrium𝑂′′, instead it is trying to attain new equilibrium 𝑜′′′.
Such a case is so such a case is defined as neutrally stable equilibrium.

86
(Refer Slide Time: 37:30)

With this let us define what is stability. It is an ability of the system to reattain the initial
equilibrium. Once you disturb it, disturb the system from that initial equilibrium, it
should have the ability to retain that equilibrium state. Such a system if the system has
that property then we say it is a stable system. For us to understand about this stability
we need to talk about. For in order to define the stability of the system, we need to talk
about two cases called static stability and dynamic stability. In this case in the first case,
see the system is stable here. That is why the equilibrium we said stable equilibrium.
The ball tries to oscillate about this O and finally reaches O here. The same in the other
case, we call it as unstable equilibrium. And the third one is neutrally stable equilibrium.
Where in the second case, it is not able to get back to that initial equilibrium state. It is
not stable; the system is not stable here. Here the system is neutrally stable. Now what
is static stability? Whenever, in this particular example, whenever this ball reaches to a
maximum or say zero velocity location or the maximum location or the zero-velocity
location here, it will try to return back towards the initial equilibrium point.

Whether it stops there or not, we are not worried but at each, if you look at the extreme
points at each and every time it has a tendency to move back towards this equilibrium
location, initial equilibrium. That initial tendency to come back towards this
equilibrium is known as static stability. It is a initial tendency to return to equilibrium.
What is dynamic stability? Generally dynamic stability talks about the time history of
motion of the system once disturbed from the equilibrium. It talks about how long it

87
takes for the body to reach the equilibrium or whether it reaches equilibrium or not. In
order to understand this better consider this example.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:11)

Consider this slope, a surface with slope and there is an abrupt obstruction towards the
end of the slope. Now let us say initially we place this ball here on the surface at this
junction. Now it is in equilibrium definitely we know that. And once we displace this
to a new location say let us say this is O and this is say 𝑂′. Once you have displaced it,
the ball will try to automatically come back towards this equilibrium. If I plot
displacement with time, this is my equilibrium. What I can notice is, this is my
equilibrium. I am, initially this is at equilibrium. I am trying to take this to another
location. I am trying to displace it, and then leave that object. What it does is, it will try
to achieve this equilibrium with time. Such a system or such a process through which
it achieves the equilibrium is known as subsidence. Let us consider the other case.
Again, we are talking about time history of motion once we disturb. That pertains to
dynamic stability. We are talking about; this is the initial amplitude. At each and every
time this initial amplitude of displacement is decreasing with time. This particular value
this keep decreasing with time.

And consider the other case. Let us say we place this object here. Let us say somehow,
we made this ball stand at this particular location. Let us say the initial part may be a
bit flat compared to this curve. This particular equilibrium may be O. Once you displace
this to a new location here to 𝑂′ what happens is this ball will try to roll off this surface.
Again, if you plot this particular, say let us assume the magnitude of displacement is

88
same, where we have displaced to this particular location. What happens is with time
the displacement increases. It keeps, what do you mean by displacement here? It is an
offset from the initial equilibrium location. With time it is moving towards the
equilibrium. That means, the displacement is keep decreasing. In this case, the
displacement is keep increasing, is keep on increasing.

Why because it rolls off the surface and the distance between O and 𝑂′ is increasing.
Here you can see. This particular initial displacement is nowhere reducing. In fact, as
the time progress it is increasing. This particular case is known as divergence. With
time it is not able to reach the equilibrium position. We call it a divergence. It is
dynamically unstable. If the object reaches the equilibrium, we say it is dynamically
stable. For a stable system it is essential it should satisfy both dynamic stability as well
as static stability as well as dynamic stability. Now let us consider a different case. This
is these are non-oscillating motions. We can consider it as a second order system. In
general, have an oscillatory motion. Once we disturb the aircraft from its equilibrium
location position, it tries to oscillate about that equilibrium. It has certain oscillatory
motion. It is a second order system. I am trying to get back to that by erasing this
example.
(Refer Slide Time: 46:04)

One easy way to visualize this is consider a second order system, a spring mass damper
or a simple pendulum here. Let us say l be the length of this pendulum which is pivoted
about point 𝑂′ and say and the weight of this bob which is hanging at the bottom of this
length l, at the bottom of this length l is say mg, which is which will be acting

89
perpendicularly down say. This is perpendicular to this ceiling okay. And now, let us
displace this object to a distance. In this case, the tension acting in this string is balanced
by mg and we can say this is an equilibrium state. And it is at rest, it is not moving.
Now let us displace this bob by an angle theta. Say this is the displacement 𝜃; l still
remains same. mg is acting downward. When we displace this and if you leave it we
know it will try to move towards the initial equilibrium which is say O here. Let it be
O be the initial equilibrium and say 𝑜′ is a displaced so location at which 𝑂′ is a
geometric location that corresponds to this deflection 𝜃. Now when we leave it from 𝑂′
the bob will try to come back, that mass will try to come back towards this equilibrium.

And then it will try to oscillate about this equilibrium. What happens is, we can try to
oscillate about this equilibrium with time. Let us say if this is the displacement. This is
the initial, this is again my equilibrium location. When I displace this pendulum, what
happens is it will try to attain try to come back towards this equilibrium but will
continue oscillating about that equilibrium until this disturbance damps out. Such a
motion where which helps the system to come back towards this equilibrium with time
right is known as dynamically stable system. That system with this motion right that
helps to helps it to come back towards this equilibrium we call it a dynamically stable
system. This is dynamic this promotes; this kind of motion promotes dynamic stability.
Why because see here the amplitude this much. With time it is changing, here it is
decreasing, and here it is in opposite direction.

If you see the maximum amplitude is significantly decreased compared to this particular
location, the initial amplitude. With time if this happens if this amplitude keeps
decreasing with time then we can say this is a dynamically stable system. And we can
also notice, let us move on to the second case as well. Let us say if there is a motor here,
which is otherwise, once I displace this here, if I do not allow this to damp. If you are
conducting this experiment in vacuum, where there is no air, there is no resistance here.
Why this is coming to rest is because of the air resistance. When we do not, when we
do this experiment in vacuum, it will try to oscillate. What happens is the same system
when we place it in vacuum, say in other words, there is no friction at the pivot and
there is no damping because of surrounding air molecule right. Again, this is
displacement, and this is time, x axis is time. And we have displacement on y axis. Let

90
us denote it by y. If I displace it by an angle 𝜃 or say displacement here let us say theta.
By an angle 𝜃. When there is no dissipation of energy in the system, it will try to
oscillate. The magnitude of oscillation or the amplitude of oscillation will remain
constant since there is no dissipation with time. There is no dynamic. The dynamically
it is unstable. Why because, it is not coming back towards its equilibrium with time.

It is trying to maintain the same energy or same amplitude all the time. There is no
dissipation here. What we call this as damped oscillations. For dynamic stability, we
look at damped oscillations for dynamically unstable system is associated with
undamped oscillations. Can we expect something else or these are the only two possible
cases? For a pendulum it will be quite a non-intuitive to imagine a diverging motion.
Let us say if I program this at the pivot with a motor, where the motor’s rpm or the
angular displacement keep increasing or say if I am adding energy to the system after
each and every oscillation, what happens is the amplitude of oscillation increases. Say
I have initially displaced this by an angle. From there if the energy once displaced from
it, if there is an addition in the energy. The magnitude keeps increasing it is like
diverging right. This is like divergence. This is convergence. Subsidence, similar to that
of subsidence there. The magnitude is decreasing in this case. It is increasing in this
case.

This is like can you see this? This is superimposed by harmonic motion. The solution
can be written as
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑡 sin (𝜔𝑡)
If you look at this signal the solution, you can guess the solution is it not? Here we call
this is a diverging oscillation. Case c, where we talked about diverging oscillations. The
last two cases correspond to dynamically unstable system. Whereas the first case
corresponds to dynamical stable system. But if you carefully observe, in all these cases
the system poses static stability. If you observe this, so after the displacement say this
is the equilibrium it tries to come back towards equilibrium. Even here it is trying to
come back towards equilibrium. Here it is trying to come back towards equilibrium, the
same thing here. The system is trying to attain that equilibrium once it is displaced from
the equilibrium. It has that initial tendency.

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Even in this case it is true. This is our equilibrium. The system is trying to move towards
equilibrium. And even here, it is the same. Even here, though it is an undamped
oscillation, but still we can see the system is trying to, system process that initial
tendency to come back towards equilibrium. Consider this case as well, you have that
initial tendency to come back towards equilibrium. Though, the system is statically
stable in all the three cases, we cannot claim it is stable system. Why because it is not
dynamically stable. Static stability may not guarantee the stability of the system or may
not guarantee the dynamic stability of the system. But when the system is dynamically
stable, it guarantees the static stability. That is what we noticed here. The system here
is dynamically stable. That means it guarantees static stability. In other two cases, the
system is not dynamically stable, but still the system poses static stability. Static
stability may not guarantee dynamic stability, but dynamic stability guarantees static
stability. Now, let us talk about aircraft. First, when we are talking about aircraft, we
will talk we will try to divide this stability concepts of aircraft to longitudinal stability
and lateral directional stability. And to start with, we will talk about longitudinal static
stability. In fact, we did this during our previous course. But still these concepts are
important, and it is worth refreshing them. Though we are trying to take some time, but
still, it is good if we visit through this.
(Refer Slide Time: 57:20)

What are we trying to start with is longitudinal static stability? Just before proceeding
to this aircraft, let us now look at this setup carefully. What is that making the system
to come back towards this equilibrium? Or what is helping this system to have stability?
Can we say something about that? Who is helping here? Who is helping this pendulum

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to come back towards this initial equilibrium? Let at equilibrium O the mg is acting
perpendicular to the local horizontal and the tension in the string is perfectly balanced
by mg here. There is no upward force and there is no rotation, there is no moment. Now
when we as soon as you displace it to a new location, mg again acts perpendicular to
the local horizontal and a component of this weight which is 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. Let us say if we
draw a tangent to this curve at this particular location, tangent to this and this is theta,
which is this is 𝜃, why because this is 𝜃. This local horizontal and this string right at O
location O are perpendicular. And this tangent is perpendicular to this particular length
at this point. It makes the same angle and the same case here.

This 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is perpendicular to this or say we have this mg perpendicular to this local
horizontal. A component of weight 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, which is balanced by the tension in the
string. And the component of this weight, which is mg sin theta is what helping this
object to move in the first place. But this motion is about point O. With respect point O
this is now turns out to be a rotational motion. There is a rotation, or this force
multiplied by this momentum is what is rotating this particular pendulum back to its
equilibrium. There is a moment that is helping this pendulum to come back towards this
equilibrium. We call this moment as restoring moment. For a system to be stable, we
need to talk about its restoring moment. Restoring moment is what helps is what is
helping the system to come back towards to a towards its equilibrium position. We call
it as restoring moment. We need to understand who is providing this restoring moment.
Now, get back to this aircraft. When you are talking about longitudinal case, what is
the possible moment in this longitudinal case?

It is a pitch of motion is it not? Is a rotation about or the moment about y axis, body y
axis which is the pitching motion? We need to talk about pitching emotion here, which
is given by our pitching motion produced due to pitching moment which is rotation
about or moment about y axis, about body y axis that we just discussed. Pitching
moment and is given by
1 2
𝑀= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝑚 𝑐̅
2
Pitch up is considered positive, pitch down is considered negative here. That is what
we just discussed. Where, 𝐶𝑚 is the coefficient of pitching moment. Now when M is
positive, if M is positive, when pitching, M is positive when pitching moment is

93
positive. When the aircraft perform a pitch up motion. This implies 𝐶𝑚 is also positive
and vice versa. If M is negative 𝐶𝑚 is negative.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

Now let us consider what are the possible equilibrium flight envelopes. It is cruise. I
can name I can immediately name cruise. It is a steady level flight. You can refer to our
earlier lectures where we discussed about this. Steady level flight and then steady climb.
And then steady glide. This flight envelopes correspond to equilibrium flight. Now
consider one such case where you have our aircraft. Let us say a steady level flight.
This is our FRL (Fuselage Reference Line). Again, this is a reference axis with which
all the components are mounted, and it is an imaginary axis again. And we have V
infinity means, the flow is moving at a speed 𝑉∞ towards the aircraft which means the
aircraft is moving at a speed 𝑉∞ into static air. And this flow is making an angle. This
aircraft is maintaining an orientation 𝛼 with respect to this 𝑉∞ called angle of attack 𝛼.
And now say if there is a small disturbance, if there is a small gust that increase this
angle of attack to a new 𝛼′. There is an incremental 𝛼 here. That means what? You have
your initial equilibrium condition is now changed.

This change in angle of attack will change the aerodynamic forces, which in turn change
the moment as well. When we are talking about the longitudinal case here, we need to
talk about the pitching moment. The change in the pitching moment should result in
such a way that we should again go back to this 𝛼. It is not the location or orientation;
it is about we are talking about that state know equilibrium state when it is when the
aircraft is maintaining certain alpha. Our aircraft has to return to that particular 𝛼 once

94
it encounters a disturbance. That is when we can say the aircraft is stable, at least
longitudinally statically stable, longitudinally stable. Now how this aircraft can return
to this 𝛼? If this aircraft can rotate in such a way that the increased angle of attack is
nullified. Say now we have the change in angle of attack is nullified. We the aircraft
now sees a new angle of attack alpha prime, if I rotate this aircraft in such a way say if
I rotate this pitch down, nose down moment, then I can reduce this particular 𝛼′ to 𝛼
by nullifying this Δ𝛼.

That means for there should be a restoring moment by means of this pitching moment.
For an increase in 𝛼 there should be a decrease in or there should be a negative moment.
Similarly, when there is a decrease in angle of attack, let us say. Due to some
disturbance, there is a decrease in angle of attack. Now this particular angle of attack,
there is a decrease in angle of attack. This is 𝛼′′. Now my aircraft has to rotate in such
a way that the decrease in angle of attack now should or say the change in angle of
attack should return to the initial angle of attack. From 𝛼 if I have to maintain 𝛼 where
𝛼′ is less than 𝛼. I need to rotate the aircraft up. I need to give a nose up motion. That
means for a negative change in 𝛼 or decrease in 𝛼 I need to increase the moment. For
an increase in 𝛼 I need to decrease the moment. That is when we can say aircraft is
possess longitudinal static stability.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

Now let us consider 𝐶𝑚 is the coefficient of pitching moment variation with angle of
attack. This is positive and this is negative. What is positive? We say this is nose up
motion and this is nose down. Let us consider the following two curves. Let us say the

95
aircraft is having this sort of variation of pitching moment coefficient, in fact, the
pitching moment with angle of attack. Let us say this is my aircraft or UAV. Now let
us say there is another aircraft whose variation of pitching moment with angle of attack
is given by this curve B. This is for UAV 2 and this is for UAV 1. Now what is this
junction? Can you guess what is this? This is positive negative then this must be zero.
When 𝐶𝑚 is zero m is zero, moments are zero here. Can we say this as a trim condition
or in equilibrium condition? What we have is an equilibrium here, let us say 𝛼. Now as
we mentioned earlier, the disturbance that can happen for a trim flight in the
longitudinal case is in terms of angle of attack. There in terms of like for a pendulum,
it is in terms of angular deflection there. Angular displacement. Here in terms of angle
of attack.

For a longitudinal case, the disturbance that can happen is in angle of attack here. Now,
when there is such disturbance here in angle of attack, which has increased it, let us say
increase the initial trim angle of attack. There is a disturbance now. Because of this
disturbance, the aircraft now seeing 𝛼′ instead of 𝛼𝑒𝑞 , equilibrium angle of attack. For
an aircraft with this particular variation 𝐶𝑚 that this particular curvy B variation, what
happens with the increasing angle of attack there is an increase in or positive pitching
moment, which means it will try to rotate the aircraft upwards. Because 𝐶𝑚 is positive
it rotates the aircraft up. Let us say this is my aircraft. This is my nose. This is my initial
condition. This particular paper cutter points out the initial condition. When there is
otherwise you can say this is my free stream velocity, paper cutter is free stream velocity
and my aircraft is oriented in this particular fashion and moving at a level flight
condition, in a level flight condition.

Now when there is increase in angle of attack because of the disturbance for the curve
if this particular aircraft possesses the 𝐶𝑚 variation as that of curve B, what happens is
this will produce a positive pitching moment. What is positive pitching moment?
Rotation like nose up. That positive means nose up. It will try to rotate up which further
increases the angle of attack here. This further increase in angle of attack creates
furthermore pitching moment and you will try to move from this particular equilibrium
point that similar to the one that we discussed. On convex up condition. That means,
this increase in angle of attack, increase in angle of attack for aircraft with curve B will

96
increase will create a positive pitching moment. That positive pitching moment further
increases the angle of attack. Further increases the angle of attack. Let us say this is 𝛼′′,
and this increase in angle of attack will further increase the pitch up moment. The you
are trying to move away from this particular so the aircraft with this yellow variation
will try to move away from this equilibrium position. You are trying to move away
from this equilibrium position. That means, it is the aircraft is said to be unsteady,
statically unstable here. If the aircraft process this particular variation, we say the
aircraft is statically unstable. Does not process longitudinal static stability.

And on the other hand, if the variation otherwise if the disturbance reduces the angle of
attack, say𝛼1 . If the variation reduces the angle of attack for example, if this is my free
stream velocity, this paper cutter represents free stream velocity and my orientation
with respect to this represents angle of attack of the duster with respect to this free
stream velocity is angle of attack. Now this has reduced the angle of attack. The
disturbance now reduced the angle of attack here. What happens is; this yellow curve
will produce due to that it will produce a negative pitching moment. This is the negative
axis here. It will try to pitch down the aircraft. Say there is this is the initial angle of
attack. Now there is a decrease in angle of attack. Because of the external disturbance
and now the aircraft will try to further rotate it down which means, it will further
decrease the angle of attack. You will try to move away from this equilibrium location.
You will try to reach another angle of attack or reduce the angle of attack. Angle of
attack is decreasing in this direction, increasing in the opposite direction.

This is increasing axis of 𝛼. This pitch down moment will further reduces the angle of
attack, which will also produce a higher pitch down moment. Higher nose down
moment that will take you away from this particular equilibrium location. This 𝛼 is
moving away from this 𝛼𝑒𝑞 . For the aircraft with this yellow curve, you are trying to
move away from this equilibrium location. On the other hand, when you talk about this
aircraft with this red graph. If the variation of pitching moment follows the curve A, the
UAV or the aircraft which follows this curve A, so when there is a change in angle of
attack, which is an increasing angle of attack because of the external disturbance. This
will produce a negative moment.

97
When there is an increase in angle of attack, the aircraft with curve A will try to produce
a negative moment, negative pitching moment which is pitch down moment. We have
initially this particular orientation and due to external dissonance, there is an increase
in angle of attack. This produces a pitch down moment that decreases. The increase in
angle of attack with this from this curve will produce a negative moment. That means,
the aircraft will try to pitch down. This pitch down will decrease this angle of attack. It
will decrease the angle of attack which helps you to move towards the equilibrium. On
the other hand, when you when the external disturbance decreases the angle of attack,
the aircraft with curve A will produce a positive pitching moment that will help the
aircraft to rotate nose up, which increases the change in angle of attack. It will try to
increase the angle of attack. What is the increasing direction of angle of attack?
Towards my right. From here you are trying to move towards this point 𝛼𝑒𝑞 . You are
trying to move towards equilibrium location. One condition that we can observe is the
slope here if you look at the slope the change in pitching moment due to change in 𝛼.
This corresponds to 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , the change in 𝛼. The change in pitching moment or this
change in angle of attack should be negative, or less than zero here.

You can see so at this 𝛼1 . 𝛼′′ you have a higher pitching moment here and 𝛼′ which is
higher than 𝛼′′ you have lower pitching moment. The change is negative. There is a
negative slope here. You can see there is a negative slope. The 𝐶𝑚 versus 𝛼, the 𝐶𝑚
variation with respect to angle of attack should be negative. This is one important like
condition that we need to maintain for a static longitudinal static stable flight. Let us
consider another plot which is just parallel to this red line. Say the slope is negative.
𝑑𝐶𝑚
The slope is negative here. We have satisfied this condition is negative.
𝑑𝛼

𝑑𝐶𝑚
<0
𝑑𝛼
But which curve do you prefer for the aircraft to process? Say if you look at this 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
here, what is the trim condition for this particular aircraft when is 𝐶𝑚 is zero at this
particular location, Where at this particular location you have negative angle of attack.
𝛼 is negative. You will not be able to trim the aircraft at negative angle of attack. You
will not be able to fly the aircraft at negative angle of attack. You should not trim it at
negative angle of attack. The necessary condition is that you should maintain this
particular coefficient which is 𝐶𝑚 at 𝛼 zero should be positive.

98
 𝐶𝑚0 > 0
This 𝐶𝑚 at 𝛼 zero is the y intercept here we call it as 𝐶𝑚0 . 𝐶𝑚0 has to be positive has to
be greater than zero and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 has to be less than zero. These are the two conditions. This
is the necessary condition, and we have this as sufficient condition. Our aim is to look
at what is the contribution of these various components of the aircraft. Say we looked
at various major components, like wing, propulsion system and tail and vertical tail.
How they are contributing towards this 𝐶𝑚𝛼 , 𝐶𝑚0 of the aircraft. And we should never
forget that these moments we are talking is about CG, center of gravity of the system It
is about the CG of our aircraft. With respect to that how these components are
contributing towards this stability. What happens when I add a tail? What happens when
I add a canard? What happens when I have double biplane wings?

If I have to design a UAV, say if I have to design a biplane UAV, I need to understand
whether the addition of these two wings is contributing towards stability or
destabilizing the system. That is the main aim here. We will try to look into those in the
coming lectures. This is the necessary condition. I think in our previous discussion this
was swapped. Try to correct this. Now this is the necessary condition to have 𝐶𝑚0
positive and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 , sufficient condition is 𝐶𝑚𝛼 should be negative. For those aircraft with
𝐶𝑚𝛼 greater than zero, and 𝐶𝑚0 greater than zero, that we can still fly those aircraft, but
with an onboard controller. But even if 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is less than zero, if you have 𝐶𝑚0 less than
zero, you may not be able to fly the aircraft. You have to trim at negative angles of
attack. At negative angles of attack, you will try to reach towards 𝐶𝐿0 . You do not have
lift. See you soon.

99
 UAV Design - Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture - 08
Numericals

Hello friends, welcome back. In our previous lecture we discussed about static stability.
We started with stability and then we continued to longitudinal static stability and we
derived the conditions for an aircraft to be statically, to possess longitudinal static
stability it has to satisfy the conditions that 𝐶𝑚𝛼 has to be less than zero and 𝐶𝑚0 has to
be greater than zero. Before we proceed to look at the contribution from various
components of this of the UAV towards the static stability, let us solve few example
problems, where you will be able to find out aerodynamic center of various
configurations. Why are we doing this exercise? we will be considering aerodynamic
center as one of the reference points in this entire calculation. That will be handy, once
we solve these particular problems, say about 2 to 3 problems that will help you to
figure out how to find out aerodynamic center for various configurations. Once we find
the aerodynamic center, then we will be able to talk about the stability of the system
with respect to the CG or what will be the relative position between CG and the
aerodynamic center of various components of the of a UAV. That helps the system to
be stable.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:33)

100
Let us take up the first example problem. Find the aerodynamic center of a wing which
is a flat plate with root chord of 1 meter zero taper ratio and with semi span of 0.5 units.
This is the question. We are asked to find out the aerodynamic center. Let us add some
more non-dimension parameters. Also find wing aspect ratio and the aspect ratio. We
are asked to find the aerodynamic center of this flat plate and we were told that this flat
plate has a root chord of 1 meter and taper ratio is zero and we were also given the
information about it is tapered about, the wing taper ratio is zero. The taper axis is mid
chord. The taper axis is also given. It is tapered about mid chord. What do you mean by
tapered about mid chord? Let us consider a tapered wing. Now if you consider any span
wise location, you have corresponding chord at that particular span wise location. Say
if this is my span wise location and say this is my corresponding chord at that particular
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
span wise location. Now if you consider 2 of this. If you look at 2 and also at any other

span wise location. All the c/2 will lie in particular straight line. This is the definition
of taper axis. Now according to this question, it is a flat plate configuration.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:18)

The wing is a flat plate. From the question we can tentatively get some rough idea about
the wing planform here. We have root chord which is about 1 meter and the taper axis
is 0.5 meters. If this is my root chord, which is 1 meter, and the midpoint should be 0.5.
And I was given the information about semi span. One side of the wing is about 0.5
meter. Let us say this is my 0.5 meters. We can so root chord is a mirror image of this,
like is a plane of symmetry. Let us say this is the other half of the wing, which is again
0.5 meters and zero taper ratio. What do you mean by that 𝐶𝑡 /𝐶𝑅 ?, which implies C t is

101
0. We have point at tip. At 0. 5 meters, we have a point and then now joining this will
give us a wing planform. Let me redraw it a bit better. More or less, it looks like this is
1 meter and this is 1 meter. What we have is the total span as 1 meter here and then the
root chord is also 1 meter. 𝐶𝑅 is equals to 1 meter 𝐶𝑡 is 0. And then the taper axis. Up
𝐶𝑅
to this point it is 0.5 meters. This is 0.5 meters or . This is your 𝐶𝑅 , which is 1 meter.
2
𝐶𝑅
This is . Now we need to find out the mean aerodynamic chord. Let us say this is, if
2

this is my mean aerodynamic chord 𝑐̅.

We know how to find the aerodynamic center. We need to find out what is the
corresponding mean aerodynamic chord here. Once you find this mean aerodynamic
chord, let us project this mean aerodynamic chord onto the root chord. This will be my
projection of mean aerodynamic chord on the root chord and one fourth of this because
we are talking about a lower subsonic speed UAV. One fourth of this 𝑐̅ is generally
considered as aerodynamic center here. Let us say this is my corresponding 𝑐/4 of this
𝑐̅. And this will be my aerodynamic center. Let this be denoted by 𝑥𝑎𝑐 . This is measured
with respect to leading edge of the root chord. Let us say this is my x aerodynamic
center fine. Now how can I find this x aerodynamic center?
(Refer Slide Time: 09:11)

𝑐𝑅 𝑐̅ 𝑐̅ 𝑐𝑅 𝑐̅
𝑥𝑎𝑐 = [ − ] + = − = 0.5 − 0.25 𝑐̅
2 2 4 2 2
2 1 + 𝜆 + 𝜆2 2 1 2
𝑐̅ = 𝑐𝑅 ( ) = × 1 × ( ) = = 0.667 𝑚
3 1+ 𝜆 3 1 3

102
 𝑥𝑎𝑐 = 0.5 − 0.25 × 0.667 = 0.333 𝑚
This 𝑥𝑎𝑐 is approximately 33 centimeters or 0.3 meters or 33 centimeters from the
leading edge of the root chord. If you measure 33 centimeters from here with a scale,
you will be able to find out the corresponding aerodynamic center here. And let us also
complete the rest of this question. Let us find the aspect ratio here. Aspect ratio of this
wing
𝑏2 1
𝐴𝑅 = = =2
𝑆 0.5
Where,
1 𝑏
𝑆 = 2 × ( × × ℎ) = 0.5 𝑚2
2 2

This particular wing has a very low aspect ratio which is 2. Please note it down. Let us
move on to the second question. We have to find the aerodynamic center of the wing
given the root chord, taper axis and the span here. Semi span was given. We can figure
𝑐
out span easily. We have root chord, taper axis which is or mid chord at each and
2

every location. If you find midpoints of chords at each and every y location, span wise
location, they all lie in a same straight line. Lie on a same straight line and then from
there, from this data you can figure out that 𝑐̅ as 0.667, which is approximately 67
centimeters. This is 67 centimeters, and this is 1 meter. When you project this 𝑐̅ onto
𝑐 𝑐̅
the root chord and 4 of the 𝑐̅ will be or 4, one fourth of the 𝑐̅ will be the corresponding

aerodynamic center. From this particular relation that aerodynamic center can be
figured out, once we know what the corresponding aerodynamic center is, sorry mean
aerodynamic chord. Let us move on to the second question. Let us solve a similar
question to find out what the aerodynamic center and the mean aerodynamic chord of
a delta wing configuration is.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:47)

103
Find the aerodynamic center and aspect ratio of a delta wing configuration with a root
chord of 0.9 meters and tip chord of 0.15 meters with a span of 1.75 meters. This is
what we have. We were asked to find the mean aerodynamic center, location of
aerodynamic center, mean aerodynamic chord. Find out aerodynamic center. We need
mean aerodynamic chord and the aspect ratio of a delta wing right. As soon as we
remember about delta wing. We can imagine a triangle. For a pure delta wing it will
there will not be any tip chord, taper ratio will be zero. But here we were given certain
tip chord. We have the information about this root chord and tip chord. The tip chord is
0.15 meters, and the root chord is 0.9 meters.

This is 0.75 meters. Also find leading edge sweep angle. This is how the geometry of a
delta wing; it is more or less symmetric. Assume that this is symmetric. And you are
given the span of this configuration, which is 1.5 meters. We have root chord, tip chord
and 1.5 meters. And we know delta wing is tapered about, the taper axis of delta wing
is trailing edge. At each and every span wise location if you look at the chord, all the
tips trailing edges of this chords right will lie on a same straight line here. This is on
either side. At each and every span wise location the trailing edge of the chord will lie
on the same straight line here. I am sorry. Please make a correction here. It is 1.75
meters. First thing I need to find out is again the same procedure, let us figure out where
is this mean aerodynamic chord. What is this 𝑐̅? Also find we will add some more part
to this question. Leading edge as well as 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑐 . See it is location, span wise location of
mean aerodynamic chord. This is your 𝑐̅. And for this, it is bit simpler to find out the
aerodynamic center.

104
Why because we know the trailing edge is same here. When you project this, we have
𝑐̅
𝑐̅ on the root chord. 𝑥𝑎𝑐 aerodynamic center will be definitely 4. This particular distance
𝑐̅
is 4. If this is my ac aerodynamic center, this total distance will be sum of 𝑐𝑅 minus 𝑐̅.

See this is the total 𝑐𝑅 , root chord minus this mean aerodynamic chord what we have is
𝑐̅
this particular portion, added by 4. What you get is a distance location of this

aerodynamic center with respect to the leading edge of the root chord.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:14)

Again, what we have is x aerodynamic center, which is equals to this is say this is 𝑥𝑎𝑐 .
This particular portion from the leading edge of the root chord till the leading edge of
the mean aerodynamic chord. How do you get? Since the root chord, tip chords lie on
the same straight line 𝑐𝑅 minus 𝑐̅ is this particular distance. That is this additional
𝑐̅
portion which is the 4 is the aerodynamic center, location of aerodynamic center for this

configuration and with respect to root chord, we need to like leading edge of the root
chord we need to add the portion right, which is in between the leading edge of the root
chord and the leading edge of the mean aerodynamic chord.
𝑐̅
𝑥𝑎𝑐 = (𝑐𝑅 − 𝑐̅) +
4
3𝑐̅
= 𝑐𝑅 −
4
3𝑐̅
= 0.9 −
4

105
 2 1 + 𝜆 + 𝜆2 2 1 + 0.1667 + 0.16672
𝑐̅ = 𝑐𝑅 ( ) = × 0.9 × ( ) = 0.614 𝑚
3 1+ 𝜆 3 1 + 0.1667
(Refer Slide Time: 22:58)

𝑐𝑡 = 0.15
𝑐𝑅 = 0.9
𝑐𝑡 0.15
𝜆= = = 0.1667
𝑐𝑅 0.9
3
𝑥𝑎𝑐 = 0.9 − × 0.614
4
≈ 0.44 𝑚
This is approximately 44 centimeters from the leading edge. This particular distance is
44 centimeters from the leading edge of the root chord. We have now figured out what
is the location of aerodynamic center with respect to leading edge of root chord. Now
we have to proceed to figure out what is the aspect ratio here.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:33)

106
The aspect ratio here, the aspect ratio
𝑏 2 1.752
𝐴𝑅 = =
𝑆 𝑆

What is the area of this particular delta wing? We can consider this as a trapezium.
High times the average of these two-perpendicular distance.
𝑏
𝑆= (𝑐 + 𝑐𝑡 )
2 𝑅
1.75
= × (0.9 + 0.15)
2
𝑆 = 0.918 𝑚2
Now the area turns out to be approximately 0.9 m2.
1.752
𝐴𝑅 = = 3.33
0.918

That is aspect ratio of this wing. And 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑐 is

𝑏 1 + 2𝜆
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑐 = ( )
6 1+𝜆
1.75 1 + 2 × 0.1667
= ×( )
6 1 + 0.1667
= 0.333 𝑚
If you move 33 centimeters from here, you will be able to find out the corresponding
mean aerodynamic chord on either side. What will be the leading-edge angle? Can you
solve this?

107
(Refer Slide Time: 28:24)

Let us say Γ is leading edge angle. Let us say this is the leading-edge angle. How can
we find? We know this distance, which is close to this. If you know this particular value,
you will be able to figure out what is this leading-edge angle. What is that leading edge
angle?
𝑐𝑅 − 𝑐𝑡 0.75
tan(𝛤𝐿𝐸 ) = = = 0.857
𝑏 0.875
2
Γ𝐿𝐸 = 400

We were given a delta Wing and we need to figure out what is the corresponding
aerodynamic center. We have root chord. We have the information about root chord
which is 0.9 meters. And the tip chord which is 0.15 meter, and the span of the
configuration is 1.75 meters. Based upon this information, we figured out what is the
corresponding mean aerodynamic chord, which turned out to be approximately 61
centimeters. Since it is a delta wing, it is tapered about trailing edge. We can project
this particular 𝑐̅ onto the root chord and can easily figure out what is the corresponding
aerodynamic center by just adding the distance between the leading root leading edge
of the root chord and leading edge of the mean aerodynamic chord and then one fourth
of this mean aerodynamic chord. By adding that, we have figured out what is the mean
aerodynamic chord and as well as aerodynamic center. Once we figured out this
location of aerodynamic center, we then proceeded to find the aspect ratio which turned

108
out to be 3.33 for this particular configuration. And then the leading-edge angle was
figured out to be 40 degrees here.

You can simply calculate the 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑐 by using the standard expression. By using this, you
will be able to be we figured out that span wise location of this mean aerodynamic chord
is about 33 centimeters from the root. We will solve another example problem for this
to find the aerodynamic center. Let us complicate this a bit further. Let us take another
example problem where we have a wing with multiple sections. The wing planform can
be something like this. We have a rectangular planform and then the tapered planform
as well. In that case, how do we find out the mean aerodynamic? In this particular case,
what can you notice? The taper is about, we have a rectangular section here. We are not
much worried about the mean aerodynamic chord or the taper axis. Of course, there is
no taper here. But for this particular portion what can you infer? Se the trailing edge of
this rectangular wing as well as the second portion which is here are same, or on the
straight line. That means, we can assume that this particular taper of this wing is about
this. Wing portion is about the trailing edge here. We will consider a similar problem,
but not exactly this, the same what we are seeing here.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:08)

Consider the following wing planform right and find the aerodynamic center. Find the
aerodynamic center. That is good enough. This is what the planform is. We have a
rectangular portion of this wing, right in the center. Let us say this is my F RL, fuselage
reference line that we discussed earlier. Let us consider a rectangular wing. Have a
rectangular wing portion in between. Followed by it this is my tapered wing right.

109
Assume that this is symmetric. We have a rectangular portion in between and the span
of this rectangular portion is 2 meters and then the semi span of this particular portion
is about 1 meter. And we have information about this root chord. This is your 𝑐𝑅1 , which
is 0.6 meters. We have the information about root chord. This is 0.6 meters. And the
leading-edge sweep of this is about 4.3 degrees. Do we require any other information
here? We have 4.3 degrees sweep of this and you have and this the entire taper, the
𝑐
taper of this particular portion is about 4. This taper axis is about quarter chord. What

is quarter chord taper?

If you consider any section, span wise section and the corresponding chord, if you find
the corresponding quarter chord of that particular span wise section. If you join all these
quarter chords, they will all lie on a same straight line. That is the definition of this
taper about quarter chord, taper axis is quarter chord. How to find the aerodynamic
center? To find the aerodynamic center, first we need to find out the mean aerodynamic
chord. Let us now divide this particular wing as section 1 and section 2. Section 1 is a
rectangular wing, it is straightforward. I do not have, for section 1, let us say for section
1, what is the area?
𝑆1 = 𝑏1 × 𝑐𝑅1 = 1 × 0.6 = 0.6 𝑚2

And what is the 𝜆 of this first section?

𝑐𝑡1
𝜆1 = =1
𝑐𝑅1
Aspect ratio of this first section is
𝑏12 1
𝐴𝑅1 = = = 1.667
𝑆1 0.6

𝑐̅1 = 0.6 𝑚
If we say let us say 𝑐̅ of section 2 is at a given location. What will be the mean
aerodynamic chord of the center configuration? It will be the weighted average.
𝑆1 𝑐̅1 + 𝑆2 𝑐̅2
𝑐̅ =
𝑆1 + 𝑆2
If I want to find the mean aerodynamic chord in the first place, I need to know what is
the corresponding 𝑐̅1 and 𝑐̅2 . We have information about 𝑆1, 𝑐̅1 . Now we need to find

110
out what is what are these 𝑆2 and 𝑐̅2 . Can we find out for section 2? I will just erase this
particular portion.
(Refer Slide Time: 40:32)

For section 2, what I have is 𝑆2 ?

𝑐𝑅2 + 𝑐𝑡2
𝑆2 = 𝑏2 ×
2
0.6 + 0.3
=1× = 0.45 𝑚2
2
𝑐𝑅2 − 𝑐𝑡2
tan(4.30 ) = 4
1
𝑐𝑡2 = 𝑐𝑅2 − 4 tan(4.30 )
= 0.3 𝑚
So now the question is we have these points on the straight line which is the base of
this particular triangle. Now let us say how can I get what is 𝑐𝑡 ? I have this angle. What
𝑐𝑡 2
I can do is this particular distance, this particular distance is nothing but . What is this
4

particular distance? This distance so from here to here, this particular distance is 𝑐𝑡 /2.
𝑐
What is this particular distance then it will be this is 𝑐𝑅2 . This particular distance is 4𝑡 .
𝑐𝑡2 0.3
𝜆2 = = = 0.5
𝑐𝑅2 0.6
2 1 + 𝜆2 + 𝜆22
𝑐̅2 = 𝑐𝑅2 ( ) = 0.467 𝑚
3 1 + 𝜆2

111
(Refer Slide Time: 46:25)

If you substitute that what we have is

0.6 × 0.6 + 0.45 × 0.467
𝑐̅ = = 0.543 𝑚
1.05
This mean aerodynamic chord will be somewhere here, which is 54 centimeters, right.
Now you can project this 𝑐̅ onto the root chord and find out the corresponding location
𝑐
of the aerodynamic center. This is tapered about 4. For a rectangular wing there is no
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐𝑅 𝑐𝑡
taper. If you join 4 of this root chord, the 4 or any other or of this rectangular wing
4 4
𝑐
should lie on the 4 axis here. Without even solving this, we can tell that the aerodynamic
𝑐𝑅1
center once you have that quarter chord taper, the aerodynamic center is nothing but 4

at a distance of, am I correct or not? Even if you solve this that is how it is going to turn
out to be. For example, let us solve this. First figure out what is, what I say is 𝑥𝑎𝑐 is
𝑐𝑅1
nothing but , which is 0.15 meter. 15 centimeters from the leading edge of the root
4

chord is my aerodynamic center 𝑥𝑎𝑐 . Aerodynamic center of this wing is 15 centimeters

from here. If you do not believe me, then what you can solve it in the conventional way
what we are doing right now.

𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
We have the taper axis is 4 . 𝑥𝑎𝑐 will be like 4 of this. Taper axis is 4. We say it is 4 of

this particular mean aerodynamic chord. Our aerodynamics enter if you project, if you
project this aerodynamic mean aerodynamic chord on to the root chord, when we take
c we considered the aerodynamic center lies at quarter chord of this mean aerodynamic

112
 𝑐
chord. Say this is my aerodynamic center ac, which is at 4. What I am now claiming is
𝑐𝑅1
that is equals to . That is what I am claiming, for this particular case. Now this
4

particular distance is nothing but this distance plus this distance. What is this distance?
𝑐𝑅1 𝑐𝑅1
. This is equals to, this is equals to , which is this distance minus this distance will
4 4

get the distance between the leading edges of root chord of first section as well as mean
𝑐̅
aerodynamic chord. This is again this distance is nothing but 4. You got this distance
𝑐̅
plus 4. That is the mean. Once you subtract this what you arrived at? Leading edge of
𝑐̅
the root chord and then 4 from the leading edge of the root chord is your aerodynamic
𝑐𝑅1
center. This is nothing but .. Which is 15 meter 15 centimeters from the leading edge
4

of the root chord of this first section. What is the aspect ratio of the second section?
(Refer Slide Time: 50:51)

Aspect ratio of the section 2 is

𝑏22 1
𝐴𝑅2 = = = 2.22
𝑆2 0.45
𝑆1 × 𝐴𝑅1 + 𝑆2 × 𝐴𝑅2
𝐴𝑅 =
𝑆1 + 𝑠2
= 1.9
This is the aspect ratio of this enter wing and again it is also a low aspect ratio wing. It
is quite evident right? This is almost 0.6 meter chord right? And it is spanned over 2
meters. That itself so your chord length is very high here. The area will be very high
for a given span. When the chord length is high for a rectangular wing area will be high.

113
Aspect ratio automatically drops. We are now in a comfortable position to figure out
what is the location of this aerodynamic center. We will try to use this concept when
we are dealing with the stability issues. How to find out say that stability criteria of,
static stability criteria for wing and for wing and tail combination or wing and canard
combination right or two wings combination. How to figure out the aerodynamic center
for such configuration. And this location of this aerodynamic center is considered as a
reference and the location of CG with respect to that will define the stability criteria.
That we are going to see in the coming lectures. Thank you.

114
 UAV Design - Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture - 09
Longitudinal Static Stability - Wing Contribution

Hello friends, welcome back. In our previous lecture we witnessed for a UAV to be to
possess longitudinal static stability it has to satisfy two conditions, which is 𝐶𝑚0 has to
be greater than zero and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 has to be less than zero right. We also discussed about
stability. It is a property of an equilibrium where the, if the system is able to return to
its initial equilibrium once disturbed from it then we call the system is a stable system.
And we also discussed about equilibrium and its properties. Now let us proceed ahead
to figure out how various components of a UAV contribute towards stability of the
system. And we also studied that the stability of a system is bifurcated into two parts.
The first one is the static stability, and the second part is dynamic stability. Where the
static stability is the initial tendency of the system to come back towards its equilibrium
once disturbed from it. In case of dynamic stability, it talks about time history of motion
of the system once disturbed from its equilibrium. If the system is able to return to
equilibrium over a period of time by damping out the disturbance that was created right,
which has in fact disturbed from its equilibrium. If it is able to return to its equilibrium,
then we can say the system is both statically as well as dynamically stable. And we also
concluded that dynamic stability would guarantee static stability, but static stability
may not guarantee dynamic stability. And we are looking at longitudinal static stability
of a UAV here.

115
(Refer Slide Time: 02:03)

And we have considered an example. We know for longitudinal case the only moment
that contributes that can contribute towards stability is the pitching moment.
1
𝑀 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝑚
2
This is what is going to contribute towards restoring moment. Which is very important
for a system to be stable. We need a restoring moment in one form or the other. In the
first case we considered a pendulum pivoted about a point O. And this pendulum of
mass m is deflected from its or disturbed from its equilibrium. And once we leave once
it disturbed from its equilibrium, it tries to oscillate about the equilibrium about this
pivot point. And finally, if there is damping, it will be able to reach that particular initial
equilibrium. That happens only because of there is some restoring moment with respect
to about point O by the system. 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑙 is what helping your system to restore to its
equilibrium. That moment which helps the system to restore towards equilibrium is
called restoring moment and restoring moment is essential for a system to be statically
stable here. For a longitudinal case of UAV we have pitching moment. We have only
one moment which is a pitching moment. And with this pitching moment, we should
be able to generate that restoring moment.

For a UAV to be longitudinally stable, we have witnessed that 𝐶𝑚 variation with 𝛼 has
𝑑𝐶𝑚
to be negative. This . is with negative slope. If the system has this particular
𝑑𝛼

variation in the linear range of angle of attack, if this system has this 𝐶𝑚 variation with
angle of attack, this particular trend that is shown here, then we can say the system is

116
statically stable. And the other condition that is required is 𝐶𝑚0 , that is 𝐶𝑚 at 𝛼 is zero.
This is 𝐶𝑚0 . This particular point corresponds to 0, 𝐶𝑚0 . And this particular point
corresponds to 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , 0. That is lift 𝐶𝑚 moment is 0. Which can be considered as trim
state or equilibrium state here. This 𝐶𝑚0 has to be greater than zero to trim the aircraft
at a positive angle of attack and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 has to be less than zero to have the tendency to
produce restoring moment.
𝐶𝑚0 > 0
𝑑𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑚 𝛼 = <0
𝑑𝛼
𝐶𝑚2 − 𝐶𝑚1
<0
𝛼2 − 𝛼1

For each positive change in 𝛼 there should be negative change in 𝐶𝑚 . That is there
should be a pitch down moment when there is an increase in angle of attack. Now let
us consider this wing. Let us consider this particular wing. It is a rectangular wing. It is
just a wing you know. There is nothing attached to this. It is just a wing, simple wing
straight wing. If we consider this wing itself as an aircraft. The total lift of this aircraft
is nothing but lift of the width. And whatever the moment produced by the wing is
nothing, but the moment produced by the aircraft itself. By the way, where this moment
will act? About the C.G here. It is about the C.G. That is how we defined. We
considered a body axis system with its origin at the C.G. And about each of those axes,
which is passing through the origin, we have three different moments starting with
rolling moment about the x axis, pitching moment about y axis and yawing moment
about z axis. If I simply throw this know, if I simply throw this what do you expect?

What do you expect this wing to do? It is just flipping is it not? If I do this again it just
flips, flips multiple times. The position from which we started right is not able to
maintain the same altitude or same state we can say. We have released it from a level
state in an equilibrium condition. Because it is not moving it is not rotating and it is
static. I am throwing this at a particular equilibrium state, but it is not able to maintain.
It is flipping. Such a motion is, we can closely imagine this as a unstable state of this
particular C.G location. If I have to make this fly, then I have to satisfy these conditions.
𝐶𝑚0 has to be greater than zero, 𝐶𝑚 𝛼 has to be less than zero. Now what is this 𝐶𝑚 ? It is

117
pitching moment. And this moment is acting about C.G. So now first let us look at
where is this C.G. If I can balance this at a given location, I am taking a chord wise
location. Let us consider I am taking this particular chord and I am trying to balance
this at this chord wise location. This is almost at this particular location.

The C.G is at this particular location. Now it is balanced about this particular location
C.G is balanced. This is the location. Almost mid chord. Almost, not mid chord I should
say. Close to mid chord. This is the location at which the current C.G location is. The
moment about the C.G location is making it unstable. We will see why it is making it
unstable in the first place. If I somehow can alter the C.G. I should know I do not know
now, I do not have the information, whether should I take the C.G behind or should I
take the C.G head to make to satisfy this particular condition 𝐶𝑚 𝛼 . In order to derive
those conditions, let us first look into the contribution of a wing towards stability for a
given UAV. Let us start with that. Let us assume from now we will try to represent the
wing while dealing with the stability by the side view, just this particular aerofoil will
draw a particular side view of this wing and then the characteristics of this like the lift
drag and aerodynamics, moment about aerodynamic center will talk about the rest of
this like characteristics of this wing. And they are represented at the aerodynamic center
which we have discussed earlier.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:07)

Before going to this, I would like to postulate this assumptions that we are considering
for the rest of this analysis or analysis or say you can say the criteria for this entire
stability analysis these are the following assumptions where the first one is we assume

118
or there exist a plane of symmetry. About which the geometry is symmetric and also
the mass distribution. Also, the mass distribution. We have a plane of symmetry. For
example, if I take this wing say at the center right at the mid portion of this span, I can
say this particular left side wing is symmetric. Or the left side wing is a mirror image
of the left side wing is a mirror image of right-side wing if I consider a plane here. If I
cut this wing at the mid portion of the span with the vertical plane. About that plane,
the left side of the wing is mirror image of right side of the wing. Not just in geometry,
but also in mass distribution. That is what it is here. The second thing is longitudinal
controls will not generate lateral directional and directional forces or moments. What
do you mean by that?

Let us say the longitudinal control we know is an elevator. Let us say this is my wing
and say there is a tail in the back. If I deflect the elevator, that is only going to produce
the change in the longitudinal forces, which is the lift, overall lift of the aircraft is going
to change and then the moment as well. But it is not going to produce any rolling
moment or yawing moment or any side force right, the force along y axis, and vice
versa. The lateral, for example, if there is an aileron deflection, if you deploy ailerons
that are those are not going to produce any longitudinal moments like it is not going to
produce any pitching moment or it is not going to alter the overall lift of the aircraft,
just because of the deflection. That is the same case as a same case with the rudder as
well. And then the third assumption is aerodynamic forces and moments vary linearly
with angle of attack. That is what we assume a linear variation of aerodynamic forces
and moments throughout this analysis. And we will consider this description or these
derivations, what we are going to come up with will be valued only for linear range of
angle of attack.

And the final assumption is, we will use principle of superposition. We will use
principle of superposition where the forces the total forces acting on a UAV or an
aircraft will be sum of the forces produced by the independent components and the
same as same for moments. Let us say, if this is my this is my wing, and this is my tail,
let us assume that. This these two together when attached forms a aircraft and we
assume it as a rigid body. And then the total forces acting on this aircraft is due or the
moments acting on aircraft is due to the forces and moments created by this wing, and
also forces and moments created by this tail. We will have a vectorial sum of this, forces

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and moments from the individual components. These are the four assumptions that we
are going to consider, for our derivations here. Now let us look at the wing alone
contribution. I will try I will just erase this part. I hope you have noted down these
assumptions.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:43)

From now I would like to deal this it in two halves. Why because we have bit lengthy
equations during these derivations. For a longitudinal static stability, we know 𝐶𝑚0 has
to be greater than zero and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 has to be less than zero. We know these two conditions
are necessary and sufficient conditions here. And also, we have one important thing is
aerodynamic forces and moments they vary linearly with angle of attack and we have
a plane of symmetry and also, we use the principle of superposition. At the same time,
we assume that the longitudinal controls are not going to affect lateral directional
dynamics. Let us look at wing contribution. What do you mean by this wing
contribution?
𝑀𝐶𝐺 = 𝑀𝑎/𝑐 = 𝑀𝑎𝑐 𝑤 + [𝐿𝑤 cos(𝛼) + 𝐷𝑤 sin(𝛼)](𝑥𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑤 )
+ [𝐿𝑤 sin(𝛼) − 𝐷𝑤 cos(𝛼)](𝑧𝐶𝐺 − 𝑧𝑎𝑐𝑤 )
1 2 1 1
𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝑚 𝑎/𝑐 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆[𝐶𝐿𝑤 cos(𝛼) + 𝐶𝐷𝑤 sin(𝛼)](𝑥𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑤 )
2 2 2
1
+ 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆[𝐶𝐿𝑤 sin(𝛼) − 𝐷𝑤 cos(𝛼)](𝑧𝐶𝐺 − 𝑧𝑎𝑐𝑤 )
2
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + [𝐶𝐿𝑤 cos(𝛼) + 𝐶𝐷𝑤 sin(𝛼)](𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 𝑤 )

+ [𝐶𝐿𝑤 sin(𝛼) − 𝐷𝑤 cos(𝛼)](𝑧̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑧̅𝑎𝑐𝑤 )

After neglecting smaller quantities,

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 𝑪𝒎 = 𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒘 + 𝑪𝑳𝑾 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 𝑤 )
(Refer Slide Time: 18:54)

Let us consider the aircraft itself is a wing and we have mounted this wing with respect
to fuselage reference line. For the time being, we assume that this wing chord coincides
with mean sorry fuselage reference line. Let us say this is my wing and this is my chord,
corresponding cord which is coinciding with the fuselage reference line. The FRL here
stands for fuselage reference line. Let us say this is this aircraft is moving, which is with
wing alone is moving at a velocity 𝑉∞ , which is making an, and this with respect to this
fuselage reference line it is making an angle of attack 𝛼. What else we have? We have
this object. We have this body, which is wing, wing alone here. We represented this
wing. What else do we represent; do we need to represent? In order to characterize this
wing, we need to define lift, drag and pitching moment for the longitudinal case about
a given reference point. If you define that completely, then we will be able to
completely characterize this aerofoil or say wing at the same time. Let us assume with
respect to leading edge, this with respect to leading edge of this root chord, let us assume
the aerodynamic center is located at a distance.

Let us say this is my aerodynamic center ac, ac here stands for aerodynamic center. You
can take it down; ac stands for aerodynamic center. ac subscript w stands for
aerodynamic center of the wing here. Let us say this aerodynamic center is located at a
distance 𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑤 , 𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑤 is the location of aerodynamic center with respect to the leading
edge of the root chord measured parallel to the fuselage reference line. What is this?

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𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑤 is the location of aerodynamic center, with respect to leading edge of 𝑐𝑅 of root
chord, leading edge of root chord. This is what we emphasize. That is the reason why
we solved three examples yesterday. 𝑐𝑅 leading edge of the root chord measured
parallel to FRL. Now we know what aerodynamic center is, which is 𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑤 measured
from the root chord here. At aerodynamic center, say if this is your free stream velocity
then lift will be acting perpendicular to this, which is 𝐿𝑤 is a lift of the wing is it not?
At the same time, you have drag of the wing acting along this free stream. Say this
angle so this acting along the free stream direction and say we have a moment about
aerodynamic center 𝑀𝑎𝑐 .

Pitching moment assuming that the y axis is into the board. The positive pitching
moment will be pitch up motion. This is the moment about aerodynamic center is
represented by 𝑀𝑎𝑐 about this aerodynamic center here. Is that all or do we have
something else as well? Now this is an object with some mass. It has center of gravity.
We are talking about a dynamic system. When you throw it, the resultant forces and
moments will be acting about this center of gravity. We have to talk about CG as well.
Let us say the CG of this object is somewhere here or say somewhere here. Say this is
my center of gravity. We are now neglecting the z offset. We are now not complicating
the system; we assume that the CG is along the fuselage reference line here. Now that
is a pretty good assumption is it not? The because the lateral distribution of mass is not
much here. We can and the contribution from, you can assume there is an offset in the
CG. Let us do that part as well.

Let us say this is my wing and this is the aerodynamic center on this chord line and the
CG is at an offset with respect to this FRL. This is my 𝑧𝐶𝐺 . This is my offset. And this
is my offset here. That is my 𝑧𝐶𝐺 . Leading edge of the root chord? Let us assume this
as 𝑥𝐶𝐺 . Again, measured parallel to yeah so this is 𝑥𝐶𝐺 . This is the location of center of
gravity. This particular point is the location of center of gravity. And 𝑧𝐶𝐺 is the offset
there and 𝑥𝐶𝐺 is the. This is 𝑧𝐶𝐺 is a vertical offset with respect to fuselage reference
line. And 𝑥𝐶𝐺 is the longitudinal offset here or horizontal offset along parallel to the
fuselage reference line with respect to the leading edge of this root chord. These are the
required variables to go ahead with this wing contribution analysis.

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For a wing, you have lift and drag produced with a wing about the aerodynamic center.
The same can be represented at the aerodynamic center associated with the moment
about aerodynamic center. The moments happen about CG, because it is a free it is a
rigid body. If you throw a rigid body the moment happens about the center of gravity.
That is with respect to the center of gravity, we will now see when it flies, what happen
to the moment. Moment about C.G. So first thing is moment about C.G, center of
gravity C.G of this wing alone configuration. Let us say that moment about C.G as 𝑀𝐶𝐺 ,
which is equal to moment of the entire aircraft, a/c here talks about entire aircraft here.
It is equals to a/c, a/c stands for aircraft or UAV, entire aircraft or entire UAV here.
Now if I want to find the moment about C.G. Now I have to so in the body frame here,
now I have to resolve this lift and drag along fuselage reference line and perpendicular
to fuselage reference line. Why because I have the distance 𝑥𝐶𝐺 measured parallel to
fuselage reference line as well as 𝑧𝐶𝐺 measured perpendicular to the fuselage reference
line.

This is my perpendicular to fuselage reference line. These are the resultant forces which
are acting perpendicular to fuselage reference line. There will be a contribution from
lift as well as drag. And then this is the direction in which this is the direction for forces,
which are acting parallel to the along the fuselage reference line. Now, perpendicular
to fuselage reference line what do you have? This is separated by an angle 𝛼. The offset
is angular offset is angle 𝛼 here. Why because L is perpendicular to 𝑉∞ . And this
direction of this normal force is perpendicular to the fuselage reference line. These two
are making an angle alpha and these two will also make angle 𝛼. You can do it by
simple mathematics. It is a simple transformation. Because see, this is this is 90 degrees
here. Let us say this is my 𝑉∞ . This is 90 degrees, and we know this angle is 𝛼.

What will be this angle? 900 − 𝛼 ? And we know this fuselage reference line and this
pink line, which is perpendicular to fuselage reference line makes an angle 90 degrees,
they are perpendicular. What will be this angle? We know this angle and we want to
find out this angle. This is 90 and this is 900 − 𝛼 that is 900 − (900 − 𝛼), which is 𝛼.
That is what 𝛼 is here. Similarly, here alternate angles are equal. Here this is 𝛼. 𝛼 is an
angle of separation between drag and the fuselage reference line here. Now what we
have is a drag component and the lift component. The total forces acting perpendicular

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to fuselage reference line is (𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝐷 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼). These are the two forces acting
perpendicular to fuselage reference line. And the so the forces acting along this let us
say this is the positive direction. Let us say this is 𝑧𝐶𝐺 . And positive direction of x is
towards the nose of the aircraft. Here towards the leading edge of the root chord. Let us
say this is my positive direction and positive direction z forces will be in the downward
direction.

I have a component 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 acting in this direction. Along this particular direction what
I have is 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 − 𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼. If I consider this as the forward direction and I consider this
as positive, then L contributes lift of the wing contribution is the positive contribution
here 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 − 𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼. D is acting in the along the free stream direction, which is in the
opposite direction. A component of it will be 𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼, which is in the negative direction
according to my convention. This is 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 − 𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼. Now, I have one force
perpendicular force and an offset between CG and the ac. This is the moment arm for
this perpendicular force. That will create a pitch up moment here. Before that the
moment about of this entire aircraft what I have is moment about aerodynamic center
of wing. Plus, the perpendicular force, which is (𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝐷 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼). It is contributing
towards pitch up. That is why it is positive contribution, times the moment arm between
CG. And see these forces are perpendicular forces acting at ac here. The pink which is
represented by this pink vector right, which is (𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝐷 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼) multiplied by this
moment arm will contribute towards a positive pitching moment here. And the moment
arm is 𝑥𝐶𝐺 . I know 𝑥𝐶𝐺 . I know 𝑥𝑎𝑐 . If I subtract 𝑥𝑎𝑐 from 𝑥𝐶𝐺 I will have the
corresponding moment arm 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of wing.

At the same time, I have a horizontal component here. The component which is parallel
to fuselage reference line is 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 − 𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼. Multiplied by this vertical offset will
give me the corresponding moment here. Again, this force is acting towards the nose.
About C.G this is going to contribute towards pitch up motion. Because y axis is into
the board and the pitching moment is about y axis. The curl of my fingers will give you
the positive pitching moment. The positive pitching moment is nose up. And this force
is trying to give me a nose up motion here. This is because of the horizontal force and
the vertical offset of C.G with respect to fuselage reference line. There is a moment
contribution because of the vertical offset by the horizontal force. And it is a positive

124
moment, and we have the vertical like vertical force and horizontal offset with respect
to C.G. This entire component is going to contribute towards a pitch up motion again,
right. And we have moment about aerodynamic center. This is clear, I guess. Now let
1
us further non-dimensionalize this. What I have is 2 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 is the reference velocity of

the wing is considered as a reference velocity of the aircraft multiplied by reference

wing area is considered as reference wing area of reference area of this aircraft.

𝑀𝐶𝐺 = 𝑀𝑎/𝑐 = 𝑀𝑎𝑐 𝑤 + [𝐿𝑤 cos(𝛼) + 𝐷𝑤 sin(𝛼)](𝑥𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑤 )

+ [𝐿𝑤 sin(𝛼) − 𝐷𝑤 cos(𝛼)](𝑧𝐶𝐺 − 𝑧𝑎𝑐𝑤 )
1 2 1 1
𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝑚 𝑎/𝑐 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆[𝐶𝐿𝑤 cos(𝛼) + 𝐶𝐷𝑤 sin(𝛼)](𝑥𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑤 )
2 2 2
1
+ 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆[𝐶𝐿𝑤 sin(𝛼) − 𝐷𝑤 cos(𝛼)](𝑧𝐶𝐺 − 𝑧𝑎𝑐𝑤 )
2
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + [𝐶𝐿𝑤 cos(𝛼) + 𝐶𝐷𝑤 sin(𝛼)](𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 𝑤 )

+ [𝐶𝐿𝑤 sin(𝛼) − 𝐷𝑤 cos(𝛼)](𝑧̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑧̅𝑎𝑐𝑤 )

(Refer Slide Time: 40:22)

After neglecting smaller quantities,

𝑪𝒎 = 𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒘 + 𝑪𝑳𝑾 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 𝑤 )

We now got what is the pitching moment equation and we know the pitching moment
variation if we have a linear variation, then we can express the aerodynamic coefficient,
moment coefficient here as a linear function of angle of attack.

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 𝑪 𝒎𝟎 + 𝑪𝒎𝜶 𝛼 = 𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒘 + (𝑪𝑳𝟎 + 𝑪𝑳𝜶 )(𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 𝑤 )
𝑾 𝑾

𝑥̅ is non-dimensional. X is dimensional. We solved those three examples in terms of x,

which is a dimensional quantity. But here 𝑥̅ is a non-dimensional quantity. We divided
this by a characteristic length. For longitudinal case it is aerodynamic, mean
aerodynamic chord and for lateral directional case it will be span of the aircraft, okay
span of the wings here span of aircraft is span of wing. Here we have arrived at an
expression where which is at least having the terms that we are interested in. What are
we interested in? To figure out what will be 𝐶𝑚0 and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 of this UAV. Here the UAV
is having only wing. We want to know whether this wing is giving 𝐶𝑚0 positive and
𝐶𝑚𝛼 negative. If that is the case, then we can say wing is contributing towards static
stability, longitudinal static stability. Now let us look at, by comparing the coefficients
of 𝛼, 𝛼 of wing is nothing but 𝛼.

We assume the wing is not in does not face any interference here and further there is
no incidence angle of the wing with respect to fuselage reference line. In that case the
angle of attack at the wing is equals to angle of attack of the aircraft itself. Where 𝛼 is
the aircraft angle of attack, which is also equivalent to wing angle of attack here in this
particular case. By comparing the constants and coefficients, what I arrive
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 + 𝐶𝐿0 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 )
𝑊 𝑊

𝐶𝑚𝛼 = 𝐶𝑚𝛼 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 )

𝑊 𝑊

We have arrived at the required two conditions. 𝐶𝑚0 and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 condition. These are the
two conditions.
(Refer Slide Time: 45:52)

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How can we make 𝐶𝑚𝛼 negative? These are the conditions for longitudinal static
stability, which we have derived. 𝐶𝑚𝛼 has to be negative. We have 𝐶𝑚𝛼 as 𝐶𝐿𝛼 times of
wing times the moment arm. When this can happen? If let us look at this first condition.
If 𝐶𝑚𝛼 has to be less than zero, then 𝐶𝐿𝛼 wing times (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐 ) of wing should be less
than zero. Since 𝐶𝐿𝛼 wing is always positive, as we increase the angle of attack, we
have the lift will increase irrespective of whether it is a symmetric aerofoil, cambered
aerofoil, or a reflex aerofoil. 𝐶𝐿𝛼 is always positive, which implies (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 ) of wing
must be greater than must be less than zero. This particular quantity has to be negative
here, which means the 𝑥𝐶𝐺 should be less than 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of the wing here. So that is what the
conclusion is. From here what I can say is 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 has to be less than 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 of wing. This is
the conclusion to make this 𝐶𝑚𝛼 less than zero.

What I mean here, the first the sufficient condition we try to arrive only when this
particular quantity here has to be less than zero, which means the CG distance has to be
less than aerodynamic center. Less than the, it should lie before the aerodynamics
center. What do you mean by 𝑥𝐶𝐺 less than 𝑥𝑎𝑐 . The C.G is here, it should be less than
𝑥𝑎𝑐 which means it has to lie ahead of this aerodynamic center. If I place this
aerodynamic center, sorry center of gravity ahead of this aerodynamic center, I do not
have much control with aerodynamic center. Once I have, I have a wing, I have an
aerodynamic center fixed to it. It is I cannot variate. If I have to variate, I have to change
the entire planform geometry. The variable that I have in my hand is the CG.

127
Here, if I have to achieve this particular condition, or if I have to achieve the stability,
just like normal pendulum, it oscillates about the equilibrium point. If I have to achieve
such a strategy, then I have to make the CG, force the CG to lie ahead of this
aerodynamic center, which is the variable in my hand. Let us see how that variable how
can I claim that that variable is in my hand? Before just proceeding to that, let us also
look at the other condition where 𝐶𝑚0 has to be positive. If 𝐶𝑚0 has to be positive so let
us first talk about this. If moment about aerodynamic center right of wing, this is zero
for a symmetric.
(Refer Slide Time: 50:14)

𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 of wing is equals to zero for symmetric aerofoil. It is less than zero for cambered
aerofoil, positively cambered aerofoil. I am taking that liberty. Cambered aerofoil is
positively cambered aerofoil right in my opinion. And is greater than zero for reflux
aerofoils, which we have discussed earlier. When you talk about symmetric aerofoil,
right irrespective of this first thing is that the CG has to be less than aerodynamic center.
This condition we have arrived irrespective of whether the wing is made out of
cambered aerofoil or a reflex aerofoil or a symmetric aerofoil. Irrespective of that
geometry of the wing, wing cross section, we have to make sure that CG is head of the
aerodynamic center for a wing alone to be which means the difference is negative. 𝐶𝐿0
if you consider a symmetric aerofoil this is zero and this is zero, 𝐶𝑚0 is zero. And if you
consider a cambered aerofoil this particular quantity is negative. C L naught is positive
for a cambered aerofoil positively. But (𝑥𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐 ) is negative. If I want to fly this in a
stable configuration, then this CG has to lie ahead of the aerodynamic center.

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This particular quantity is negative. Two negative quantities contribute towards 𝐶𝑚0
negative. That means, the aircraft will immediately dip down to a negative trim angle
of attack. If I consider a reflex aerofoil this will be positive, and this contribution will
be negative again. Even for reflex aerofoil 𝐶𝐿0 is positive. But you have to make sure
you have to then operate at a very less value of this (𝑥𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐 ) that the resultant 𝐶𝑚0
remains positive for you for the UAV. For me to make this 𝐶𝑚0 positive, I need to first
look into whether which kind of cross section I am using. Whether it is cambered,
symmetric or reflex. If it is symmetric, there is no point 𝐶𝑚0 will automatically become
zero. Then I have to continuously create an additional moment from somewhere else.
Let us consider this. This is made out of symmetric aerofoil. If you can see this
particular wing and boom, I have a wing and boom setup here. This is made of
symmetric aerofoil here.

Then 𝐶𝑚0 will be zero altogether, because the 𝐶𝑚 about aerodynamic center, which is
one fourth of this chord, which is at this particular location that we have marked here.
This is the aerodynamic center location. And it is a symmetric aerofoil. You can see the
distribution is even about this particular chord line, this is the chord line you can see.
This becomes zero. Now I may not be able to generate a moment from this particular
surface. What I need to do is I have to place some other surface either ahead or behind
to make sure that this particular wing alone configuration along with that particular
additional surface produces 𝐶𝑚0 positive. That is what and if I locate a particular surface,
it is at an angle here. If I place that surface, lifting surface at certain angle, and place it
keep it like that. Then it will produce an additional moment about CG that may help to
achieve this 𝐶𝑚0 positive. That is where we need a tail. For a cambered aerofoil we need
a tail. Even for a cambered aerofoil let us say, if I take a cambered aerofoil here 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐
is negative and this particular quantity is negative.

I need 𝐶𝑚0 to be positive. But how can I achieve by adding one more surface which can
make this force this system to produce that 𝐶𝑚0 positive, right. That we will see how to
achieve that particular 𝐶𝑚0 . Now coming back to this example. I have this wing. It is a
cambered airfoil. You can see it is a cambered aerofoil. I just happened to pick it up

129
from my lab. I do not even know the details, but it looks as if it is more a flat bottom
and then maybe a six series aerofoil I guess here. a 5 series aerofoil. Initially, do you
remember? When I throw, when I was trying to throw this object, it is trying to flip. It
is trying to flip. Why because here, we witness that the C.G is almost close to the
midpoint of the chord, mid chord of this wing. Maybe at least behind the quarter chord.
This is the location where I am able to balance this object. That means the that is this
the CG is close to this particular location here. If you notice, the C.G is close to this
particular location. That means the CG is behind the aerodynamic center. We know
aerodynamic center yesterday we calculated for different configurations.

Aerodynamic center, for a rectangular wing, we do not have any taper here. It is located
at close to quarter chord of this particular cross section. Quarter chord, maybe close to
this location. But the CG is behind this quarter chord, because of which your wing alone
is behaving unstable. Let us just try to shift this CG before this aerodynamic center.
And try to fly this again and see whether our derivation makes sense. Whatever it is
highly non-intuitive. Why because see, we were able to say this condition that 𝐶𝑚𝛼 has
to be less than zero only after deriving this particular equation. This is where we were
able to make a decision that, the CG has to be ahead of aerodynamic center. We cannot
directly look at this aerofoil and I know where the aerodynamic center is, I cannot
comment about what should be the CG location directly. That is what we discussed just
before starting this derivation. Now let us try to shift the CG ahead of this aerodynamic
center and fly this again and see whether this derivation makes sense or not.

Now we have added some weights here in the front of this wing, just to make sure that
the CG is shifted ahead of this aerodynamic center. Now let us see how to locate this
aerodynamic center. Let us quickly I need I need some support. Prabijit can you please
help me? I need some support here. I am taking I am using this scale to measure what
is a chord length here in the first place. The chord length is about 22.5. Here it is 22.5
centimeters is the overall chord. I am measuring it from root to tip here. It is 22.5. 22.5
upon 4 is approximately 5.6. 5.6 is your location of the aerodynamic center. If I take
5.6 from the leading edge, towards the trailing edge. I will be able to find out the
aerodynamic center. The 5.6 here is close to this marking. We have a marking here, this
is the aerodynamic center. Now let me just see whether the CG with this addition of

130
weights have shifted, has shifted ahead of this aerodynamic center or not. At least I
expect it to be close to this aerodynamic. It is almost close to this aerodynamic center.
With the addition of this weight, it has shifted close to the aerodynamic center here.

This is the aerodynamic center. And the CG is almost close to the aerodynamic center.
I will tell you the reason why I have done that, almost close to reason. Now can I throw
this? But this time, I expect this to fly, because our derivation should hold true. For the
derivation to hold true this should fly. Prabijit is going to help us. We will have a similar
demonstration what we had in our previous lecture series. I will try to check this out
from my hands. Prabijit let us hope this will fly. I will try to repeat this. It is able to fly.
It is not by chance. And let us try this one more time. I am again trying to throw this
with the same altitude. It is not at least behaving in a weird way. It is not flipping back.
It is not behaving unstable. One more time. This is funny. So perfect. Do you accept?
Do you accept that this equation holds? It is come here. Without these weights the C.G
is almost close to this point. Which is aft the aerodynamic center here. See we have
located with this blue pen; we have located the aerodynamic center with this blue pen.
My finger points the current CG location without any additional load. This is just a
wing alone without any additional load. It is aft the aerodynamic center here. When I
try to throw the body, in this particular configuration, this will try to flip. It is behaving
unsteady. Let me do it again. I will try to throw it with a higher velocity. I cannot help.
This equation holds true then.

131
 UAV Design - Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture - 10
Flight Demonstration of Flat Plate

Yeah, hello friends, we are in the aeromodelling laboratory of IIT Kanpur. We have
done enough exercises in the classroom. Let us now have some fun flying some of these
models here. You can have a quick overview of this lab. Meanwhile, the motive of this
outing from the lecture hall is to demonstrate whether we can fly a flat plate or not. For
that, we need a planform, which is a flat plate. What do we need for a flat plate? How
to make a flat plate fly? First of all, let us pick some flat surface out of Styrofoam,
which is easy to like, is easy for me to handle. These are we have some of them here,
right? Let me pick the biggest one. I am keeping these two Styrofoam aside. I can see.
You can see this is a flat plate. Maybe thickness is close to say around 10 mm. Let me
just measure the dimensions of this. First of all, what are you thinking about this right?
Do you think that I am going to cut this and make a wing out of it? Instead of that, I
would prefer I want to fly this entire planform. How many of you can imagine this
entire platform planform as a wing?

Which configuration do you prefer? Either should I fly something like this? Should I
throw it like this similar to the one that I have demonstrated in the class where I checked
out an aerofoil, a wing made out of an aerofoil. But here we have a flat plate. And I
think mostly it is a square. Let me just measure the dimensions. I can see it is 0.9 meters
cross 0.9 meters. I can see this. It is 0.9 cross 0.9. This is again 0.99 cross 0.99. We
have a square here. I need your help. Prabijit I want you to be here. Today is Sunday, I
do not have much of my research staff available other than Prabijit. I will trouble him
a bit. How should I make this fly? As soon as I look at this, I immediately imagine it
like a kite, a diamond shape, a diamond wing. Can I imagine this as my wing? How
many of you thought that I will turn it to this particular orientation? I consider the
diagonal, one of these diagonals as the root chord. And I have no tip chord here right.
It is the taper ratio is zero.

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Do you remember we have solved example problem during these lectures? In that, the
root chord is about if I remember properly, the diagonal is about 0.1 meter. But in this
case, it will be bit different. Because the sides are 0.1 meter, close to 1 meter each side.
And then the diagonal must be close to root over 2, which is 1.414 meters. The diagonal
or the root chord is 1.414 meters. And I do not have a tip chord here. The taper ratio is
zero and it is tapered about mid chord. At each and every location, if you take a section,
span wise section, if you measure the chord, then and if you figure out what is the mid
chord of that particular span wise location. Then you will be and if you draw a locus of
it, they all lie on the opposite diagonal here. Say this is one diagonal, which is the right
which is the root chord of our configuration here. And then on the opposite diagonal,
you will find all the taper axis, you will find the temper axis of this which is in fact the
midpoint of the root chord, midpoint of the chords at each and every span wise location.
Now how to make this fly? You can see this is very weak. Let me add two structural
members to this. That just like what we used to make no, during your childhood, we
used to make a kite. This is a carbon tube. I am just trying to strengthen this with this
carbon tube, strengthen this planform. And I am using a masking tape for it. One carbon
tube, I will use it near the root chord.

The other one on the perpendicular diagonal. I have used one carbon tube along the root
chord. Say this is my root chord. I will try to add the other carbon tube, which is here.
I am trying to add this on the other diagonal. We have one diagonal, I am sorry. We
have added carbon tube along the root chord, which we considered as one diagonal. On
the upper surface, perpendicular to it, I am adding this other carbon tube. While adding
this Prabijit, you try to press this surface up. Otherwise, because or you can do this way.
First let me complete with this portion and then we can. I think this is good enough. Or
do you want me to add some more here? Let me add a small tube. We just finished
adding these two tubes. One on the bottom side of this planform. The other one on the
top side, on the top surface. Now, it is not weak know compared to what we had earlier.
It is not weak. Assume that this is my root chord. This is how I want this if I attach a
motor to this, one brushless motor along with a battery, I expect this to fly. But in the
first place. What is the weight of this particular? Let me just figure out what is the
weight of this planform along with this tube, which is about 345 grams. This is close to
345 grams. This one. And now as you know so this is almost a constant thickness flat
plate and we have a homogeneous carbon tubes right two carbon tubes added almost

133
symmetrically distributed about this plane of symmetry. Let us assume, let us assume
this tube is my plane of symmetry. The other tube is also almost symmetrically
distributed. The mass of the tube as well as the geometry. I can safely assume that the
CG must be acting at the centroid of this. Am I correct or not, which is say 0.7 meters
along the diagonal or say 0.5, 0.5; 0.5, 0.5 meters?

If we consider this as the origin of this coordinate frame. I say 0.5, 0.5 will be this
particular point, which is an intersection of this point of intersection of diagonals. This
current CG is at this particular location. And we know the mean aerodynamic chord is
will be somewhere along the span wise location. And it is also tapered about its mid
chord. Mid chord of the mean aerodynamic chord. Midpoint of the mean aerodynamic
chord. Now when you project that you will be able to figure out what is the
corresponding aerodynamic center. Two third of root chord is how much? We have 1-
meter side and 1-meter side. This must be 1.4 meters. Two third of this 1.4 meters will
be approximately 0.9 yeah 0.94. This is approximately 0.94. 𝑐̅ will be 0.94. Somewhere
here, whose length is 0.94 will be the corresponding 𝑐̅. If I project that, from with
𝑐𝑅 −𝑐̅
respect to root chord with respect to root chord I know . That will be the distance
2

between leading edge, leading edge of the root chord, and the leading edge of the mean
𝑐̅
aerodynamic chord plus 4.

That turns out to be approximately 0.47 meters. Which is this particular line. This is my
location of aerodynamic center. For a wing alone configuration, if it has to be stable,
my CG should be ahead of the aerodynamic center. Aerodynamic center of the wing. I
know what the location of my aerodynamic center is, which is about 0.47 meters. Now
I have to shift this CG the current CG, which is at 0.7 to ahead of aerodynamic center,
let us say. Now further what should I do? I need to add some weight here. Let me just
add some weight. Can you help me Prabijit? What I did right now just added a 200
grams weight right near to the leading edge of this root chord. By doing that, what I am
what I achieve is a new C.G location, which is ahead of the aerodynamic center here.
Can you notice this? I am able to balance this model about this particular location. I just
know I just calculated what should be the weight of what you call what should be the
weight that I need to add that I can shift the CG location, say 3 centimeters 4 centimeters
ahead of the neutral point.

134
And I know I fixed the location of the weight that I want to add. I fixed it, the total
weight should be at or the weight of this object is acting at about 25 mm from the
leading edge here. From there, I was able to figure out and now the current CG is at this
particular location. This is my aerodynamic center. If you want, I can locate this. Do
you have a marker here? Say this is my aerodynamic center. The current CG is close to
this point. Good enough. This is ahead of the aerodynamic center. We will talk about
this how much know what a typical offset between this aerodynamic center and the
center of gravity should be. That we will talk in the coming lectures. But for the time
being let us see, whatever we have derived will it work for any configuration or not?
Say will it work for a flat plate or not? That is what we are going to do right now. The
current CG location is at this particular point. Now let us go out and try to check this
out and see whether this will fly or not. And then once we have a flight, then we will
also remove the weight and we will also check this out and we will see what its behavior
is.

We are on the tarmac, and I am on a chair on the tarmac of flight laboratory. You can
see we have our classroom is located inside the flight laboratory. It is a hangar of our
flight laboratory. We have multiple powered aircraft as well as powered gliders. That
is where our runway is located, and this is the way for that runway. Right now, you may
not be able to see. Let us go ahead with our demonstration. This is a flat plate again.
We have our ac somewhere close to this and we have now shifted the CG location by
adding a weight to the desired point. Or say ahead of the aerodynamic center here for
this wing alone configuration. Now let us see whether it will be able to glide or not. If
at all it glides, that means whatever we did is correct. Whatever we have derived in our
lecture hall is correct. Let me throw it. Quazi please try to catch this. Our second TA,
Salauddin Quazi. He is here to help us. I will try to throw this and see whether it is it
will be able to glide or not. I will try to throw it at the minimum possible angle. Wow!
Let me do it one more time. Quazi, now do not try to catch this. Let us see how far it
can glide. Am I throwing it properly? You want me to decrease the angle? One more
time. Do you accept it, it is able to glide because of the CG location? Do you accept it
or not?

135
Let me do it again. Fine. Now let us see what happens when we remove this weight.
Let us see what happens when we remove this weight, additional weight. Right now, I
have removed that additional. I am not I am sure that it is not going to, like travel till
the grass. I do not want to damage this. I will try to stand here. Now the CG again
shifted back to the centroid of this. Let us see. I have not done anything. I have not, I
did not like try anything new. I am trying to cautiously throw it with the same angle
what I tried earlier, with an added weight. You better move out. See this. Now it is not
happening. We have to maintain CG ahead of the aerodynamic center. Let me do it one
more time. You may not believe this. Let me also put the angle a bit more down. I am
trying to throw it down. See, whatever I do, it is just flipping. It is in an unstable mode
right now. Now you can, you will be in a better state to appreciate the location of the
center of gravity with respect to aerodynamics center for wing alone configuration. Let
us now can you see this ATC, air traffic control tower here? Can you see the tower? I
would like to climb it up and then throw it from there. Let us see what happens. I am
now adding the weight and then bringing again the CG to the same location what we
did earlier, bringing CG ahead of the aerodynamic center. I am throwing this again. As
𝑏2
you know this is a low aspect ratio wing, is almost close to 2. We cannot expect
𝑆

much glide ratio with this configuration.

136
 UAV Design - Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture - 11
Numericals Cont.

Dear friends, welcome back. In our previous lecture, we discussed about the
characteristics of infinite wings as well as finite wings and we related the lifting
characteristics of an infinite wing with that of a finite wing.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:29)

We considered a lifting line theory from which we figured out that as the aspect ratio
increases. This is the increasing order of aspect ratio, the 𝐶𝐿𝛼 decreases. The lift curve
slope decreases. This is a wing of infinite aspect ratio or for aerofoil. This lift curve
slope represents a lesser aspect ratio compared to that of an aerofoil. This is where the
finite wing starts. This plot, from this plot we are talking about finite wing. This is the
variation of 𝐶𝐿 with angle of attack. If you can observe so as the aspect ratio increases
𝐶𝐿𝛼 increases here.
𝐶𝑙𝛼
2𝐷
𝐶𝐿𝛼 =
3𝐷 𝐶𝑙𝛼
2𝐷
1 + (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 )

𝑒≤1
𝑏2
𝐴𝑅 =
𝑆

137
Where e is the Oswald’s efficiency factor and is equals to 1 for and the limits are less
than or equal to 1. e is equals to 1 corresponds to an elliptical wing. Now let us look at
what how can we relate what are the drag characteristics. We have not discussed much
about drag here in the previous lectures. Let us now relate what are the drag
characteristics of a infinite wing as well as a finite wing. Is there any relation between
this finite and infinite wings? So that is what we are going to do right now.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:53)

We know drag. Do you remember? Due to the resultant pressure distribution, due to
when we consider an airfoil in the flow which is inclined at an angle of attack 𝛼. There
will be pressure distribution as well as shear stress distribution resultant of that over
this surface will be an aerodynamic force called the resultant aerodynamic force. And
the component of this resultant aerodynamic force acting perpendicular to free stream
is considered as lift. And a component of aerodynamic force, this resultant aerodynamic
force which is acting along the free stream is considered as drag. Drag is the component
of resultant aerodynamic force which is acting along or in the direction of 𝑉∞ . We know
drag is given as
1 2
𝐷= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝑑
2
We are talking about infinite wings. We are considering an aerofoil in the first place.
Let us consider this 𝐶𝑑 as like for infinite wings, the drag coefficient is represented by
small lowercase d, C subscript lowercase d. 𝐶𝑑 is a drag coefficient. What is the
contribution? What do drag do in the first place to the flight vehicle? What does it do?
It will retard the motion is it not? It is acting against the motion when we say it is the

138
flow is in this direction at 𝑉∞ which means the body is also moving in the same direction
with the same velocity under ideal conditions. That means the drag is acting opposite
to your motion which is retarding your motion in the fluid. There is drag retards the
motion. What do you remember as soon as somebody talks about retard retardation in
the fluid, what is the property that helps this to happen, property of the fluid that helps
this to happen? The fluid friction is called viscosity. Viscosity is the major contributor
for the drag. Of course, there is pressure contribution as well. Viscosity creates shear
stress.

Shear stress distribution. We understood one component of this if not drag directly we
can say drag coefficient. Is from the shear stress distribution. What is the other
contribution? Let us say if there is a component of the pressure or the there is a pressure
difference across the along the flow, there is a pressure difference across the body. That
will also contribute towards drag. If there is a higher-pressure difference, higher
pressure on the frontal part and the lower pressure on the back part. That pressure
difference along the flow will also create drag right, that pressure difference. We also
have pressure distribution of free stream.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:08)

Do you remember this pressure distribution, a typical pressure distribution over an

aerofoil. Where there is positive pressure acting in the frontal part and then negative
pressure. This is a typical pressure distribution. Higher the negative pressure what do
you mean? Higher the negative pressure is a point that corresponds to higher velocity.

139
Am I correct or not? So that point corresponds to a lower pressure point. Higher
negative pressure is nothing but lower positive pressure there. There will be a
component C, there is a pressure higher positive pressure here and lesser positive
pressure on the backside. This will also create; this pressure difference will also create
certain force in the direction of free stream velocity. That is known as contribution of
drag coefficient due to or the pressure contribution of this pressure difference along the
free stream towards the drag coefficient. Now let us consider do you remember in the
ideal flow theory, when you talked about a cylinder, we assumed that there are
stagnation points 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 . There is this is the typical pressure distribution that we
discussed.

Do you remember that? We have positive pressure on front and back and negative
pressure on top and bottom because we and the highest velocity is equals to twice that
of free stream velocity at point P at 90 degrees. It is same as the distribution on top and
bottom is same right in case of an ideal flow theory. And then on left and right or in the
direction of flow the distribution of pressure is also symmetric about this object, along
the free stream. This will not create any drag on the object. But intuitively we all know
that. When there is an object in flow, irrespective of that there is certain drag know.
This body object or this body experiences certain drag is it not? This particular though
it is in flow and there is no drag and no lift. Such a condition is known as d’Alembert
paradox. That is that corresponds to ideal fluid theory or ideal. Why we are discussing
this. But in reality, even at zero angle of attack, so this is this we are talking about ideal
flow theory. But in reality, even at zero angle of attack, there is flow separation at the
trailing edge, that creates a pressure difference between the leading-edge part and the
trailing edge part. That pressure difference along the flow direction creates certain force
on this body along the flow direction. That contribution is towards this 𝐶𝑑 , drag
coefficient.

This drag coefficient in the coefficient form can be the drag coefficient because of
friction, that is skin friction and drag coefficient due to pressure difference. What do
you call this? It is in the coefficient form. We call it as drag coefficient due to skin
friction we call it as drag coefficient due to pressure difference. This first term is known
as skin friction drag. And the second term when multiplied by the other parameters here
is known as pressure drag coefficient or pressure drag due to flow separation due to

140
flow separation. These two together like skin friction drag and pressure drag due to
flow separation is known as profile drag, is known as profile drag here. For an aerofoil
these are the only two contributions. Like the two contributors for the drag for an
aerofoil is or are the skin friction drag as well as the pressure drag due to flow
separation.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:11)

The 𝐶𝑑 variation can be given as

𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑑 0 + 𝜁1 𝛼 + 𝜁2 𝛼 2
This is a typical pressure like drag coefficient variation with angle of attack in case of
an aerofoil. But what happens when we have a wing? Do you remember? We talked
about lifting line theory which where there is a horseshoe vortex with a bound vortex
and then associated with two trailing vortices closing by a starting vortex characterized
a high aspect ratio wings in terms of the lift curve slope. We can use the theory to
characterize that high aspect ratio. While deriving the theory, we also witnessed that
there is an induced angle of attack.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:35)

141
For example, consider an aerofoil, which is oriented at certain angle of attack at 𝛼. But
due to this downwash what happens is due to the downwash so the resultant vector will
be different here. This is your V resultant or 𝑉∞ prime, which is equivalent to this. This
is 𝑉∞′ , so induce a certain angle called 𝛼𝑖 . This particular angle is your local angle of
attack.
𝛼𝑙 = α − αi
𝑊hich generates a lift. Say this is your lift, overall lift acting perpendicular to the
overall free stream velocity, but because of the induced angle of attack αi because of
the upwash and downwash what we have is a change in local velocity due to which
there will be a change in local lift generation. This the component of this lift that is
generated at that particular location, because of the induced angle of attack, we have a
component of this acting in the direction of drag. What we have is there is a induced
drag because of the lift in the direction of drag, overall induced drag of the aircraft,
which is
𝐷𝑖 = 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑖
𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝐶𝐿 𝛼𝑖
𝛼𝑖 assuming small angle of attack. And then from thin aerofoil theory, sorry from lifting
line theory what we have
𝐶𝐿
𝛼𝑖 =
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
This is at the wing. If you consider the downstream this is twice known, two times of
𝛼𝑖 . That is the angle that, we will talk about that when we are dealing what you call

142
stability aspects during the second part of this course. Next during the second semester,
when we are talking about flights to retain control.
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷𝑖 =
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
What we have in addition is a least induced drag. Which is due to the upwash under the
downwash effects near the wing. This apart from this see, again if you consider a finite
wing it has the tip vertices from it. It has tip vertices near the tip chords. Those tip
vertices will try to drive the air along the span wise direction. And then there is a wing,
right we have wing which creates an upwash and downwash behind upwash ahead of
upstream of the wing and downwash in the downstream of the wing. All three together
will induce at an angle of attack or will alter the local flow and produces this induced
drag. There is a contribution of lift to the drag. At the same time there is flow. When
there is flow there is pressure distribution as well as shear stress distribution. What we
have is drag coefficient due to skin friction as well as pressure drag coefficient due to
flow separation. The total drag here
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑓 + 𝐶𝐷 𝑃𝑟𝑒 + 𝐶𝐷 𝑖

We are talking about subsonic speeds. As we enter the higher subsonic regimes or
supersonic regimes, we should talk, very high subsonic or supersonic regimes, then
there is an additional component due to which there is additional drag. There is an
additional component of drag because of shockwaves. We will talk why there is a
shockwave. We will very soon discuss about this. But for the time being assume that
there are shockwaves at higher Mach number. Which will contribute towards this drag
coefficient. These three put together are known as parasite drag coefficient. This and
again see profile drag varies with 𝛼. Because see skin friction has very less effect with
angle of attack but the pressure distribution has definitely had a higher influence. The
angle of attack may not influence this skin friction much, but it definitely has a higher
influence on this pressure drag due to flow separation. Because the pressure distribution
changes with angle of attack.

This particular 𝐶𝐷𝑝𝑟𝑒 distribution 𝐶𝐷 , because of the pressure distribution. That is why

we had that variation of 𝐶𝐷 with 𝛼 there. The contribution is mainly from this particular
parameter. And again, for a very thin aerofoil, the 𝐶𝐷𝑓 can be estimated using analytical
relations of flat plate where 1.324 upon root over Reynolds number. This is in case of

143
laminar flow. If you use this relation, you will be able to estimate the corresponding
drag coefficient due to skin friction. That is an approximation that we are using. That
is an analytical relation for flat plate pressure drag coefficient.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:21)

These three put together called parasite drag coefficient, which is equals to due to skin
friction, drag coefficient due to skin friction and drag coefficient due to pressure drag
coefficient or pressure difference due to flow separation. And what we have is wave
drag. Drag coefficient due to shock waves. All three put together called parasite drag
coefficient. At lower subsonic speeds this will disappear, wave drag coefficient will
disappear.
𝐶𝐷 = [𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓] + [ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡]
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 +
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2
1
𝑘=
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Major contribution of drag toward in the direction of free stream velocity. All three put
together we can say it is a lift independent drag coefficient. And what we have is lift
dependent or induced drag coefficient due to lift. This is your drag coefficient. This
particular equation is known as drag polar, which is also written as
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2

144
 1
𝑘=
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

Where k is the induced drag correction factor. k is known as induced drag correction
factor. This particular relation for a finite wing is known as drag polar. Represents the
variation of 𝐶𝐷 with 𝐶𝐿 .
(Refer Slide Time: 25:28)

If we look at the variation here if I plot 𝐶𝐷 with 𝐶𝐿 . How 𝐶𝐷 changes now in the lower
subsonic speeds? Here you can see 𝐶𝐷0 is lift independent drag. As the 𝐶𝐿 changes, we
have 𝐶𝐷 , variation in 𝐶𝐷 is it not? What we can say is, if have 𝐶𝐷 on the y axis and 𝐶𝐿
on the x axis. What I can say is. For example, let us consider this particular case. It is a
parabolic variation. It is a second order equation in terms of 𝐶𝐿 . What you have is when
𝐶𝐿 is equals to zero, the corresponding 𝐶𝐷 is 𝐶𝐷0 . This is the lift independent drag
coefficient where when 𝐶𝐿 is zero what you have is 𝐶𝐷 . This is the corresponding point.
And then, for the other cases where let us say if there is 𝐶𝐷0 . You can see the minimum
point is not 𝐶𝐷0 , it is something else. Am I correct or not? If I postulate that with this
particular equation, the minimum that I can expect because 𝐶𝐿 can never be negative
here. The minimum that I expect is 𝐶𝐷0 . Am I correct or not here? Because even 𝐶𝐿 if
it is negative, the contribution will be positive here.

Now let us assume there is a case where there is a minimum point compared to that of
𝐶𝐷0 here. Let us say this is that particular minimum point which corresponds to this

145
corresponds to 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 and the top point corresponds to 𝐶𝐷0 . And the corresponding 𝐶𝐿
for 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 is 𝐶𝐿 for 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 . If we have that then how can I how so how should I model
it? I will change this equation to
2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑘(𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 )

When 𝐶𝐿 is 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 what you have the contribution from this induced drag is zero in this
particular equation, it becomes 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 . What you have is 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 . But for modern aircraft
with moderately cambered aerofoils the difference between 𝐶𝐷0 . and 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 is very
less. And the difference can be almost negligible, and we will neglect for the entire
course. From now we will use this particular equation

𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2

This is the equation that we are going to use it for the entire course. And the equation
is known as drag polar as I told you. Let us now talk a bit about yeah, before doing that,
let us solve one example problem. Why because I want to talk about this wave drag.
Why there is a wave drag at higher subsonic or higher speeds. We will discuss about
this very soon, maybe in next 15 minutes. Meanwhile, we will solve one example
problem related to the concept that we just discussed.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:00)

Example, you please kindly continue with the same example. In my opinion it must be
either example 8 or 9 something. Either must be 8 or must be 9. Consider or say consider

146
a delta wing, wing alone UAV with span of 1.5 meters and a taper ratio of 0.167 and
root chord of 0.9 meters. The airfoil used for the UAV has the following lifting
characteristics. 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 is - 1.7 degrees. Or 𝐶𝐿 is equals to 0.48. This is the data that
𝛼=80

we have 4811 let us say at 8 degrees. We need to find the drag acting on the UAV flying
at a velocity of 50 meters per second, where the drag or the drag coefficient independent
of lift or zero lift parasite drag coefficient is 0.02. What are we asked? Flying at 50
meters per second and at an angle of attack at an 𝛼 is equals to 4 degrees and 6 degrees.
We need to find the drag acting on a UAV with the given data when it is flying at 50
meters per second, at sea level. Let us consider let us assume the flight is at sea level
and it is inclined at an angle of angle of attack of 4 degrees and 6 degrees. This is the
information that we have right now. How to proceed with this?
(Refer Slide Time: 34:18)

What we got to know from the given data is

𝑐𝑅 = 0.9 𝑚
𝜆 = 0.167
𝑐𝑡 = 0.15 𝑚

In order to find the drag on this aircraft I need to know what is

1
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐷
2

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What is S? This is a delta wing. We know what is span. By this time, you must be
comfortable after solving those three examples during our in our earlier lecture. It was
about 1.5-meter span. This is an area of this trapezium and twice the area.
𝑏
𝑆= (𝑐 + 𝑐𝑡 )
2 𝑅
𝑏
𝑆= 𝑐 (1 + 𝜆) = 0.787 𝑚2
2 𝑅

If you substitute this what you have is 0.787-meter square. I remember this
configuration; we have used it for many experimental purposes. And then, I got to know
what this is. Now I need to know what 𝐶𝐷 is.
𝐶𝐷 𝛼=40 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝑘 𝐶𝐿 2𝛼=40
What is this C L?
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼
3𝐷

𝜋
𝐶𝐿 = 0.086 + 2.92 × 4 ×
180
𝐶𝐿 𝛼=40 = 0.289
𝐶𝐷 = 0.02 + 0.12 × (0.289)2 = 0.03

(Refer Slide Time: 38:34)

We know

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 𝐶𝑙𝛼
𝐶𝐿𝛼 =
𝐶𝑙𝛼
1 + 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

Consider e is equals to 0.86 is the Oswald’s efficiency factor. Now we need to find out
what is AR here.
𝑏2 1.52
𝐴𝑅 = = = 2.86
𝑆 0.787
. And we have e as 0.86.

0.79
𝐶𝑙𝛼 = = 4.66
(8 + 1.7)𝜋
180
𝜋
𝐶𝐿0 = 𝐶𝑙𝛼 (−𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 ) = 2.92 × 1.7 × = 0.086
180

Use the other one that we have discussed. Take it as a homework problem and send it
to us. Now it is clear. We have the data planform like cross section characteristics, it is
aerofoil characteristics and then data related to the planform geometry from which we
will be able to estimate what is the drag coefficient and lift coefficient at the required
angle of attack. Now having this data of drag and lift coefficient I will be able to find
out what is the drag acting at that particular velocity. What is the velocity here? 50
meters per second. If you substitute that what is the value of drag acting on this UAV
at 𝛼 4 degrees?
(Refer Slide Time: 45:13)

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At 𝛼 is equals to 4 degrees and when it is moving at 50 meters per second what I have
is,
𝐷 = 0.5 × 1.225 × 502 × 0.03 × 0.787 = 36.15 𝑁 ≈ 3.6 𝑘𝑔

This is the drag that is acting. Now if I have to move at 50 meters per second to
overcome this drag, I need to give 3.6 kgs of forward force which is thrust in our case.
I want you to find out for what is what happens when yeah what is the drag that you
need to overcome when you want to move at 50 meters per second at 6 degrees angle
of attack for the same the same aircraft. Now let us now get back to that discussion what
happens in the supersonic flight or higher subsonic as well as supersonic flight and we
are talking about wave drag at higher speeds higher subsonic as well as supersonic
speed. Let us look at what how this wave drag is coming into picture as soon as the
speed is increasing. Let us assume we are flying at the same 𝐶𝐿 , same UAV and moving
from subsonic to supersonic all of a sudden, your drag characteristics are changing
including the lift characteristics. But let us concentrate on drag characteristics in the
first place. Why it is happening? How do a disturbance in fluid travels? That is the first
thing we need to understand. In fluids any disturbance right will travel with the velocity
of sound in the form of pressure pulses. For example, consider a pool with a like a pool
a pool full of water, swimming pool full of water and which is calm and still. Now if I
hit that pool, if I hit a stone into that pool, you can see there will be ripples forming
around.
(Refer Slide Time: 48:11)

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Let us say consider a static fluid say this is where you hit the stone in the pool. You
start seeing the disturbance that we have created traveling in the form of ripples. Similar
to that. The disturbance that we create for example will take will result in the form of
pressure pulses. For example, what is disturbance here? Instead of now disturbance in
this particular ambient condition, what can be a disturbance? if I just push air like this
or if I blow air, if I disturb the current state of that of these particular ambient conditions,
then we can assume that disturbance will create a local pressure difference which in
turn travels with the velocity of sound in the form of pressure pulses. This particular
disturbance that travels is known as pressure pulse pulses, right. These are the pressure
pulses that propagates the disturbance from a given at a given location which we have
created at a given location. This we are talking about a static pressure or pressure pulses
in static fluid. And the velocity of this fluid or the velocity of this pressure pulse is
equals to velocity of sound in that particular medium.

Let us say if it is in air the velocity of sound in air is about 330 meters per second. So
now what will be this diameter of this pressure pulse? Let us say it is disturbed at a time
like the time difference between the diameter of a like say if it is if you have disturbed
at time 𝑡0 and it has lapsed over a time 𝛿𝑡. Now over this period say 𝑎𝛿𝑡 will be the
corresponding diameter of this pulse. Where a is the speed of sound
𝑎 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇
Speed of sound depends upon the type of medium and the corresponding temperature
of that medium. And 𝛿𝑡 is a time like after which you are interested in figuring out this
particular distance that this particular pressure pulse has traveled. That will be
approximately a times 𝛿𝑡. When you are static this disturbance travels in all directions
in the form of pressure pulse. Irrespective of whether you are static or not, this is how
it is going to happen. Let us now consider a general example. Let us assume we are
driving a car or a bike right with a helmet on.
(Refer Slide Time: 51:32)

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When you sit in the car when you are moving say assume you are on an expressway,
which is about say your vehicle is on the expressway. I may not be able to draw a good
vehicle here, ground vehicle definitely. You are moving in this particular direction, let
us say there is a bird which is flying here, which is flying far ahead of this car.
Depending upon the intensity of the disturbance this may travel to the corresponding
like it may travel certain distance. But, as soon as if this if the disturbance is in vicinity
of this, this is not affected, the flight of this insect or the bird which is far ahead of the
of your car will not be affected much. When the car comes closer to this bird, this bird
will try most of you might have observed this. The insect or the butterfly with a good
enough reflex will try to slip over the vehicle. It will not come and hit your window. It
will try to slip over the vehicle. If it has a bit of good reflexes. That happens because
when you are traveling, the distance that you are creating is also moving ahead. It is not
that it is just moving back.

It is also moving ahead, and it is moving in all the directions and the flow particles
ahead of the vehicle will try to adjust accordingly. It will try to figure out where the
disturbance is minimal and the fluid particles in the form of the streamlines can bend
across this vehicle that they can smoothly flow over this particular body. This is true
as long as the disturbance is traveling forward. Let us say if you are traveling at a much
higher, now as I told you this disturbance travels at the velocity of sound. Let us say
you have increased the speed to a higher amount. This should have a better reflex is it
not compared to that to escape into the flow. Why because the reaction time it will have
is much lesser comparatively, compared to the earlier case. Now assume a case when

152
you are traveling with the velocity of sound. The moment it feels the disturbance you
will hit the bird at the same moment. It will hit your car. Both happens simultaneously.
It will not have the disturbance and that because of the lack of disturbance this may not
be able to adjust to the flow, surrounding flow happens that is happening. Similarly, the
fluid molecules which are ahead of your flight, your vehicle will not be able to adjust
if there is no propagation of disturbance ahead of your vehicle. Now consider the case
where this particular like the position of this disturbance keep moving.
(Refer Slide Time: 54:57)

To understand it better let us consider this. Let us say this is your initial point of
disturbance and then you are moving in this direction. Let us assume this let us analyze
this disturbance at say this is a time 𝑡0 and this location corresponds to time 1 second
and this location corresponds to time 2 seconds let us say. This is at 0, that is at 1 second
and you have traveled another and you are trying to find out the disturbance in say 2
seconds and then at also 3 seconds. When you are moving at a speed which are far less
than the speed of sound. If you are, if your Mach number is far less than one which is
like velocity of your flight vehicle is far less than velocity of sound. In that case, let us
say at time 𝑡0 at 0 seconds, you have created a disturbance. That disturbance travels in
the form of after 1 second so this may not coincide see, this is do not get confused with
that. At one second or say when you are at one second, this disturbance might have
traveled a distance a.

When you are at two seconds, this has traveled a disturbance. This can be much, when
you are at two seconds, this has traveled a disturbance, I mean this disturbance have

153
traveled a distance 2a. This 2a and this scale are not equal. Please do not get confused.
This disturbance keeps, that propagation of this disturbance keeps increasing as the time
lapses from your, this thing from the point where you started the disturbance. In order
to make it better, what I will say is say still this is 2s. This is you assume this; the center
of the circle is this point at zero seconds, and you are trying to figure out at after say
one second, two second, and three second. This has traveled a distance 4a, so sorry 3a.
When you are at 3. After that what happens? After zero seconds, you have already
created a disturbance which is two seconds before. Am I correct or not, at this particular
location? If you draw another this will travel when you analyze it at 0.3 this will travel
a distance of 2a. When you are here that means you already passed, I mean, you already
spent three seconds. Within that three seconds the disturbance which you have initiated
at a location at this particular location will travel a distance 2a.

Similarly, the one here it will travel a disturbance so sorry, the disturbance will travel a
distance a 1a, which is one second ahead at this particular location, where you are right.
That means the disturbance is always ahead of you. Because the radius that you can
travel within or the distance say will be 𝑉∞ × 𝛿𝑡. This particular distance will be
𝑉∞ × 𝛿𝑡. 𝛿𝑡 is 1s and 𝑉∞ is far less than that particular a in the particular region. That is
what we have it here. 𝑉∞ is far less than a. The distance you might have covered is far
less than what the disturbance might have already progressed. That means the
molecules which are far ahead of you, of your location will get the information about
your presence. Which have enough time to get adjusted with the shape of your body
that the flow can happen, or the fluid elements can smoothly flow over the body. The
streamlines have enough time to get bent around your object.

They get the information about your presence and the kind of pressure disturbance that
you are creating. The fluid elements which are far ahead will have that information. But
when you are traveling with a higher velocity, let us assume you are traveling with the
velocity of sound. Let us consider a case. This is like at lower subsonic or at subsonic
speeds we can say. This is the condition at subsonic speeds. When you move at the
velocity of sound, let us say.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

154
The distance, what do you mean by that? Let us say you have started at zero seconds
know. You created a pressure disturbance at zero seconds. The distance it will cover
within a second will be equal to let us say this is one second. This distance is equals to
the distance that this sound wave propagates is it not or the pressure wave propagates
here, pressure pulse propagates. Why because you are also moving at a velocity equals
to say when you are moving at Mach 1 which is velocity of your flight vehicle is
velocity of sound. Within one second you are here, and the disturbance has also travel
which was initiated here a distance a, 𝑎 × 𝑡 which is equals to 𝑉 × 𝛿𝑡. Here 𝛿𝑡 is 1.
The same disturbance when you are at two seconds. What will happen to the same
disturbance? You are there. Let us say you traveled one more second, you are at three
seconds. The disturbance you have is again a concentric circle and you are on the
circumference, concentric circle about O here. And this particular at one second
location you have also created a disturbance. After when you are at three seconds this
will say have 2a. The diameter of this will be 2a. Diameter of this bigger circle will be
3a. And at one second it will have a diameter. This the difference between this is one
second. A second before your current location you have created a disturbance and this
disturbance also traveled a distance here.

That means, at each and every point you are with the disturbance. You are traveling
with the disturbance. The air molecules. Let us say if you draw a tangent to this
particular point. The air which is ahead of this particular point will not have any
information about the object which is approaching those fluid elements. That is when
we call this as a Mach wave. That Mach wave will create a lot of changes to the free

155
stream, free stream velocity. In terms of pressure, there will be a huge pressure increase
as well as temperature and also the density. And downstream of this Mach wave what
we have is decreasing velocity, compared to that of upstream velocity. Now let us
consider say this is at sonic speeds. Let us say this is a, b and let us say this is at c is at
sonic speed. Let us now consider a case when you are moving faster than the speed of
sound there. What happens when you are moving faster than the speed of sound?
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

This will be interesting right is it not? Let us consider this is the path that you are
moving. Say this is at zero seconds. One second location. Let us not say now this as
one second location because you are traveling at a higher speed compared to that of
sound. Otherwise, you can still say that one second location. By the time you reach this
the sound will not reach this particular one second. Because your velocity is far higher
than this particular yeah sound velocity. The sound, this one second may not be
appropriate here. Let us say 𝐴1 . Let us say our capital A, capital 𝐴1 is the location first
location. Another location which you have reached within some time say. But that
sound may not be able to that sometime maybe 𝑡1 . The sound may not, the distance
propagation will be a times 𝑡1 . Whereas you have covered a distance 𝑉∞ × 𝑡1 , which is
higher than that of 𝐴1 × 𝑡1 . Why because you are trying you are flying at higher
velocity, supersonic velocity where your velocity is higher than this velocity of sound.
A times not 𝐴1 times; 𝑎 × 𝑡1 .

Now, when you reach point B or 𝐴2 here what happens is. At 𝐴1 again you have created
another disturbance. When you reach point 𝐴2 this 𝐴1 will travel certain distance. That

156
again depends upon the difference between this and the time. When you are at 𝐴1 or
say the by the time the sound reaches this 𝐴1 , you are you have already crossed this 𝐴1 .
And by the time this you the sound reaches 𝐴2 you have already crossed 𝐴2 . That means
the disturbance is always behind you. Similarly, when you that disturbance that you
have created at 𝐴1 , by the time it reaches 𝐴2 you have already reached ahead of 𝐴2 .
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

For example, consider this case like let us, now let us consider the propagation of this
disturbance. Let point O at 1s, 2s, 3s and you are at some other location here. The initial
one which you have like that point O that disturbance that you have created so may
travel a diameter right which is yeah which is that velocity times velocity of sound times
the disturbance here. And the second one will also be velocity times the 𝛿𝑡 here. And
the third one again will also be velocity times 𝛿𝑎 𝛿𝑡. The diameter at each and every
point will be the velocity times the corresponding time lapsed, since you have created
the disturbance. Now see because no disturbance will be able to overcome you why
because you are traveling at a higher as compared to this. Now let us say if you draw a
tangent to all this know disturbances what you get is a cone. If you draw, this is not
exactly to the scale, that is the reason why we may not be able to get the tangents
properly, but say, if you draw a tangent to all this circles. This particular angle is known
as 𝜇, which is a cone angle here.

This forms a Mach cone, Mach cone angle where

𝑎 Δ𝑡 1
sin 𝜇 = =
𝑉Δ𝑡 𝑀

157
 1
𝜇 = sin−1 ( )
𝑀
That means all the disturbance that you can see is limited or confined to this particular
Mach cone. If you are looking at the 2d profile of this you can say wedge Mach wedge
or when you are looking at the 3D profile, it becomes a Mach cone. All the disturbance
is confined within this Mach cone. Whatever like for example, whomsoever stay
outside this particular Mach cone will not get to know any disturbance. To understand
that consider an example where a person is standing on the ground. A supersonic
aircraft has already passed him. And he is not able to hear any sound from it, until he
gets into this Mach cone. By the time he hears this he is already, the aircraft has already
passed. What do you call is all this as so this is a supersonic aircraft let us say? This is
called zone of action. And this is called zone of silence where there is no disturbance.
See the disturbance is not propagating ahead of this okay. Whoever are inside this, this
is the Mach cone, or we can say Mach cone let us say.

Whomsoever which are inside that Mach cone will be able to feel the disturbance. But
all the fluid elements which are ahead of this Mach cone will remain in the silent zone.
Due to the lack of this propagation of this disturbance, the fluid elements which are just
ahead of the aircraft will hit the aircraft instead of flowing smoothly over the aircraft,
which was the case for subsonic flow. The same will not happen here anymore. The
fluid element does not have any information about the presence of the object in the fluid
or the disturbance that is created by the object in the fluid. Instead of passing slowly
across the body, it will try to hit the body abruptly. The molecules there will feel a
shock know across that like as soon as it encounters this aircraft. Those molecules will
encounter this aircraft by means of a shock.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

158
In a lower subsonic speed what happens is a flow will smoothly flow over this object.
The fluid elements will smoothly flow over the airfoil at subsonic speeds. At supersonic
speeds what happens is if the leading edge of the airfoil is sharp enough then you will
have an attached shock to it. If the leading edge is sharp enough, we have attached
shock. If the leading edge is blunt, we will end up seeing a detached shock for sharp
bodies, for sharp leading edge. For blunt bodies this one, for blunt leading edge. As
soon as the fluid particles causes the shock, there will be huge variation in pressure,
increase in pressure, temperature as well as density. And the velocity downstream the
shock as I told you is always less than the velocity of upstream the shock. This pressure
is nothing but like the compression of that mass of the fluid particles which are ahead
of the ahead of this flying object. This compressed fluid particles will offer additional
resistance to its motion. That additional resistance to the motion apart from the skin
friction as well as pressure drag is the wave drag. The wave drag is due to that skin
friction, sorry that additional resistance by the fluid particles across the shock for the
aircraft to move in that particular fluid. That is a story about this wave drag.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

159
This profile drag coefficient, we look at the profile drag coefficient. I am talking about
profile drag coefficient here. If you look at profile drag coefficient, it will almost remain
constant with Mach number. Until certain yeah until certain Mach number called track
divergence Mach number. Beyond which there is an abrupt increase in the drag.
Increasing Mach number. Until certain regime the change in the variation in 𝐶𝐷0 or
profile drag, what you can say is profile 𝐶𝐷𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑒 . The profile drag coefficient will
remain constant or can be considered the variation is very insignificant in this till certain
Mach number called drag divergence Mach number beyond which there is an abrupt
increase in the drag, drag coefficient, profile drag coefficient. That is the drag the Mach
number at which the change or there is an abrupt increase in this drag, profile drag
coefficient is called drag divergence Mach number.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

160
When you look at subsonic speeds what happens, consider a point P here, a local point
or say the minimum pressure point on the airfoil let us say that. If this velocity which
is less than 1, on the surface it will increase definitely compared to that of free stream
velocity here. That is what we studied till now. And then if the velocity is let us say is
close to is close to a higher subsonic speed or close to sonic speed. Let us say though it
is not close to the sonic speed, the speed stream velocity is not close to the sonic space,
but still if it is higher or close enough to the sonic speeds, what happens even when you
are flying at a subsonic speed close to sonic, M is equals to 1. What happens is the local
flow accelerates and you will see a shockwave on the surface of this wing. The local
subsonic speeds at which the airfoil or the aircraft first encounters a Mach wave, or a
sonic speed is known as critical Mach number. You are still at a local or subsonic speed,
but your wing sees a sonic boom on it or a shockwave on it or you can say you see the
flow local velocity will reaches Mach number 1.

That particular Mach number at which you are flying on the flight Mach number of that
flight is considered as critical Mach number. Critical Mach number and drag divergence
Mach number are two important parameters that we need to talk about. Critical Mach
number is in general less than drag divergence Mach number. Though you are flying
at, again you have to delay this critical Mach number as much as possible. Why because
as soon as you see the critical Mach number on the surface, you see on the surface of
the wing, you see a higher speed right. Maybe yeah of course critical Mach number
corresponds to sonic speed on the surface of the wing. That will create a shockwave,
which will increase the drag. Aim is to reduce that drag. In the previous problem we
saw that when we want to fly at higher velocities, once you solve it for different
velocities, you get to know that you need more drag to overcome. You have to you need
more force to overcome the drag because the drag increases and the requirement or the
input to the system has to increase accordingly. If you have so the main aim is to
decrease this drag.

There are various ways to decrease this drag again. We are not going to discuss about
that here. But the I want you to understand what critical Mach number is and what is
drag divergence Mach number. Critical Mach number is the local subsonic Mach
number at which the aircraft first encounters sonic speed on the wing, on the wings.
And drag divergence Mach number is the Mach number at which the profile drag

161
coefficient start a rapid increase in it. Profile drag coefficient will see a rapid increase.
That is the drag divergence Mach number. Okay, see you. Thank you.

162
 UAV Design – Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology- Kanpur

Lecture-12
Example Problems for Wing alone Configuration

Dear friends, welcome back. In or previous lecture we demonstrated how to make a flat plate
stable. Before that we have derived an equation or the conditions for static stability for a wing
alone configuration. And then we have taken a flat plate and then we mounted a weight to bring it
CG ahead of the aerodynamic center and we had a flight for iterate. Now let us solve some more
example problems related to this flat plate stability, how to enable the flat plate statically with
static stability. We will solve few example problem just before that let us have a revisit of what
we have derived.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:52)

Assuming this is my fuselage reference line and say my wing, error or chord line coincides with
the fuselage reference line. And say this is my location of aerodynamic center ac of the wing
measured with respect to leading edge of the wing parallel to the fuselage reference line. We call
this as 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of wing and say the CG of the system is located at a distance 𝑥𝐶𝐺 again measure parallel
to the fuselage reference line located at 𝑥𝐶𝐺 of this entire aircraft. When there is flow the 𝑉∞ , there
is lift as we discussed earlier and also. And now we will not consider drag anymore we will not
account that, and we will also assume a small angle of x. That the lift is entirely contributing

163
towards this which in movement about the center of gravity here, this is my CG. And we have
moment about aerodynamic center of wing. What we have derived is
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 + 𝐶𝐿0 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 )
𝑊

𝐶𝑚𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 )

If this 𝐶𝑚𝛼 has to be negative the CG should lie ahead of the aerodynamic center here. And if it
lies ahead of the aerodynamic center, this term becomes negative. You need to choose a 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 of
the wing, if you have dealing with the wing alone configuration. In such a way that now this value
should be high enough to overcome this particular negative value. The difference between these 2
terms will talk about it in the coming lectures, what exactly this term, this difference talks about.
In order to overcome this difference in the negative contribution towards the 𝐶𝑚0 because of the
CG lying ahead of aerodynamic center and you to choose a reflex in aerofoil with a strong 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐
positive 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 here. And then let us now take up a problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:40)

The question 1 for this week is consider a wing alone UAV with a wingspan of 3 meters root chord
𝑐
of 0.3 meters and tip chord of 0.2 meters tapered about at any equations. It is a midpoint you
2

know tapered about 𝑐𝑦 if you consider any chord wise location right. It the taper access lies at the
midpoint of the chord and weighs about 0.45 kg. The Oswald’s efficiency of the wing factor e is
0.95. And say this wing is supported with a boom this straight boom exactly at the mid-way of
span of length 1.5 meters. And weight 0.15 kg, the wing is also equipped or embedded with 3 cell

164
3s lipo battery which weighs about 0.3 kg. And the CG the battery is at 0.15 meters from the or
with respect to the leading edge of chord. Question number 1 should be the first question you need
to answer here. Let us say A, what should be the weight of the battery and consider here consider
the CG of the wing coincides with the CG of boom, this question. And the first this is the data
given and the first question need to answer is, what should be the weight of the battery sorry, the
weight of the brushless motor minimum weight of the brushless motor that need to be attached at
the starting off the boom to enable this configuration 𝐶𝑚𝛼 less than 0. This is what it is, let us
answer the first question here, from the given data solution.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:10)

What we are asked to do, we have a bingo of 3-meter span with a root chord of 0.3 meters and a
tip chord of 0.15 meter. And this taper happened to be the mid chord access at each and every cross
section if you consider like at a given chord wise location, the midpoint of that particular chord
gives you the taper axis. And with the root code of 0.3 and the tip code of 0.2 meters and this wing
weighs about say 0.4 5 kg, that is what it is given here, 0.45 kg here. And then this wing is
supported by means of a boom like fuselage for it right. This boom length is about 1.5 meters with
which weighs about 150 grams right. And moreover, say for example, this wing is also let us say.

(Video Starts: 11:18)

We have a wing here and it is equipped with a boom right and then this wing is also equipped with
a battery. Let us say this is this is a battery, and it is embedded with the battery means the battery

165
is inside this wing altogether. And say the wing or the weight of the battery is about 300 grams
and the CG of the battery is saying 15 centimeters from the leading edge of the roof chord. This
say this is my leading edge of the root chord, 15 centimeters behind the CG of this battery is 15
centimeters behind the root chord leading edge of the root chord. And also, the CG of this wing
which is at the it is coincides with the CG of the boom. And let us assume that the CG the weight
distribution is or say the CG of the wing is at the mid chord itself.

(Video Ends: 12:10)

This is another assumption we will consider, what you can say is the wing CG is at the mid chord.
About the taper accesses itself the CG of the wing is also present longitudinal CG location. From
the given data we will be able to draw the UAV schematic of the UAV. Let us say this is the boom,
which is about 1.5 meters, say this is 1.5 meters, let me reduce the size. Otherwise, I may not be
able to draw into this draw it to the scale. Say this is 1.5 meters and then I have a wing of 3 meters
𝑐
and the CG will be at 2 is not it with root chord of say 0.3 meters and the tip chord of 0.2 meters.

First let us figure out the taper axis and we were told the CG is at the midpoint of the wing itself.
Let us assume this is the midpoint of this particular tube, right or the boom. Because it is a
cylindrical boom and then we can assume a huge homogeneous distribution here. The CG can be
𝐿
at the 2, that is a decent assumption. The CG is 1.5 meters, the CG is 0.75 meters right. With

respect to the starting of this boom, the CG of this boom is at 0.75 meters and the taper axis of the
wing will also be 0.75 meters with respect to this starting of the boom is not it, why.

Because the CG of the wing coincides with the CG of the boom and it presents at the midpoint of
the chord which is the taper axis itself right. This will be saying my taper axis which is the
midpoints of the chord. Say, this is my root chord, root chord is given us 0.3 meters. Say this is
my root chord, let us say the root chord is 0.15 meters ahead and for 0.15 meters behind the taper
axis, which is total 0.3 meters. This is my root chord 𝑐𝑅 and say the tip chord again is tapered about
the same axis. What I have is 0.2 is the total chord, I have 0.1 meters above the taper axis and then
0.1 meters below the taper axis here, 0.1 meters below the taper axis. This will be my wing, I will
join the leading edge and the trailing edge of all the chords here, this is my wing. Similarly, here I
can assume, this is my wing of this UAV and the span of the wing is given us, 3 meters, make
sense. Now I have a root chord here 𝑐𝑅 this entire part is my root chord; the entire part is 𝑐𝑅 which

166
is 0.3 and 𝑐𝑡 from the given data. And the CG of this lies at the midpoint of the root chord right is
not it, and it coincides with the mid CG of this boom which is at 0.7 5 meters with respect to the
starting of this boom with respect to the mouth of the boom, we can say here. Now we need to
attach a motor to this boom such that the CG of this entire configuration and again just to add this
point as well there is a battery.

This battery weighs about let us say whatever the weight must be distributed. The CG of this
battery is also coinciding in with the CG of the entire system. Because it was given the CG of the
battery is at 0.15 meters with respect to the leading edge of the root chord. This is my leading edge
of the root chord 0.15 meters from the leading edge of the root chord falls on the taper axis which
is in fact the CG of V CG of the boom as well as CG of the battery. Let us assume this is the
distribution of my battery along the span which weighs about 0.3 kg. And the CG of this battery
is also at this particular location. Now what I can do is 𝑥𝐶𝐺 of battery, superscript here b stands for
battery. 𝑥𝐶𝐺 of the battery is at 0.15 meters with respect to the leading edge of the root chord and
the mass of the battery is 0.3 kg, so that is what it is given 0.3 kg, 0.15 meters. And then the wing
𝑥𝐶𝐺 of the wing is at 0.15 meters again with respect to loading edge of the root chord. And the mass
of the wing is about 0.45 kg. And we have the boom, 𝑥𝐶𝐺 of the boom is equals to 0.15 meters with
respect to leading edge of the root chord is not it. With respect to, let us say 0.15 meters, if I do
not write anything beneath the CG as a subscript to CG. That means it is we are measuring with
respect to the leading edge of the root chord. And the mass of those boom is, let me add 𝑏𝑡 for
battery and 𝑏𝑜 woofer boom, 𝑏𝑜 for boom here, 𝑏𝑡 for battery. The moon mass is about 150 grams,
0.15 kg. The boom CG can also be like we can also take the CG reference with respect to the
starting point of this boom.

The CG with respect to or say, the CG in all these cases with respect to the starting of this boom
with respect to this point, 𝑥𝐶𝐺 of battery with respect to boom right. Let us say w r t with respect to
boom 𝑏𝑜 with respect to 𝑏𝑜 is equals to 0.75 meters. In all the case it is 0.75 meters, it is 0.75
meters. Similarly, 𝑥𝐶𝐺 of wing with respect to 𝑏𝑜 with respect to boom is also 0.75 meters. And
𝑥𝐶𝐺 of battery with respect to boom is also 0.75 meters, we will see why we require this. For this
particular configuration the CG is more or less same is not it 𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑚3 𝑥3
upon 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 . In all the cases 𝑥𝐶𝐺 is same with respect to the boom with respect to

167
starting of boom. We can say the CG of this entire system which includes battery, wing and the
boom is at 0.75 meters from the starting of the boom. Let us say this is for the rest what we can
call it as so m of mass of the rest apart from the motor that we have to add mass of the rest is equals
to mass of battery. Is equals to mass of battery + mass of wing + mass of 𝑏𝑜 boom which is equals
to 0.9 kg, . We can add it 0.3 + 0.45 is 0.75 + 0.15 is 900 grams, that is a and the CG of all this CG
of rest I should say 𝑥𝐶𝐺 of rest is equals to 0.75 meters.

With all these components together the CG’s also at 0.75 meters. Now, what do we need to find,
what should be the weight of the. First of all, if you have to talk about 𝐶𝑚𝛼 , we need to know what
the aerodynamic center is. 𝐶𝑚𝛼 we can talk only when we know what is 𝑥𝐶𝐺 and 𝑥𝑎𝑐 , 𝐶𝐿𝛼 is positive
let us we do not go into those details of 𝐶𝐿𝛼 right now. But if you have wanted 𝐶𝑚𝛼 positive or
negative that is governed by this distance between 𝑥𝐶𝐺 and 𝑥𝑎𝑐 . I need to know what the location
is of 𝑥𝐶𝐺 and 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of this particular configuration. First of all, let us figure out what is the current
𝑥𝐶𝐺 of this location, and we know it is 0.75 meters, we want to know what the aerodynamic center
for this is. That means, with the given data we should be able to find out mean aerodynamic chord
and project the mean aerodynamic chord onto the root chord and figure out the corresponding
aerodynamic center with respect to leading edge of the root chord or with respect to the boom here,
correct. If you are talking about this particular equation, then let us talk in terms of leading edge
of the root chord itself.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:24)

168
 𝐶𝑚𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 )

We know what is 𝑥𝐶𝐺 here, 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of wing is equals to with respect to the leading edge of the root
chord. It is about 0.15 meters, am I correct. This is 0.15 meters - 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 of wing, I need to find out
what is 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 of wing. How can I find, first I will find out what is 𝑐̅,
2 1 + 𝜆 + 𝜆2
𝑐̅ = 𝑐𝑅 ( )
3 1+𝜆
It is a straight tapered wing.
𝑐𝑡 0.2
𝜆= = = 0.67
𝑐𝑅 0.3
2 (1 + 0.67 + 0.672 )
𝑐̅ = × 0.3 × ( ) = 0.254 𝑚
3 1 + 0.67

We know these 2 points lie on the same axis you can simply, if you want to know the difference
between the leading edge of the mean aerodynamic chord and the leading edge of the root chord,
𝑐𝑅 𝑐̅
it simply − 2. Because this is a midpoint of each and every court if you project it onto the root
2

chord that is a midpoint here. This is 0.254 is a total 𝑐̅, let us say this is my total 𝑐̅ which is 0.254,
if I project it onto the root chord. What I have is, let us say this is my mean aerodynamic chord, I
projected it onto the root chord. What I have is, 0.254 is the total half of that will be 0.127 is called
0.7 centimeters. Above the tapper axis it is 12.7, below the tapper axis is 12.7 centimeters which
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
is 0.127 meters. This is my 2, so this is like 2, this is also 2. I know the aerodynamic center here

𝑥𝑎𝑐 , let us say is at certain point, so with respect to leading edge of the root chord it is at a distance
of, so say this is my aerodynamic center 𝑥𝑎𝑐 , this is my this point a low point is my ac. ac we
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
know 4, am I correct, this is 4 x ac is 4 with respect to the leading edge of the 𝑐̅. Now, in order to

find this location of aerodynamic center with respect to the leading edge of the root chord, what I
need to do.

𝑐𝑅 𝑐̅ 𝑐̅ 𝑐𝑅
I have , I know 2, because this is tapered about mid axis and subtract 2, from . What I have
2 2

reached with respect to leading edge of the root chord is leading edge of the mean aerodynamic
chord. From there one fourth from there is my aerodynamic center. What I mean here is 𝑥𝑎𝑐

169
aerodynamic center, this is with respect to leading edge of 𝑐𝑅 , is equals to. Say this is by default
we are doing this we always considered with respect to leading edge. But here there is a need for
us to talk with respect to the leading edge of the boom as well. That is a reason why in order to
avoid confusion here we are talking about x aerodynamic center with respect to the leading edge
𝑐𝑅 𝑐𝑅 𝑐̅
of the root chord right. I have a , so − 2. With this I have now reached from leading edge of
2 2
𝑐̅
the root chord, I have reached to the leading edge of the mean aerodynamic chord plus 4. From

leading edge of the root chord, this takes me from the leading edge of the root chord to leading
edge of the mean aerodynamic chord from leading edge of the mean aerodynamic chord I am
𝑐̅
reaching aerodynamic center here 4.
𝑐𝑅 𝑐̅ 𝑐̅ 𝑐𝑅 𝑐̅
𝑥𝑎𝑐 = ( − ) + = − = 0.15 − 0.0635 = 0.0865 𝑚
2 2 4 2 4
Approximately 8 centimeters. If you subtract this what I have is 0.0865 meters. With respect to
the leading edge of the root chord this particular value the location is at 0.0865 meters which is
8.6 centimeters approximately. If we move down to 8.6 with respect to the leading edge of the root
chord you will find your aerodynamic center here, right. We got to know 0.15 is the CG with
respect to leading edge of the root chord and now you know the aerodynamic center of the wing
with respect to the leading edge of the root chord. Can I substitute that value here, what I have is?

𝐶𝑚𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 (0.15 − 0.0865) = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 × 0.0635

This value transfer to be that. Which is close to 6 centimeters, that means this is positive, 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is
becoming positive here, with the current CG location it is positive without adding any motor. Now
what we are asked is what should be the minimum weight of the brushless motor that need to be
attached to the straight at the starting of the boom. We need to add some mass here, let us assume
that as this particular block, now that motor as this particular block here. Say this is my brushless
motor, I am attaching to the boom here, this is my brushless motor. It is attached exactly this let
us assume the CG of this motor coincides with the starting point of the boom, that is one
assumption that we will consider. And now with this attachment, the CG now has to shift forward,
we know that. What should be that minimum weight of this motor that makes this configuration
𝐶𝑚𝛼 negative. That means a mass of the motor, which is say mass of the motor m, m is the mass

170
of the motor that I need to attach to make this configuration stable. At least in case of 𝐶𝑚𝛼 has to
be less than 0. Now I need to talk everything with respect to the leading edge of the boom because
this is attached at the boom. Now I will try to talk about the CG location with respect to the leading
edge of the boom.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:06)

For that what I need to do, what should be the minimum location in the first place or what is the
boundary condition when 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is, am I correct. Right now, it is positive if it has to go to negative
and there should be a point where 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is also 0, there should be CG location where 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is 0. What
should we that location C m alpha can be 0 when CG is equals to aerodynamic center? Now let us
find out if the, what is that weight you know that we are adding ahead of this being that brings the
CG to the aerodynamic center. Right now, the CG is at this tapper axis, aerodynamic centre is here.
I need to bring the CG of this entire configuration without motor, to this aerodynamic center by
adding a particular motor. Now I need to choose what should be the minimum weight of that motor.
First of all, the minimum weight to make it 𝐶𝑚𝛼 negative, we need to know the weight of the motor
that we are going to add, that makes this aerodynamics CG coincides with aerodynamic center.
First if you find out that any mass more than that will try to shift the CG ahead of the aerodynamic
center that makes that particular 𝐶𝑚𝛼 negative for this configuration. I need to add first of all I will
find out that boundary condition that makes CG coincide with the aerodynamic center with the
motor.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:31)

171
𝐶𝑚𝛼 for me to become 0 which implies x x's CG should be x ac for this of wing, am I correct. So,
by just by substituting that 𝐶𝑚𝛼 0 in the previous equation, what we have is this 𝑥𝐶𝐺 must be equals
to 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of the wing, right. Now, if this has to be the final 𝑥𝐶𝐺 what should be the mass of the motor.
Now, what is the total mass of the aircraft, let us assume m represents the total mass of the aircraft.
That is equals to earlier it was like mass of wing m of wing + mass of battery 𝑏𝑡 and we have mass
of the boom as well. m of boom 𝑏𝑜 and now, we call this particular expression like this m of rest,
that is the reason why we use rest. And now what we have is in addition to it, we are adding motor
mass of motor which we need to find out in fact. What I have here as an expression m is equals to
total mass of the aircraft is mass of rest + mass of motor. I know mass of rest is 0.9 kg, mass of
rest is about 0.9 kg + mass of motor. And now with the addition of this mass at x, what is the
location of this mass, what is the CG location of this mass with respect to boom. x m m is a mass
of motor in the corresponding 𝑥𝐶𝐺 of motor is 0, it is exactly with respect to the boom.

I am talking with respect to the boom, it is exactly at the leading edge of the boom or you can say
at the starting of the boom. With that assumption, the new CG I need is as aerodynamic center
here. The new CG what I need is nothing, but the aerodynamic center of the wing is at the
aerodynamic center of the wing which is about 0.75 meters no I am sorry. What is the aerodynamic
center of this wing with respect to the boom leading edge of the boom, alright? I know what this
𝑐𝑅 𝑐𝑅
is with, I know 2
I know boom length up to here is 0.75 meters, I can subtract seer from here 2
+

what is the corresponding 𝑥𝑎𝑐 , am I correct or not.

172
(Refer Slide Time: 36:34)

𝑚 = 𝑚𝑏𝑜 + 𝑚𝑏𝑡 + 𝑚𝑤 + 𝑚𝑚
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑚𝑚
𝑚 = 0.9 + 𝑚𝑚
𝑐𝑅
𝑥𝐶𝐺 = 0.75 − + 𝑥𝑏𝑜 = 0.75 − 0.15 + 0.0865 = 0.6865 𝑚
2
It is about 68 centimeters from the starting of the boom, 𝑥𝐶𝐺 , this is the new 𝑥𝐶𝐺 . Now in order to
achieve this new 𝑥𝐶𝐺 what should be the mass that I need to add. How can I find it out, I am again
erasing this part.
(Refer Slide Time: 38:33)

173
𝑥𝐶𝐺 or the new 𝑥𝐶𝐺 or it has to be the x aerodynamic center both with respect to leading edge or
with respect to boom starting of boom is equals to 𝑚1 or 𝑚𝑚 motor mass times is the additional
weight rate. With this additional weight we are trying to shift to the new CG from the current CG
which is nothing but the aerodynamics center of the. 𝑚𝑚 times 𝑥𝐶𝐺 of motor plus the rest young
m rest times 𝑥𝐶𝐺 of the rest upon total weight here is not it, + 𝑚𝑚 + m rest is 0.9 kg. I need to find
out what is 𝑚𝑚 from here.
𝑚 𝑣
𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝐶𝐺 + 𝑚𝑣 𝑥𝐶𝐺
𝑥𝐶𝐺 =
𝑚𝑚 + 𝑚𝑣
𝑚𝑚 × 0 + 0.9 × 0.75
0.6865 =
𝑚𝑚 + 0.9
𝑚𝑚 = 0.0832 𝑘𝑔 = 83.2 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
𝐶𝑚𝛼 < 0 , if mm > 83.2 𝑔𝑚

If you find this 83.2 if you take any weight more than this 83.2 grams and you find the new CG
location then if you substitute that CG location and the corresponding aerodynamic center location
in the equation, you will be able to find 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is negative. That is how you are shifting CG ahead of
the aerodynamic center here, this is the motor that we require. We can solve the second problem
now.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:50)

174
The second question B for this is assume the cross section of the wing in question 1 or question A
is, NACA 23112 airfoil which is a reflex airfoil with the following data, it is 𝛼 and 𝐶𝐿 , 𝛼 is in
degree. First is at 0 degrees angle of attack this is approximately 0.08, this is 0.08 and then at 6
degrees angle of attack it is 0.481. This is the data given for the airfoil. And also, the 𝐶𝑚 about
aerodynamic center or 𝐶𝑚𝑐 , more or less same you know unless there is a huge deviation 𝐶𝑚 by 4
4

is close to 0.03, that is a reflex airfoil that we can talk we can immediately get to know that you
know 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 is positive it is a reflex airfoil. And the wing 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 and consider the wing 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 is 0.9%
of or 90% of 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 of airfoil, or 90% of airfoil 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 . What do we require to find, first thing is what
should be the maximum weight what is the maximum weight of the motor for which 𝐶𝑚0 is greater
than 0? Let us first lo at the given data. What do we need to do you know in the first place?

𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝐶𝐿0 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑤 )

𝐶𝑚0 = 0.03 × 0.9 + 𝐶𝐿0 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐𝑤 )

𝐶𝑚0 = 0.027 + 𝐶𝐿0 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑤 )

Without adding the motor, we know what is the 𝑥𝐶𝐺 , it is at 0.75 meters and the aerodynamics
center is behind ahead of the CG. And we know this is positive and this is positive 𝐶𝑚0 is positive,
by adding the motor we brought CG ahead of the aerodynamic center. If you add motor which is
anything greater than say 84 grams, that means this quantity will be lesser than this quantity. This
makes it negative and now you are subtracting it from this positive 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 the reflux aerofoil which
you have considered to trim at a posture angle of a type. Now you are trying to compromise at that,
right by bringing the CG more forward. Now say if we consider a motor which is heavy enough to
make this particular quantity more negative than this 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 of the wing. If you do so then 𝐶𝑚0
becomes negative, right which is undesirable in our case. That means first we have to find out that
limiting condition what we rast, so what should be the weight of the motor that shift the CG so
much that it makes 𝐶𝑚0 negative. Or say or what is a maximum weight that you can afford if you
have to afford then 𝐶𝑚0 has to be positive. In order to trim at positive angle of attack 𝐶𝑚0 has to be
positive. That means this particular quantity the maximum weight say the minimum weight is
about 84 grams. Now say if you consider whether it should be 200 grams or 300 grams that makes
this still positive.

175
In order to get that answer first we need to find out what is the limiting condition when can when
can 𝐶𝑚0 become 0, what should be the weight of the battery I need to add such that this quantity
becomes negative, or exactly equal to this particular quantity. What will be the corresponding CG
location for that, aerodynamic center is not going to change, only CG will change with the addition
of motor. Now we know aerodynamic center of the wing with respect to boom there. Now we can
write with respect to the boom there, that distances we shift the reference to the boom right now.
And then substitute them here and see and equate the 𝐶𝑚0 to 0 and find out what is the
corresponding CG location. Once you know the CG location, you know that should be the CG that
you need to achieve by adding a motor of mass m. Figure out what should be the maximum motor
weight of the motor, got it. If I have to shift this let us say we will find out the CG location with
respect to the root chord itself, then we will try to shift it. First of all, this is with respect to the root
chord of the leading edge, this equation is with respect to the root chord of the leading edge.
(Refer Slide Time: 49:46)

0.027
𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 = − + 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑤
𝐶𝐿0
0.027
𝑥𝐶𝐺 = − 𝑐̅ + 𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑤
𝐶𝐿0

176
 0.481 + 0.008
𝐶𝑙𝛼 = 𝜋 = 4.6
6 × 180
𝐶𝑙𝛼
𝐶𝐿𝛼 =
𝐶𝑙𝛼
1 + 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

(Refer Slide Time: 53:27)

From the given geometry it is aspect ratio is

𝑏 2 32
𝐴𝑅 = =
𝑆 𝑆
What is S, what is the area of this, sir C l alpha 0 getting 4.0 please make a correction, small
correction here.

(Refer Slide Time: 53:41)

177
This is not 0.4 this is 0.56. Consider this as 0.5614 here, if I have at 6 degrees it is 0.56.
(Refer Slide Time: 53:59)

It is 0.56, 0.56 this one so if you substitute that 0.56, so what you have is 4.6 per radian here. Once
you substitute this 4.6, we need to find out what is the aspect ratio,

𝑏 2 32
𝐴𝑅 = =
𝑆 𝑆
𝑏
𝑆= (𝑐𝑅 + 𝑐𝑡 ) = 0.75 𝑚2
2
9
𝐴𝑅 = = 12
0.75

178
 4.6
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = = 4.05 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑
4.6
1+
𝜋 × 0.95 × 12
So, I know what the lift curve slope 3D is right now. In order to find out 𝐶𝐿0 here this is the 𝐶𝐿0 that
is required so this is from here, 𝐶𝐿0 point. But I do not know how to find out because I have only
𝐶𝐿 alpha 3D for this blue curve. We know that it is a descent assumption to consider that the lift
coefficient or the angle of a tag at which the lift coefficient is 0 is same for finite wing as well as
infinite wing that is a descent assumption that we considered earlier. If we can find out this alpha
at which 𝐶𝐿 is 0 then I will be able to find out 𝐶𝐿0 there because I will have one-point anther curve
point under the slope there. How can I find out that from the aerofoil data, I know what is C L
alpha 4.6 and I know 𝐶𝐿0 from the given data is 0.56 sorry 0.08? So, this is 0.8 from the given data,
I have the slope as well, I will be able to find out that.

𝛼𝐶𝑙=0 = −𝐶𝑙𝛼 (𝐶𝑙0 ) = −0.990 ≈ 1𝑜

This value corresponds to 1 degree. This particular value corresponds to 1 degree here. Once I
know what is alpha at which 𝐶𝐿0 which is - 1 degree, I will be able to find out this is - 1 degree, 0
this particular coordinates. I will be able to find out what is 𝐶𝑙0 , how can I do that.
(Refer Slide Time: 58:03)

𝜋
𝐶𝐿0 = −𝐶𝐿𝛼 × 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 = −4.05 × (−1 × ) = 0.07
180

179
What I have is approximately 0.07. I have 𝐶𝐿0 right now, and I know 𝑐̅ and I know with respect to
the leading edge of the wing, I get to know I can find out what is the corresponding CG location
with respect to the leading edge of the wing. If I substitute that C L 0 in this particular equation,

0.027
𝑥𝐶𝐺 = − × 0.254 + 0.0865 = −0.0115 𝑚
0.07

The same thing is equals to - 0.0115 meters. Approximately it should be 1.1 cm or 11 mm ahead
of the, this new CG, has to be 0.0115 meters which is approximately 11 mm ahead of the leading
edge, this is the new CG. Initially the CG is here, now adding a motor to make 𝐶𝑚0 0, a mass of
motor that makes 𝐶𝑚0 0, so for the cut this part. This is the new CG location which is 0.015 meters
ahead of the leading edge of the root chord. I need to bring the CG, which is from 0.75 meters to
this particular location, the new CG location, by adding a mass of motor by adding a motor of mass
𝑚𝑚 . I have this x CG here, so this must be the new location, now the minus here indicates that the
CG is ahead of the leading edge here. Now with respect to the boom, this location will be like
𝑐𝑅
length of the boom by 2 - minus this particular length. That is when I know what this length is,
2

if I subtract this length I am here and if I subtract this distance further from the leading edge which
is the new CG location, I will be at the CG location with respect to the starting of this boom. x
𝐿 𝐶𝑅
boom 𝑥𝐶𝐺 with respect to boom is equals to 2 which is length of boom by 2 - + 𝑥𝐶𝐺 . If you do
2

a vectorism it is this otherwise you take the absolute value of it otherwise + 𝑥𝐶𝐺 with respect to
the leading edge of 𝑐𝑅 . This is how much 0.75 - 0.15, right plus or this is - 0.0115, what is the
value 0.5885. The maximum weight of the motor has to be, so say if this is the CG then, so this is
𝑥𝐶𝐺 with respect to the boom is equals to 0.5885 this one is.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

180
This has to be this particular value; we substitute this value there and you will be able to find out
the mass of the motor. The maximum mass of the motor that still allow 𝐶𝑚0 to be you know 0 or
non-negative is equals to so 0.2467 kg, so which is approximately 247 grams. You can add 247
grams here, if you add 247 grams, this makes 𝐶𝑚0 0, that is how we calculate it. Anything less than
maybe 247 can be the maximum weight, that makes 𝐶𝑚0 0 or 240 6.9 grams maybe you know or
anything gram less than this will make 𝐶𝑚0 some positive value. This the maximum minimum
weight and how the CG shifts and how you can play with 𝐶𝑚0 and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 of the configuration. We
will continue with this with one more small example problem, what we will try to do is. Assuming
a motor mass of some grams, we will find out what the 𝐶𝑚𝛼 and 𝐶𝑚0 of the configuration, that will
be the final exercise for today.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

181
This is question 3, you know, assume the motor mass is 0.3kg sorry 0.2 kg find the 𝐶𝑚0 and 𝐶𝑚𝛼
of the UAV, right. Simple question, the same data you are given here the mass of the motor is 0.2
kg.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

The 𝑥𝐶𝐺 , solution we know 𝐶𝑚0 has to be

𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝐶𝐿0 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑤 )

And similarly, 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is,

𝐶𝑚𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 )

182
Now first of all we need to find 𝑥𝐶𝐺 ,with this motor configuration. We know what is 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of the
wing, we need to find out what is 𝑥𝐶𝐺 ,with this current motor configure. Without motor the 𝑥𝐶𝐺 ,is
about with the rest of the mass the 𝑥𝐶𝐺 , is about 0.75 meters. So, the new CG with respect to boom
is equals to mass of the motor times 𝑥𝐶𝐺 , of motor + mass of rest times 𝑥𝐶𝐺 , of rest upon mass of
motor + mass of rest. This equals to mass of motor are 0.2 times 0 because we are mounting exactly
at the starting of this and assume that the CG of this motor coincides with the leading or the starting
point of that boom. Is equals to, + m mass of the rest is 0.9 kg times 0.75 upon 0.2 + 0.9, what will
be the CG location respect to the boom 0.675 upon 1.1 it is 61 centimeters behind.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

0.675
𝑥𝐶𝐺 = = 0.6136 𝑚
1.1
Which is approximately 61.4 centimeters behind the boom. The current CG location is behind the
starting of the boom, and at located at a distance of 0.61 meters from that point. Now you need to
find out what is 𝐶𝑚0 and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 it is straightforward. The 𝐶𝑚0 of the configuration at this CG location,
now I have to shift this CG location to with. This equation either I need to take this distance with
respect to aerodynamic center with respect to the boom, or with respect to the leading edge. Now
I prefer shifting the CG from boom with respect to boom do with respect to leading edge of the
root chord, this is with respect to boom. Now if I have to shift this to 𝑥𝐶𝐺 , with respect to leading
𝑐𝑅
edge of 𝐶𝑅 , what I need to do. I know , which is this distance I know this reference point because
2

with respect to this I know the leading edge. Now I need to find out with respect to leading is I

183
have to consider anyone of the references. I would like to prefer to consider this midpoint as the
reference here. With respect to this, this, I know this distance and from this point otherwise vice
versa like from this point I know this distance and from this point I know the CG location. If I
subtract that those two from this and what I end up is this particular the distance between the CG
and the midpoint of here, am I correct CG and midpoint. Let us say the CG is somewhere here this
particular point, on this axis I just projected this at this particular point. What I am trying to do is,
I am subtracting this distance from this entire distance, what I am end up with this particular
𝑐𝑅
distance. Now I have , if I subtract this, I have that particular location with respect to the leading
2

edge of the root chord, got it. So, what I have is first I am trying to subtract these two the CG
location with respect to the boom which is 0.6136.

𝑐𝑅
This will help me to figure out what is this distance. Now from which is like with respect to
2

from the midpoint I am subtracting this difference, that will help me to find out what is the location
of this point with respect to the leading edge of the root chord. This - 𝑐𝑅 , so from this I am
subtracting that, what I end up with is about 0.0136 meters, 1.3 centimeters like 13 mm behind the
leading edge of the root chord. And my aerodynamic center is at with respect to that is about
1.0865 meters which is 8.6 mm, this is like 8.6 centimeters. This is 1.3 centimeters ahead behind
the leading edge and that one is 8.6 centimeters behind the leading edge. The aerodynamic center
is behind the CG here. In that case we have 𝐶𝑚𝛼 negative and we will see whether 𝐶𝑚0 is positive
or not. With a motor of 200 grams what will be the corresponding 𝐶𝑚0 and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 of this that is
where we have calculating right now.

𝐶𝑚𝛼 = 4.07 × (0.0136 − 0.0865) = −0.295

And then 𝐶𝑚0 for this motor is

𝐶𝑚0 = 0.027 + 0.07 × (−0.0729) = 0.021
𝐶𝑚0 is positive in this case and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is negative that satisfies the static stability conditions, thank
you.

184
 UAV Design-Part II
Prof. Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture-13
Wing and Tail Contribution, Neural Point

Dear friends, welcome back. Let us now proceed to analyze the stability of wing and tail
combination, where in our previous lecture we talked about wing alone configuration for which
the 𝐶𝑚 about CG, we have estimated, and then we bifurcated that into 2 components 𝐶𝑚0 and
𝐶𝑚𝛼 , where we figured out for 𝐶𝑚0 has to be greater than 0, we need to have a reflex aerofoil
for a wing alone configuration, and then for 𝐶𝑚𝛼 to be less than 0 for static stability condition.
To satisfy that condition, we need CG should be ahead of the aerodynamic center.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:55)

Now look at the contribution of wing and tail combination, a combination and its contribution
towards static stability. So, I would like to divide this into 2 partitions. So, now let us have this
wing and tail. So, say this is my fuselage reference line.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:41)

185
Say the chord of the wing coincides with the fuselage reference line here. This is the chord; the
chord of the wing coincides with a fuselage reference line. And then we have a tail at after
wing right and then we try and also let us not consider about the z offset of the CG. We have
fuselage reference line and for the wing, we know there is an aerodynamic center for this wing
which is located at a distance 𝑥𝑎𝑐 at the leading edge of the wing. And the CG of this aircraft
with a tail we will draw the tail very soon. Is located at a distance 𝑥𝐶𝐺 with respect to leading
edge of the wing. And we have a tail here, we added a tail, let us say the chord line of the tail
is oriented or inclined at certain angle called a i of t right, tail sitting angle, 𝑖𝑡 is known as tail
sitting angle with respect to the fuselage reference line. This is a chord line of the plane
horizontal tail and 𝑖𝑡 is the inclination of this chord line with respect to the fuselage reference
line. And we call this 𝑖𝑡 as tail sitting angle. This tail setting angle and in general, this cross
section of tail is symmetric aero for. Why because we know it has to produce equal amount of
force on the either side of the deflection, the aim of tail is not to generate lift, to generate a
moment right to control the orientation of the aircraft and also to provide static stability.

That we will see how to control the aircraft; that we will see later when we talk about elevator
deflection. For the time being, we assumed like the tail is used to stabilize the aircraft and we
will see how it is going to do that. And the tail is also located at a distance right we also have
an aerodynamic center for this tail which is located at the leading edge here and this in the
corresponding distance here is 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of tail with respect to the leading edge of the root chord of
the wing and is measured parallel to the fuselage reference line. This is my fuselage reference
line FRL. Now when this is moving or in equilibrium at certain 𝛼. So, moving at certain 𝑉∞ ,
this combination is moving at 𝑉∞ . So, we have lift perpendicular to 𝑉∞ liftoff wing and the same

186
time we have a moment about aerodynamic center of wing. Similarly, we should have lifted
the tail as well right. But the flow near the wing may not be same as flow near the tail, why
because the wing we witness from the lifting line theory, it creates a downwash behind the
wing is not it. Because of the downwash say this is my 𝑉∞ , actual 𝑉∞ . Ideally this has to be my
angle of attack, ideally it has to be there, but because of the downwash you know there is a
downward component of velocity.

Downwash is nothing but the flow is pushed down right, it was pushed down by this wing, it
is heavy near the wing in the vicinity of the wing as we go behind, because there is a forward
component of the velocity, there is a like component of velocity in this direction and there is a
downward direction, in the component of velocity which is in the direction of flight or in the
direction. Is higher right which means the freestream velocity is in the opposite direction flight.
Which is higher. The resultant will remain flat, but still there is some deviation from the actual
flow that the wing faces. Deviation at the tail compared to that of what the wing faces. That is
nothing but the downwash because of this induce because by this thing right at the tail.

Let us say this is the downwash because of which the resultant freestream velocity here will be
flattened. This is my velocity at the tail 𝑉𝑡 or 𝑉′ we call it, let us 𝑉′ here. 𝑉∞′ . This particular
change in angle is 𝜖. Now, effectively I can this is equivalent to this say. This is equivalent to
these 2 are parallel. This is my 𝑉∞ and this is my 𝜖. Now, the angle of attack that this tail C is
with respect to this 𝑉∞′ . 𝑉∞′ is a modified velocity at the tail because of the downwash induced
by the wing. This downwards creates an angle epsilon with respect to the freestream velocity
at the 𝑉∞ . Now, the angle of attack that the tail C is with respect to this modified velocity which
is 𝑉∞′ and it is denoted by 𝛼 at the tail. This 𝛼 at the tail; I can express this in terms of known
quantities for example. So, I know what tails is sitting angle here, I know what is wing angle
of attack which I will be measuring using an angle of attack sensor there. I know 𝛼, I know
wing setting angle. Can I express this in terms of these parameters, and I can model this
downwash you know it is similar to that of 𝛼𝑖 right, do you remember?

This 𝜖 can be modeled.

𝐶𝐿𝑊
𝜖 = 2𝛼𝑖 = 2
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝑑𝜖 𝐶𝐿0𝑊 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼
𝑊
𝜖0 + 𝛼 = 2( )
𝑑𝛼 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

187
 2𝐶𝐿0𝑊
𝜖0 =
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝑑𝜖 2𝐶𝐿𝛼
𝑊
=
𝑑𝛼 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
This is from the lifting line theory. Now we know if we know all this quantity is like say 𝑖𝑡 , 𝛼
and 𝜖. Now, I would like to express this tail angle of attack in terms of these known variables.
𝑑𝜖
𝛼𝑡 = (1 − ) 𝛼 + (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 )
𝑑𝛼
𝜖 is because of the downwash here. Indicated by this green line (𝛼 − 𝜖 + 𝑖𝑡 ) . What I can do
further. I will have this particular expression. with this understanding we now can proceed
with the modeling of moment for this particular configuration wing and tail configuration and
we will find out what is 𝐶𝑚0 and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 for this configuration right, at the same time, we will also
look at what is the total lift from this combination and then also the 𝐶𝐿0 and 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of this
configuration, wing and tail combination. The lift at the tail will be acting perpendicular to 𝑉∞′
which is 𝐿𝑡 . There will be little drag, but we are neglecting that drag that horizontal component.
Or the vertical offset of CG is not considered, and we proved that that is not affecting much we
know with the flat plate flight we demonstrated that if that is small it is insignificant in for
static stability contribution. I have 𝐿𝑡 but I do not have a moment here. Do I have a pitching
moment or moment about aerodynamic center. Why because we are using a symmetric tail, in
general it is symmetric tail.

So, made out of symmetric aero. We do not have 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 there. Now the wing lift. And assuming
a small angle of attack, 𝐿𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 will be 𝐿𝑤 lift of wing multiplied with this offset with respect
to CG contributes towards pitch up moment right. Now taking moments about CG and lift of
tail contributes towards pitch down moment. Lift of tail multiplied by the offset between this,
offset is what this particular distance which is like the total distance of tail with respect to
leading edge of root chord subtracted by the distance of CG or the distance of CG with respect
to leading edge of the route chord. If I subtract this distance from this total distance, what I
have is this particular distance I mean the momentum between CG and the aerodynamics center
of tail. Now what is the total lift of the aircraft a by c stands for aircraft here or say this is
nothing, but total lift of the aircraft L is equals to lift of wing + lift of tail from the principal.
Do you remember those assumptions like one of the assumptions talks about principle of
superposition? The total lift here from that assumption it is equals to lift of wing plus lift of
tail.

188
 𝐿(𝑎) = 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑤 + 𝐿𝑡
𝑐
1 2 1 1
𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑤 + 𝜌𝑉∞ ′2 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝑡
2 2 2
1
𝜌𝑉∞ ′2 𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿𝑤 + 2 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝑡
1 2 𝑆
𝜌𝑉 ′
2 ∞
𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿𝑤 + 𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝑡
𝑆
𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼 = (𝐶𝐿0𝑊 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼𝑤 ) + 𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡
𝑊 𝑆

(Refer Slide Time: 17:46)

𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ((1 − ) 𝛼 + (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 ))
𝑊 𝑊 𝑆 𝑑𝛼
𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝐿0 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 )
𝑊 𝑆
𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝑊 𝑆 𝑑𝛼

This is the contribution from tail here, sorry wing and tail combination. We have the 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of
𝑊

wings. For wing alone these 2 terms will disappear. We just had this for wing alone contribution
total aircrafts 𝐶𝐿0 is 𝐶𝐿0 and total aircraft 𝐶𝐿𝛼 is wing 𝐶𝐿𝛼 . Now we need to talk about
𝑊 𝑊

moment. This is the lift details about the 𝐶𝐿0 and 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of the entire aircraft.

189
Now let us talk about the pitching moment of CG. About CG the y axis is into the board here.
y axis is into the board. Anything any moment that creates pitch up, nose up moment for this
UAV nose up motion is considered as positive and nose down, the moment that creates nose
down motion is considered as negative moment. Now the moment of CG of this aircraft is
nothing but moment is equals to a moment about aerodynamic center of wing plus, lift off
wing, because lift of wing is contributing towards nose up motion, nose up motion. Lift of wing
times the corresponding distance between the CG and the ac. This is the distance. I am
subtracting 𝑥𝑎𝑐 from 𝑥𝐶𝐺 , what I have is the momentum between ac and CG here. Multiplied
by 𝑥𝐶𝐺 , I am subtracting 𝑥𝑎𝑐 from 𝑥𝐶𝐺 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of wing. This is the pitch up moment and then
because of the wing, and then the tail has lift, it tries to there is no pitching moment coefficient
about the aerodynamic center because of the symmetric nature. We have lift at the tail that
contributes towards no zone moment. That is a negative moment.

𝑀𝐶𝐺 = 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝐿𝑤 (𝑥𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝐿𝑡 (𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥𝐶𝐺 )

1 2 1 1 1
𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉∞2 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝜌𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑤 (𝑥𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝜌𝑉∞′2 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝑡 (𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥𝐶𝐺 )
2 2 2 2
𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝐶𝐿𝑤 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝐶 (𝑥 − 𝑥𝐶𝐺 )
𝑆 𝐿𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + (𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼) (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 )
𝑊 𝑊

𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖
− 𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 [(1 − ) 𝛼 + (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 )] (𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 )
𝑆 𝑑𝛼
𝑆𝑡
Where, 𝑉𝑡 = (𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 ) is called tail volume ratio.
𝑆

𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼

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(Refer Slide Time: 27:41)

𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝐶𝐿0 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝜂𝑡 𝐶 (𝑖 − 𝜖0 )(𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 )
𝑊 𝑆 𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝑡
You need to whenever you it is required you should be able to derive it quickly. Now, it happens
with practice you need to practice this multiple times. And you need to understand the
contribution from each and every term. That you can easily get back to this equation. We will
do it couple of times. That you will also be comfortable with the terms here. This is C m 0
whereas C m alpha of the entire aircraft is.
𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝑚𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) (𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥̅ 𝐶𝐺 )
𝑊 𝑆 𝑑𝛼
This is the 𝐶𝑚𝛼 of the entire aircraft. For this aircraft to which is an important expression.
Please try to derive multiple times, that you get used to this equation. In this equation, if you
can see, what we need our aim is 𝐶𝑚0 has to be greater than 0 and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 has to be less than 0.
Look at this particular expression. For 𝐶𝑚𝛼 has to be less than 0 say if the CG is behind the
aerodynamic center, the CG is behind the aerodynamic, this contributes towards positive
witching moment. This first term contributes towards positive witching moment because 𝐶𝐿𝛼
𝑆𝑡
of course, we know it is positive. 𝜂𝑡 is positive is positive, and then the tail is behind the CG,
𝑆
𝑑𝜖
this is positive, this contributes towards positive. And 𝐶𝐿𝛼 is positive. So, (1 − ) is always
𝑑𝛼

less than 1 less than or equal to 1 at maximum. Second on this negative have it, you need to
choose this particular number strong enough to overcome this positive.

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The offset between these 2 should not be very high. The tail volume should overcome this
particular positive term. If you have to design this, this particular term is known as tail volume
ratio as we discussed. You need to choose a particular tail volume ratio in order to make this
stable because, it is obvious that when you have wing and tail at an offset the CG will of course,
be behind, you have to mount your engine and you have to place your batteries in such a way
that you bring this particular CG as close to this aerodynamics entire as possible. That is what.
So, now, looking at the 𝐶𝑚0 term the 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 of the wing is let us say if you use a cambered airfoil
this is negative. In a previous lecture when we talked about reflects airfoil, you saw that you
witness that the 𝐶𝐿𝛼 is very less comparatively is not its 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of the airfoil itself is less, why
because you need to compromise with the camber towards the trailing edge for a reflex airfoil
it will be upwards right to provide a pitch bend upwards.

Bent upwards. That it will obstruct the flow and it pushes down it gives a couple at each and
every angle of attack. Due to that we are compromising with the camber that means you are
compromising with the 𝐶𝐿𝛼 , which we have witnessed here. But in case of cambered airfoil,
you have very high 𝐶𝐿𝛼 compared to the reflect airfoils in the normal airfoil. But you have to
compromise with that negative pitching moment here. You have 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 negative here and if this
is positive, this contributes towards positive and when you have this tail setting angle, if this
distance is very less competitive, let us assume. In order to overcome this moment about
aerodynamic center this is negative. Say if this distance is very less, then you need to have a
tail sitting angle here. Why because this is positive, this is positive and this is positive we know
that because aerodynamic center of tail is behind the CG and then 𝑆𝑡 these 2 are positive
quantities 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of course, we know it is positive. So, (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 ) is positive. If 𝑖𝑡 is negative this
entire term will be negative times negative is like it contributes towards pitch up moment.

That means, 𝑖𝑡 you need to have negative setting angle, what does it mean. So, 𝑖𝑡 is positive
above when incline above fuselage reference line. So, 𝑖𝑡 is positive when inclined above the
fuselage reference line is negative when it is inclined or oriented below the fuselage reference
line. That means you need to set your tail in with a negative orientation with respect to fuselage
reference line. By doing that what you are exactly doing when there is a flow, you are
obstructing the flow there is a downward force. This downward force even at 0 angle of attack,
will create a pitch up moment about the CG. That continues, that down that 𝐶𝑚0 the
contribution of tail towards positive 𝐶𝑚0 continuous whatever the angle of attack it is. This

192
becomes what, positive quantity here right. With the proper value of this it becomes more
positive you can remit higher angles of attack as well. That means more value of 𝐶𝑚0 more the
trim value that I can achieve. That this particular quantity alone can overcome this particular
limitation, let us say in the case where you want to have 𝑖𝑡 , you do not want to because you are
again at the expense of track see.

For the symmetric wing whether is it a positive angle of attack negative angle of attack, it
produces force, same force, am I correct or not, but in different directions, when it is in the
positive angle of attack, it will produce upward force, when it is in the negative angle of attack,
it produces downward force, that is why the 𝐶𝐿 variation with alpha for this symmetric aerofoil
will be almost symmetric about angle of attack. If this is 𝐶𝐿 variation with angle of attack for
symmetric airfoil. Even the stall characteristics should also be seen, this is the 𝐶𝐿 versus it is
just a mirror image here. If you trim it at negative angles of attack here, it will produce negative
lift negative 𝐶𝐿 that is in the downward direction. Now, when you put it at a negative 𝑖𝑡 it
produces a downward force at the same time it also increases drag because of that. In some
cases, where you do not want to waste additional energy to overcome the drag, what you try to
do is to put to maintain 𝑖𝑡 0, if I do that, this particular term vanishes, but if I maintain some
adequate distance between CG and aerodynamic center, I have 𝐶𝐿0 for a camber wing positive.
What I can achieve is a positive value, if this is good enough, if the distance is good enough,
you can overcome the 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 negative.

You will still be able to trim it positive angles of attack without 𝑖𝑡 for a cambered airfoil. If you
take a symmetric airfoil 𝐶𝑚0 is 0 altogether, if your wing is symmetric 𝐶𝑚0 is 0. In that case,
what you need to do, you need to give 𝑖𝑡 for the tail always am I correct or not, if you give 𝑖𝑡
you get positive 𝐶𝑚0 𝑖𝑡 negative for a symmetric airfoil. Because for symmetric airfoil both
these terms are 0, for the wing I am talking about the wing, if it is a cambered wing. Irrespective
of that, whether symmetric or cambered airfoil. This still remains negative am I correct or not.
Because see 𝐶𝐿𝛼 whether symmetric or cambered it does not matter, it has its own 𝐶𝐿𝛼 and all
these terms are positive. This becomes negative, even though this CG is behind ac. So, this
term may be positive, but still if you choose a proper value of tail volume ratio, you will be
able to anchovies the 𝐶𝑚𝛼 negative. Whether it is cambered or symmetric wing it does not
matter. But here for cambered wing you need to choose 𝑖𝑡 negative is not it, why because or
you need to choose this distance in such a way that this particular value becomes positive.

193
You choose 𝑖𝑡 negative that makes 𝐶𝑚0 positive, because this is negative strong negative for
Cambered airfoils, that is a conclusion from here. For a wing and tail combination, this is what,
it has to be the 𝐶𝑚𝛼 , you get it from the wing combination as well as tail combination. Now let
us find out a location. You said this 𝐶𝑚𝛼 , you see is about CG. Is it not about CG, 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is about
CG? Now vary the location of CG in such a way that the 𝐶𝑚𝛼 . Find out the location of the CG
for which the 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is 0. We will try to find out that location. That particular location about
which the entire aircraft pitching moment is independent of angle of attack is called neutral
point. Let us consider a location, some location. It is also location of CG, say this is NP, call it
as NP. This is the location of CG about which the pitching moment is independent of angle of
attack of the entire aircraft. What does it mean? You have 𝐶𝑚0 but there is no 𝐶𝑚𝛼 about that
particular CG location. Let us figure out what is that. I am erasing this particular part and see
if you can notice this particular portion 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿 .

This 𝐶𝐿0 of the entire aircraft for this wing and tail combination, your 𝐶𝐿0 of wing positive if it
is a cambered airfoil, if it is symmetric airfoil this is 0 and then if there is no 𝑖𝑡 this term most
likely vanishes without any 𝜖0 . Assuming 𝜖0 is very small so this term vanishes the 𝐶𝐿0 of the
entire aircraft is 0 in that case. If it is a cambered airfoil, if it is symmetrical airfoil this is 0.
And then if there is no𝑖𝑡 , this term most likely vanishes without any 𝜖0 assuming 𝜖0 is very
small. This term vanishes the𝐶𝐿0 of the entire aircraft is 0 in that case. If it is a cambered airfoil
that 𝐶𝐿0 is positive right. And if you 𝑖𝑡 negative, this term contributes negative, because you
want 𝑖𝑡 to be negative for 𝐶𝑚0 to be positive. If that is the case, the overall lift of the aircraft
decreases why because here near the tail you are producing a downward force, near the wing
you are producing an upward force. There is a resultant force, which is less than that of wing
upward only upward force right. Again, you have to compromise at 𝐶𝐿0 . If you give it a negative
tail setting angle you should also compromise that 𝐶𝐿0 here.

Tail setting angles does not go to influence this 𝐶𝐿𝛼 , lift curve slope of this wing and tail of the
total aircraft. Let us figure out what is the corresponding location of CG for which 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is 0.
This is that particular point is called neutral point denoted by 𝑥𝑁𝑃 . This particular if I substitute
0 in if I equate this equation to 0. Then, 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is 0, which mean. At that particular, the CG
location, about which 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is 0 is called neutral point. In that case 𝑥𝐶𝐺 becomes 𝑥𝑁𝑃 .

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(Refer Slide Time: 41:46)

𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖
0 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) (𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 )
𝑊 𝑆 𝑑𝛼
𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖 𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 [𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )] = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 + 𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) 𝑥̅
𝑊 𝑆 𝑑𝛼 𝑊 𝑆 𝑑𝛼 𝑎𝑐𝑡
This is a corresponding location of neutral point for which 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is 0. If you go beyond this
neutral point location, if you look at the CG of the configuration behind the neutral point, what
happens is, this will become positive. This becomes positive, which means the system becomes
unstable. Do you want me to prove that I can prove that? You have a neutral point here.
(Refer Slide Time: 45:14)

𝑆 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 + 𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) 𝑥̅
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 = 𝑊 𝑑𝛼 𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑆 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝑊 𝑆 𝑑𝛼

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(Refer Slide Time: 47:57)

𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝑚𝛼 = [𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )] (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 )
𝑊 𝑆 𝑑𝛼
Otherwise in other words, what I can say is, do you remember this particular expression is
nothing but total 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of the aircraft. This is 𝐶𝑚𝛼 for the aircraft, just go back to your previous
expression, and see what is a total lift curve slope of wing and tail combination? This is the left
curve slope of the total aircraft; this is nothing but 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of the total aircraft. This implies
𝐶𝑚𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 )
𝐶𝑚𝛼 becomes positive. CG of the configuration to in order to have longitudinal static stability
your CG should be ahead of this neutral point. This is the thing.
𝐶𝑚𝛼
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 = −
𝐶𝐿𝛼
This particular the distance between this neutral point and center of gravity is called static
margin. Static margin SM is static margin. Positive static margin means what, neutral point is
behind the CG or CG is ahead of the neutral point of wing and tail combination.
𝑆. 𝑀 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺
Positive static margin is behind the neutral point, this quantity is less than this neutral point
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 . Generally, it is given in percentage 10%, 5%, 15% starting.

That will solve, while solving examples, you will be more comfortable with the terms.
𝐶𝑚𝛼
𝑆. 𝑀 = −
𝐶𝐿𝛼

196
You will have positive static margin, which means the CG should be ahead of the neutral point.
Neutral point is nothing but the aerodynamic similar to that of aerodynamic center of entire
aircraft. For a statically stable aircraft 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is negative and a negative of negative is positive.
𝐶𝑚𝛼 we know for the entire aircraft is positive, of course. If this is positive, which means 𝑥𝑁𝑃
is these positive terms plus 𝐶𝐿 𝑥𝐶𝐺 , which lies behind the neutral point, lies behind the CG
location. It is a limiting condition for static stable flight and static unstable flat. Can you get
something out of it, but exactly is this material part? Let us look about it in more detail. This is
my perspective again. You understood right, it is like a limiting condition similar for a wing
alone configuration this neutral point is nothing but there is no tail here, this is nothing but 𝑥𝑎𝑐
of wing. For a wing alone configuration, if you substitute 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 is 0 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of t is 0. This becomes

0 and 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 does not make sense, there is no 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 . But these 2 terms disappear, this term and

this term disappears. What I have is 𝑥𝑁𝑃 is equals to 𝑥𝑎𝑐 for wing alone wing.
(Refer Slide Time: 53:02)

𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐 + 0
𝑊
𝑥̅ 𝑁𝑃 =
𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 0
𝑊

For wing along configuration neutral point is nothing but aerodynamics center of wing. In that
case, in order to have positive static margin right for a statically stable case, the CG should be
head of this neutral point, which is nothing, but the CG should be head of the aerodynamic
center of the wing. That is the reason why even during our flat plate flight demonstration we
have shifted by adding a small way we shifted our CG head of the neutral point there, which is

197
aerodynamic center in that case. Now let us look at this neutral point in more detail. That, we
have calculated CG earlier. How have we calculated? 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 in general is equals to, in general
fine, if you consider a mass, which is made up of 𝑚1 𝑚2 . You have y axis and x axis. This is
at a distance 𝑚1 , is at a distance of x 1, 𝑚2 , is at a distance of 𝑥2 . And similarly, 𝑚1 is at a
distance of 𝑦1 and 𝑚2 is at a distance of 𝑦2 . 𝑚3 is at a distance of 𝑦3 .
∑𝑁 𝑖=1 (𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 )
𝑥𝐶𝐺 =
∑𝑁 𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚3 𝑚𝑁
𝑥𝐶𝐺 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑁

CG is nothing but the weighted average of the locations, weighted average of masses, here
weighted average by the masses. Similar to that can we look at this expression 𝑥𝑁𝑃 .
(Refer Slide Time: 55:55)

𝑆 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 = 𝑊
𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐 𝑊 + 𝑑𝛼 𝑥̅
𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖 𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖 𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝑊 𝑑𝛼 𝑊 𝑑𝛼

Neutral point is the weighted average of 𝐶𝐿𝛼 . Lift curve slope of wing and lift curve slope of
tail. Do you accept this? Do you appreciate that. Let us understand it in a bit more detail. I think
you are not happy with this. Let us understand it with a bit more detail right. What exactly is
this or these terms now. They are disturbing a bit. Let us assume a case where I have a wing
here, there is 1 wing. Let us assume an identical wing, which is at a faraway. I have 1 wing. I
have the same thing, similar wing, which is located at a distance in the downstream, I have 2

198
such wings. Do you follow that. The area, which means there is planform area same and the
𝐶𝐿𝛼 of that wings are same. And assume that there is very minimal downwash, there is 0
downwash. In that case what happens. I have a main wing with 𝐶𝐿𝛼 . And then, this particular
𝑆𝑡
downwash is 0 that means eta is equals to 1. In that case, 𝜂 is equals to 1 and is 1, because I
𝑆

have 2 identical wings, 1 as wing and 1 as tail. This becomes 1. In that case, and 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 is nothing

but 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of wing. Both are same, and there is no downwash, that is 0.

This entire expression will turn out to be

𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝐶𝐿𝛼
𝑊 𝑊
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 = ( ) 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 𝑊 + ( ) 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡
2𝐶𝐿𝛼 2𝐶𝐿𝛼
𝑊 𝑊

This x neutral point in that particular case where you have 2 identical wings as wing and tail
𝑆𝑡
combination. And then here 𝜂𝑡 is 1, because there is no downwash. is again 1. 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of tail is
𝑆

nothing but 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of wing am I correct. Downwash is 0, 𝜖 is 0.

𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐 𝑊 + 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 =
2
It is just the midpoint of separation. It lies at the midpoint of the distances between x
aerodynamic center of wing and x aerodynamic center of tail. How many of you appreciate
this? That is nothing but the neutral point. What are these terms here? Now you can understand,
these are nothing but correction factors to the 𝐶𝐿𝛼 . When there is no downwash that means, this
is gone, and this is 1. And this is nothing but the correction factor for or normalizing factor for
with respect to the wing. When you have 2 similar wings, this becomes 1. This is just a
normalizing factor. This will be equal to the wing 𝐶𝐿𝛼 itself. This entire term is nothing but a
correction factor to the 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of that particular geometry. If it is a tail, if it is just an identical
wing that is nothing but one and the same. If the downwash is minimal, if the downwash is 0
and this efficiency is 1 right. Do you appreciate that? In that case, it is nothing but the midpoint
of the distances separating these 2 wings. If you do not accept this result, we will try to
demonstrate it. In the next lecture, we will have a demonstration of 2 identical wings, and I will
prove that the neutral point is the distance like midway between their aerodynamic centers.
Thank you.

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 UAV Design-Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture-14
Example Problems for Wing and Tail Combination

Dear friends, welcome back. In our previous lecture we discussed about a wing and tail
combination and the stability of that wing and tail combination. We derived neutral point for wing
and tail combination which figured out to be the weighted average of lifting characteristics of wing
and the tail.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:34)

We started with the wing who aerodynamic center is located at 𝑥𝑎𝑐 with respect to the leading edge
of the wing. Say this is my location of the aerodynamic center ac of wing which is 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of wing.
This wing and tail are positioned with respect to fuselage reference line, this is our fuselage
reference line. And this aircraft is flying at a velocity to 𝑉∞ and the aircraft angle of attack is
considered as wing angle of attack. And we assume the wing aerodynamic center coincides with
this fuselage reference line. And then we have a tail combination say this is my tail which is
symmetric why because I need to produce equal amount of force when deflected either upwards
or downwards. For that case I want to have a symmetric tail here. Which is inclined at an angle 𝑖𝑡
with respect to fuselage reference line. And then due to the downwards of the wing and first of all
it figures out the aerodynamic center of the tail ac of tail right which is located at a distance 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of

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tail. 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of tail with respect to leading edge of the root chord and now the CG of this combination
is assumed to lie somewhere in between wing and tail. And the corresponding location is 𝑥𝐶𝐺 of
this combination. Now due to the down motion of the wing, we know because of the presence of
the wing there is a downwards near the tail, that is because of the wing. Due to which the resultant
flow will be 𝑉∞′ which is different compared to that of 𝑉∞ here. What the aircraft is facing, so the
initial or the wing 𝑉∞ is parallel to this, these 2 is let us assume these 2 are parallel. And then there
is a modified flow at the tail due to the down wash, which is an effect of epsilon. Now the total
angle of attack of tail alpha t in terms of known quantities, like what I know here is 𝛼, 𝛼 I know.
This is 𝛼 ideally, this is alpha and what I know is 𝛼 subtracted by epsilon will give me the 𝑉∞ or
the flow at the tail with respect to the fuselage reference line. 𝛼 minus 𝜖 is this particular quantity
added with this inclination of the tail will get me the total angle of attack at the tail,
𝛼𝑡 = (𝛼 − 𝜖) + 𝛼
And we also witness that epsilon can be modeled as a function of 𝐶𝐿0 and 𝐶𝐿𝛼 . This is like 2 times
of 𝛼𝑖 and this can be expressed as
𝑑𝜖
𝛼𝑡 = (1 − ) 𝛼 + (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 )
𝑑𝛼
This epsilon is a function of angle of attack at the wing, downwash at the tail varies due to the
variation in the angle of attack at the wing. This is not 𝛼𝑡 , this is 𝛼, you need to remember that.
And then if you write the total lift equation from here, say now the lift at the tail will be acting
perpendicular to 𝑉∞′ and we neglected the effect of say horizontal component why because there is
no offset here. And effectively we assume the small angle of attack and hence the lift of the wing
directly contributes for the past pitching movement in the lift of the tail contributes towards
negative pitching movement about the CG here, we are considering. All these distances are
measured with respect to leading edge of the root chord of the wing and which are parallel to this
fuselage reference line. And again, for wing we are not commenting with there is a cambered
aerofoil or symmetric aerofoil or a reflex aerofoil. That means we need to consider the moment
about aerodynamic center of the wing.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:04)

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With this we can proceed to figure out what is the total lift generated by this aircraft, the total lift
of this aircraft with the principal of super coefficient which is one of the assumptions that we
considered earlier, is a combination of or the summation of the lift generated by the wing in the
lift generated by the tail which is
𝐿(𝑎) = 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑤 + 𝐿𝑡
𝑐

And then we figured out that

𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ((1 − ) 𝛼 + (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 ))
𝑊 𝑊 𝑆 𝑑𝛼

With this by comparing the coefficients and constants of 𝛼 what we have is the total 0 lift
coefficient of the UAV is equals to is contributed from 0 lift coefficient of the wing. And there is
a correction factor to the tail setting, see due to the zero lift of wing is 0 or horizontal tail is 0.
𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝐿0 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 )
𝑊 𝑆
𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝑊 𝑆 𝑑𝛼
Because zero lift at 0 angle of attack there is no lift coefficient, this is symmetric aerofoil. So, the
contribution is because of the initial tail setting which is constant throughout the flight. That means
such an amount of like the lift coefficient times 𝐶𝐿𝛼 times the angle of attack which is nothing but
the at 0 angle of attack 𝑉∞′ is aligned along with this flow is not it. Let us assume there is no 𝜖,
𝑉∞ is aligned with the fuselage reference line effectively there is no angle of attack. Since we have

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given a tail setting which is 𝑖𝑡 the aircraft will continuously experience some lift because of the
tail, even at 0 angle of attack though this is 0 but still there is a constant or 𝐶𝐿𝛼 times 𝑖𝑡 you know
in a loose sense. Like this will be to contribution of tail lift towards the pitching movement. And
throughout the flight it will be constant, and increases will become a summation as there is a
change in angle of attack or when you are changed to as a different angle of attack, there will be
an additional component because of that particular angle of attack at the tail. 𝐶𝐿0 of the wing times
yeah plays so the modified lift coefficient 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of tail times 𝑖𝑡 - 𝜖0 . This is seeing the 𝐶𝐿0 of the
aircraft and 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of the aircraft is 𝐶𝐿0 𝐶𝐿𝛼 from the wing the contribution comes from 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of wing
straight away. And this modification, 𝜂 is a modification 𝜂 of horizontal tail is nothing but
1 ′2
𝜌𝑉∞
𝜂=2
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉∞

That can be 1, right when there is no downwash that mean epsilon can be 0, so if you have equal
wings like same wings as wing and tail. That means what you have is just 𝐶𝐿𝛼 times 𝑖𝑡 , if 𝑖𝑡 is also
0 let us say then what you will be having is 𝐶𝐿0 you know 𝐶𝐿0 of wing + 𝐶𝐿0 of tail directly, ok.
𝑑𝜖
Here similarly similar contribution comes from 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of tail 1 − . This is the total aircraft 𝐶𝐿0 or
𝑑𝛼

the UAV 𝐶𝐿0 and UAV 𝐶𝐿𝛼 . Similarly, we have pitching moment of CG.

𝑀𝐶𝐺 = 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝐿𝑤 (𝑥𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝐿𝑡 (𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥𝐶𝐺 )

1 2 1 1 1
𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉∞2 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝜌𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑤 (𝑥𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝜌𝑉∞′2 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝑡 (𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥𝐶𝐺 )
2 2 2 2
𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝐶𝐿𝑤 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝐶 (𝑥 − 𝑥𝐶𝐺 )
𝑆 𝐿𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + (𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼) (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 )
𝑊 𝑊

𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖
− 𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 [(1 − ) 𝛼 + (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 )] (𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 )
𝑆 𝑑𝛼
𝑆𝑡
Where, 𝑉𝑡 = (𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 ) is called tail volume ratio.
𝑆

𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼
It is moment of CG or the moment about entire object of this UAV is equals to the positive pitching
moment provided because of lift, lift generated by the wing. Apart from that the wing also have

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moment about aerodynamics center here. It has a component; the wing has a component which is
moment about aerodynamic center about the wing. And then there is a positive contribution of lift
from the wing and times the 𝑥𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of wing which is a moment - 𝜂 or say lift of tail times there
is no since it is symmetric aerofoil moment about aerodynamic center of the tail is 0. And this lift
from the tail contributes towards negative moment, that is why - t. And the moment is due to the
force at the tail which is 𝐿𝑡 times the momenta between CG and ac of tail. That is nothing but
𝑥𝑎𝑐 of tail or 𝑥𝐶𝐺 removed from 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of tail, this is 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of tail if I remove 𝑥𝐶𝐺 this is what I end up
with.

What I have is 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of tail - 𝑥𝐶𝐺 that is a corresponding momentum. By doing this the 𝐶𝑚0 of the
total aircraft is given by 𝐶𝑚 𝑎𝑐 of the wing + 𝐶𝐿0 of the wing times 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐 which is 𝑥̅ upon 𝑐̅ -
𝜂𝑥𝑡 upon S times 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 times 1 - 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of tail bar - 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 times 𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0. You can express this way
𝑑𝜖
(1 − ) 𝛼 + (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 ). This particular term contributes towards negative moment, I am taking
𝑑𝛼

minus common out, what I have is this and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 of the total UAV is
𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝑚𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) (𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 )
𝑊 𝑆 𝑑𝛼
𝑆𝑡
𝑉𝑡 = (𝑥̅ − 𝑥̅ 𝐶𝐺 )
𝑆 𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝐶𝐿0 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 )(𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 )
𝑊 𝑆
𝑉𝑡 is known as tail volume ratio where 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 is called 𝑙𝑡̅ you know length of the tail in in non-
dimensional form. This is the total 𝐶𝑚0 and CMR for talk about longitudinal static stability for this
UAV we need to consider these two parameters 𝐶𝑚0 and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 . And 𝐶𝑚0 has to be greater than 0
and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 has to be less than 0 in order to have longitudinal static stability. And further we have
proceeded to figure out what is the neutral point of this configuration which is 𝑥𝑁𝑃 . It is a location
of the CG, for which of the entire aircraft for which the 𝐶𝑚𝛼 becomes 0 or the pitching moment is
independent of angle of attack. The variation in pitching moment is independent of angle of attack.
That means about neutral point we have 𝐶𝑚0 but not 𝐶𝑚𝛼 , 𝐶𝑚𝛼 will be 0. By substituting that 𝐶𝑚𝛼 0
to 0 and then replacing this 𝑥𝐶𝐺 to the corresponding 𝑥𝑁𝑃 .
(Refer Slide Time: 13:58)

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What we can find out is 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 which we have derived in our previous lecture is
𝑆 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 + 𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) 𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 = 𝑊 𝑑𝛼
𝑆 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝑊 𝑑𝛼
These are very important you need to you know practice this, that you will be able to remember
them or say without derivation you will be able to figure it out you know. If you practice multiple
times and if you keep you know digesting the facts, what we have derived here you will be able to
write down what I am trying to do now. And now we also talked about static margin which is
𝑆. 𝑀 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑥̅ 𝐶𝐺
𝐶𝑚𝛼
𝑆. 𝑀 = −
𝐶𝐿𝛼
That means if you have positive static margin, you have negative slope. When for a statically stable
aircraft the 𝐶𝑚𝛼 when you have positive static margin, you will have negative slope, 𝐶𝑚𝛼 will be
negative for an aircraft which is statically stable. I think with this we will now proceed to solve
few example problems. Let us dedicate maybe this entire week to solve these problems why
because this is what is going to help you for the design. Now, we talked about being and their
contribution towards stability and tail and it is contribution towards stability. And then what is
design, we need to know what the offset should be, what should be the location, what should be
the area of the tail, what should be the area of the wing.

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And what should be the location of wing and tail, what should be the 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of wing and tail. We
talked about all the major parameters that governs the design of wing and tail. For us to understand
or digest these things better, we need to solve your example problems, right. So, while solving
these example problems, we will consider the straightforward solution where we assume, we know
𝐶𝐿𝛼 of wing and tail and their locations. And we will try to figure out what are it is stability
characteristics, or we will also try to find out what will be the neutral point and all, these are the
straightforward problems. Once we get used to it when we are approaching or solving that iterative
method, we will try to approach it in the reverse way where we will try to have these parameters
and try to figure out what should be the wing location, what should be the 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of the wing or 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of
the tail aerofoil.

We will try to get those parameters design parameters for you to select a particular aerofoil in order
to build such a wing and tail combination. So, let us proceed to solve few examples, I am going to
erase all these equations which you must be having already. Once you practice these derivations
you will be able to enjoy otherwise it becomes difficult, you may think that these equations are too
lengthy you know to remember. But still if you practice that this nothing from the first principle if
you start deriving them by yourself a couple of times at least. You will be able to appreciate what
are all the terms and why there is a correction factor to the tail. All those terms you get comfortable
with and then you can start using for your design process with more confidence. Let us take up the
first example.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:56)

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The aerodynamics center of a wing of UAV is located at 0.2 mac see and CG or center of gravity
is at 0.25 mac. Using the following data determine horizontal tail area to give a minimum static
margin of 0.08 mac. The data given is 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of wing is given as 0.1 per degree 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of tail is given as
0.08 per degree. And 𝛼𝐶𝐿 =0 as- 1 degree and it has a zero-tail sitting angle 𝑖𝑡 is given as 0, zero
tail sitting angle.
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 0.1 /𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝑊

𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 = 0.08 /𝑑𝑒𝑔

𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 = −1 𝑑𝑒𝑔

𝑖𝑡 = 0
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 = −0.01

𝜖 = 0.45𝛼
𝑙𝑡̅ = 2.5
𝜂𝑡 = 0.95
𝑆 = 25 𝑚2
Let us what we need to do here we need to find out the like horizontal tail area when the static
margin is given. See here we have static margin we got to know what the location of aerodynamic
center is of the wing as well as center of gravity location.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:01)

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What does it mean let us say this is my fuselage reference line, let us say this is my leading edge
of the wing? And what I have is x or aerodynamic center of the wing which is 𝑥𝑎𝑐 located at which
is equal to 0.2 𝑐̅. That means like they have non dimensionalize this distance, that means
𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑤 = 0.2
𝑥𝐶𝐺 = 0.2 𝑐̅
𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 = 0.2
𝑙𝑡 𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥𝐶𝐺
𝑙𝑡̅ = = = (𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 ) = 2.5
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 2.5 + 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 = 2.75
𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 = 0.08 𝑝𝑒𝑟 deg = 4.58 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑

𝜖0 = 0
𝑑𝜖
= 0.45
𝑑𝛼
0.1
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = = 5.73 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑊 𝑑𝑒𝑔

(Refer Slide Time: 28:39)

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 𝑆𝑀 = 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 = 0.08
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 = 0.33
I now got the location of neutral point. Now I need to figure out with this data I need to figure out
what is the tail area you know. We also have the tail setting angle data about tail setting from the
definition of neutral point 𝑥̅ 𝑁𝑃 , can we find out something. I immediately can see what is 𝑥̅ 𝑁𝑃 from
the definition of neutral point. I will try to figure out whether I will be having adequate data to find
out what is 𝑆𝑡 in order to have this particular static margin.
𝑆 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) 𝑥̅
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 = 𝑊 𝑑𝛼 𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑆 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝑊 𝑑𝛼

That means, we got all the data and neutral point we have figured out from the given static margin,
we have estimated what is the neutral point with the given CG location. With the given static
margin and CG location, we got where should be the neutral point for me to have neutral point at
this particular location, what should be the area of the tail. That is what we can solve it from this
particular equation.

𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑤 − 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 )

𝑊
=
𝑆 𝑑𝜖
𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) (𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡 )
𝑑𝛼
𝑆𝑡 5.73 × (−0.13)
= = 0.1295
𝑆 0.95 × 4.58 × (1 − 0.45)(−2.42)

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 𝑆𝑡 = 3.24 𝑚2

Which means 𝑆𝑡 is close to 13% of S. With given the wing area, we are able to figure out what is
the tail area, what should be the like percentage of tail area in order to have this static margin.
What will be the tail volume ratio, can we find the tail volume ratio of this.
(Refer Slide Time: 37:00)

𝑆𝑡
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡 (𝑥𝑎𝑐 − 𝑥𝐶𝐺 )
𝑉𝐻 = × = 𝑆
𝑆 𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
𝑆𝑡
𝑉𝐻 = × (𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 ) = 0.1293(2.75 − 0.25) = 0.323
𝑆
Now also find the 𝐶𝑚𝛼 of this aircraft fine. Let us say this is part a and solving part b. For the above
UAV find 𝐶𝑚0 sorry find 𝐶𝑚𝛼 and 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of the UAV from the above data. We know from the static
margin definition of static margin what we have
𝐶𝑚𝛼
𝑆𝑀 = −
𝐶𝐿𝛼
𝐶𝑚𝛼 = −𝑆𝑀 × 𝐶𝐿𝛼
How can I find 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of the UAV? 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of the entire aircraft is
𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝑊 𝑆 𝑑𝛼
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 5.73 + 0.95 × 0.1293 × 4.58 × (1 − 0.45) = 6.04 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑

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See the major contribution of lift curve slope for the entire aircraft is from the wing compare to
that of tail. That is because the major what you call, 𝜂 is close to 0.95 that is not going to affect
the 𝐶𝐿𝛼 much just almost 95% of 𝐶𝐿𝛼 . And the downwash you know see it is almost may half of
that 𝐶𝐿𝛼 and from that the tail volume ratio it just 13% you know. In that half it is making 13% of
that half that is why the contribution is very, very less here, this is equals to yeah 6.04 per radian.
Once you have 𝐶𝐿𝛼 it is easy to find out static margin, sorry we have static margin and 𝐶𝐿𝛼 , we will
be able to find out 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of this UAV with the current CG location.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:20)

With the current CG location

𝐶𝑚𝛼 = −𝑆𝑀 × 𝐶𝐿𝛼 = −0.08 × 6.04 = −0.48 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑
Can we comment about stability right now, can we comment about longitudinal static stability?
We just now what is 𝐶𝑚𝛼 , we need to find out what is 𝐶𝑚0 of the aircraft as well. Let us consider
part c of this question, part c is so comment about the static stability of the UAV right and the
corresponding trim angle of attack, we need to find that.
(Refer Slide Time: 43:50)

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 𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝐶𝐿0 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝜂𝑡 𝐶 (𝑖 − 𝜖0 )(𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 )
𝑊 𝑆 𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝑡
𝐶𝑚0 = −0.01 + 0.1 × 0.05 = −0.005 = −5 × 10−3
We can observe here that 𝐶𝑚0 is negative, which means UAV can not be trimmed at positive angle
of attack. We have another part which is the corresponding trim angle of attack, do you remember
this plot the 𝐶𝑚 variation with 𝛼. 𝐶𝑚 variation with 𝛼, 𝐶𝑚0 has to be positive and 𝐶𝑚𝛼 has to be
negative which makes this aircraft to trim at a particular angle attack called alpha trim. This
corresponds to trim, 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , this value is
𝐶𝑚0 (−0.005)
𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = − = − = −0.01 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −0.6 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝐶𝑚𝛼 −0.48
That means this trim, this particular angle is -0.6 degrees you know not even positive trim angle.
You are not able to trim the aircraft you know; from the design it is trimming only at -0.6 degrees.
And we know from the 𝐶𝐿 versus 𝛼 at -0.6 degrees the value of 𝐶𝐿 is quite less we may not fly at
the desired 𝐶𝐿 . The design 𝐶𝐿 we call the corresponding 𝐶𝐿 for this particular trim angle of attack
is a design 𝐶𝐿 may not be satisfied with this particular 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 .

We have a horizontal tail, but we made the tail setting angle 0, what must be the reason, we cannot
take the contribution of the tail, we made it 𝑖𝑡 0. We have not included the contribution of tail
though we have a tail, but it is not contributing towards this trim, alright. As we discussed earlier
there will be an additional drag due to the trim or that due to that setting called trim drag. But still

212
we cannot afford such a low trim angles for this aircraft you know, that means if you have to trim
at a higher angle of attack you need to give elevator deflection which again increases the drag a
lot. Which is not desirable, what should we do right now, what as a designer do you think about
this. Let us to have a better feel let us now have a tail setting angle let us say about 2 degrees tail
setting angle. Let us have a - 2 degrees tail setting angle and repeat the calculation, the same
question we will have - 2 degrees tail setting angle and repeat the calculation. Then we will see
what the corresponding trim angle of attack will be, is it helping, is the tail helping us or not. 𝑖𝑡 is
not going to affect the stability of the aircraft right, is not it, 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is not getting affected because of
𝑖𝑡 . If you look at the equation 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is, you know like it is not getting affected because of 𝑖𝑡 . What
𝑖𝑡 is going to help is 𝐶𝑚0 , if you look at this equation, we have 𝑖𝑡 here.
(Refer Slide Time: 52:00)

Part d of this question is finding 𝐶𝑚0 or say find the trim angle of attack of the UAV with a tail
setting angle of the above UAV again. In the same UAV with the tail setting angle of - 2 degrees,
let us solve this question again. We know what this is 𝐶𝑚0 , now we have the contribution from
tail. 𝑖𝑡 is positive there is a different value it is not 0. There is a contribution from here, we cannot
neglect this term just like what we did earlier.

𝜋
𝐶𝑚0 = −0.005 − 0.95 × 0.1293 × 4.58 × (−2 × )
180
𝐶𝑚0 = −0.005 + 0.0457 = 0.0407

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 𝐶𝑚0 0.0407
𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = − =− = 0.0847 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 4.86 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝐶𝑚𝛼 −0.48
You are now able to trim the aircraft automatically without any elevator deflection at 6.3 degrees.
So, that is a significance of 𝑖𝑡 you know that is how it can contribute towards static stability and
helps you to trim at positive angles of attack, that we have discussed from the starting of this
stability course, thank you.

214
 UAV Design-Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture-15
Example Problems of Wing and Tail Combination-continued

Welcome back let us solve the second example with the same concepts what we discussed earlier.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:22)

Example 2 consider a fixed wing UAV with a rectangular wing and tail plan form area rectangular
wing and tail planforms with an area ratio of 0.25 which weighs about 550 kg ok and cruising at
sea level. With the following data find the neutral point or the location of neutral point I say NP,
neutral point b. Total lift curve slope of UAV starting margin, location of CG with respect to
leading edge of wing, horizontal tail volume ratio and tail setting angle, horizontal tail volume
ratio.

With the stability analysis we are trying to fix the geometric parameters what should be the wing
planform area, what should be their location, what should be the tail volume ratios, that is the main
aim here. Horizontal tail setting as well as horizontal tail setting angle zero left angle or zero angle
of attack lift coefficient of UAV. We are asked to find out zero angle of attack lift coefficient of
UAV, this is what we need to find out with the given data. Let us now look at what is the given
data here,

215
 𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 5.056 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑, 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 = 3.38 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑, 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 = −20 , 𝑐̅ = 1.2 𝑚, 𝑏 = 10.5 𝑚
𝑊

𝐶𝑚0 = 0.0928, 𝐶𝑚𝛼 = −1.016 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑, 𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑊 = 0.32 𝑚 , 𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 2.93
(Refer Slide Time: 07:26)

And we are also given the data about 𝜖 downwash

𝜖 = 0.750 + 0.375𝛼
𝜖0 = 0.750 = 0.013 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝜖
= 0.375
𝑑𝛼

Same you need to have similar units here and there. This is a data first of all location of neutral
point. Before finding out the location of neutral point, I would like to address this second question.
Question b, I am trying to address it first total lift curve slope, total lift curve slope

𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝑊 𝑆 𝑑𝛼
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 5.056 + 0.89 × 0.25 × 3.38 × (1 − 0.375)
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 5.526 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑
Simple straightforward question, no complexity. Now let us address this first question, what should
be the location of neutral point, now you can appreciate this. How less the; contribution from the
𝑆
tail towards 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ? That is because that majorly affected by this 𝑆𝑡 . If this is 1 then it is almost close

216
 𝑆
to 0.89 is like 90% of this and without downwash it is almost same. Because of this 𝑆𝑡 which in fact

you decide based upon the required tail volume ratio. Due to which your contribution of 𝐶𝐿𝛼 tail
towards the 𝐶𝐿𝛼 aircraft is very small here, right and the location of neutral point here the, so the
location of neutral point, location of neutral point NP.

How can I find out I do not have the data about CG here or say if I have static margin then I will
be able to find it out directly by adding static margin with the CG? But I neither have CG data or
the static margin data. All I have is a location of wing, location of aerodynamic center of the tail
and then so I have the corresponding lift curve slopes of wing and tail, and I know what is the area
ratio of wing and tail which is 0.25. With this data I will be able to figure out not 0.2, weighted
average. I use that weighted average formula which is
𝑆 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 + 𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) 𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 = 𝑊 𝑑𝛼
𝑆 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝑊 𝑑𝛼
𝑆 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 + 𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) 𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 = 𝑊 𝑑𝛼
𝐶𝐿𝛼
𝑆 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑥𝑎𝑐 𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) 𝑥𝑎𝑐
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 = 𝑊
( )+ 𝑑𝛼 ( 𝑡)
𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑐̅ 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑐̅
5.056 0.32 0.89 × 0.25 × 3.38 × (1 − 0.375) 2.93
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 = × + ×( )
5.526 1.2 5.526 1.2
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 = 0.451
𝑥𝑁𝑃 = 0.451 × 𝑐̅ = 0.451 × 1.2 = 0.541 𝑚

You see this is aerodynamic center of the wing is 0.3 meters, so shall we draw this, that will make
sense. If this is my fuselage reference line, let us say this is my reference point or leading edge of
the wing, the wing is located at a distance. Wing ac aerodynamic center of the wing let us say is
located at a distance here. Let us say this is my ac of wing which is at a distance of 0.32 meters
this is 0.32 meters. And the CG or say the tail is located at a distance very far from here which is
about 2.93 meters look at that, this is just 30 centimeters that is 292 centimeters from the leading
edge. So, this is far away, this is ac of tail, which is located at 2.93 meters approximately. This is

217
𝑋𝑎𝑐𝑡 and the neutral point turned out to be somewhere here see approximately half a meter. This
is your neutral point, which is 0.54 approximately 54 centimeters, half a meter. This is your NP
you know, that means your CG for a stable aircraft has to lie ahead of NP, that is what we discussed.
NP makes the system if the CG is beyond this NP it is a limit for CG beyond which it becomes
unstable 𝐶𝑚𝛼 becomes positive. Before that the same case for the wing alone we saw the wing
starts flipping back as soon as the CG shifted back, the aerodynamic center which is the neutral
point for a wing alone configuration.

It starts flipping back immediately, the CG has to like close to this aerodynamic center itself
towards this point. And see thus strength of this 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of the wing contribution, it is pulling this
towards it. Although the tail has a greater moment arm which is about 2.95 meters with respect to
leading edge of wing. But it has only a smaller moment arm, but the domination is from the wing
𝑆𝑡
contribution wing area, is 1. But here S of tail upon S is 0.25 one fourth of it. This is what is like
𝑆

making the contribution of 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of the tail very less towards the neutral point comparatively, am I
correct or not, that is what is happening here. We figured out neutral point and the total lift curve
let us talk about this static margin. Let us talk about solution for this third part of this question
which is find out the static margin with this current CG location, how to find out static margin if
the current CG location find the starting margin SM.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:48)

Static margin is

218
 𝑐𝑚𝛼 −1.016
𝑆𝑀 = − = − = 0.184 = 18.4 %
𝐶𝐿𝛼 5.526
In 𝐶𝐿 𝛼 of the entire aircraft is known it is easy to find out static margin. Approximately 18% is
the static margin of this configuration with this current CG location. Let us move ahead to find out
what is d, what is the d location of CG. Now location of center of gravity with respect to leading
edge of wing, what do you mean by that, I need to find out. We know what NP is, you now know
the static margin as well, you find what is the location of the CG, say somewhere here. Say this is
my CG location and this is my X CG ok you know by the definition of static margin we have
𝑥𝐶𝐺 = 𝑥𝑁𝑃 − 𝑆𝑀 × 𝑐̅ = 0.541 − 0.184 × 1.2 = 0.321 𝑚
This is equivalent to 0.32 meters and the CG and the ac are almost same. Very close CG and the
aerodynamic center of the wing are very close here almost close. If you have 20% static margin
almost close to 20%, then the CG of the UAV is almost close to the aerodynamic center of the
wing here. That means there will be a very weak contribution of 𝐶𝐿 of the wing towards 𝐶𝐿0 of the
wing towards 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 or 𝐶𝑚0 sorry 𝐶𝑚0 of the aircraft. Let us go ahead and then solve this problem
horizontal tail volume ratio, what is horizontal tail volume ratio?
(Refer Slide Time: 26:25)

𝑆𝑡
𝑉𝐻 = (𝑥̅ − 𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 )
𝑆 𝑎𝑐𝑡
= 0.25 × (2.438 − 0.267)
𝑉𝐻 = 0.542

219
This is a very good number; you know very good tail volume ratio 0.542. And the next question
is about finding out the tail setting angle. Find the tail setting angle, how do you find this tail
setting angle, you have 𝐶𝑚0 given, right you know 𝐶𝑚0 we know tail setting appears in 𝐶𝑚0 affects
the 𝐶𝑚0 . Let us write down that equation 𝐶𝑚0 .
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝐶𝐿0 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝜂𝑡 𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 )
𝑊

Since we have already calculated what is V H I am just substituting that there.

𝐶𝑚0 − 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 − 𝐶𝐿0 (𝑥̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 )
𝑊
𝑖𝑡 = 𝜖 0 +
− 𝜂𝑡 𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡

From the given data you can substitute this and figure out that value, what should be the 𝑖𝑡 .
(Refer Slide Time: 30:13)

Consider a rectangular symmetric wing and tail it should be a symmetric you know rectangular
symmetric wing and tail. Please add this part here consider a rectangular symmetric wing and tail
which makes 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 is 0 and 𝐶𝐿0 of the wing is 0. What you end up having is
0.0928 − 0 − 0
𝑖𝑡 = 0.013 +
−0.89 × 0.542 × 3.38
𝑖𝑡 = 0.013 − 0.0568
𝑖𝑡 = −0.0439 = −2.5 𝑑𝑒𝑔

220
Let us move on to the next question 0 angle of attack lift coefficient. We need to find 𝐶𝐿0 of UAV,
it is straightforward.
𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝐿0 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 )
𝑊 𝑆

(Refer Slide Time: 33:09)

Please make this correction I am just trying to write about C m 0, now

𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝐿0 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 )
𝑊 𝑆
𝐶𝐿0 = 0 + 0.89 × 0.25 × 3.38 × (−0.043 − 0.013)
𝐶𝐿0 = − 0.042
This is the negative 𝐶𝐿0 contribution because of the tail setting you to tell. When wing is symmetric,
at 0 angle of attack you have negative lift, if you have a - 2 degrees tail setting angle. You may not
be able to fly at 0 angle of attack; of course, we have a symmetric wing there. You need to trim
always at a certain positive angle of attack, or employ wing setting angle, continuous wing setting
angle when you consider a symmetric aerofoil for the wing then you have to maintain a continuous
wing setting angle.
(Refer Slide Time: 35:30)

221
And let us take up the final question, it is all together a performance question kind of you know.
Find the trim angle of attack and the corresponding lift and drag forces as well as power required
for the UAV to cruise at sea level. Assume 𝐶𝐷0 is 0 lift, drag coefficient is 0.03 and Oswald’s
efficiency factor of 0.9. We need to figure out first the trim angle of attack you know from the
given data for the same UAV. Again, we know we will go back to the 𝐶𝑚 versus alpha for trim
angle of attack. We have 𝐶𝑚0 we know 𝐶𝑚0 what is the 𝐶𝑚0 value for this aircraft 0.09 it is given
0.0928. The coordinates at this point are (0, 0.0928). And we know 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 here, this corresponds
𝑑𝐶𝑚
to 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , 0 at trim angle of attack the moment coefficient is 0. I know the slope here 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is
𝑑𝛼

known, what is the slope - 1.01623 per radian.

By using the definition of slope, I will simply calculate what is the corresponding trim angle of
attack here.
𝐶𝑚0
𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = −
𝐶𝑚𝛼
0.0928
𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = − = 0.094 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 5.40
− 1.01623
This is the trim angle of attack you know 5.4 degrees; I was able to find out the value. Have this
trim angle of attack and with this data can I be able to find out what is the lift and drag coefficient,
what do I require to find out those. First of all, lift is,
1 2
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶
2 ∞ 𝐿

222
And we need to know what the cruise velocity is as well as 𝐶𝐿 here. Because density at sea level
is 1.225 kg/m3 and we have wing area because V is given and 𝐶𝐿 is given. I know S is 𝑏 × 𝑐̅, 𝑐̅ is
nothing but c throughout you know it is a rectangular wing, 𝑐̅ does not make any sense, it is nothing
but root chord, tip chord everything at every at a given cross section this will be the corresponding
chord length. For a rectangular wing this is 𝑏 × 𝑐̅.
𝑆 = 𝑏 × 𝑐 = 10.5 × 1.2 = 12.6 𝑚2
And then we have the area, now we need to find out 𝐶𝐿 alright, this 𝐶𝐿 is 𝐶𝐿 of the total aircraft,
𝐶𝐿 of the total aircraft corresponding to 𝛼 5.4 degrees straight. I can express this
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼
𝐶𝐿 = −0.042 + 5.526 × 0.94 = 0.477

So, 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 is 0.477. If you substitute 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 there you will be able to find out the lift, but we do not
know what the corresponding velocity is. Since we have cruising at sea level during cruise, we
know lift is equals to weight of the configuration, this implies
1 2
𝐿=𝑊= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶
2 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝐿 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
2𝑊
𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚

2 × 5500
=√
1.225 × 12.6 × 0.477

= 38.65 ≈ 39 𝑚/𝑠
And what is the drag,
1 2
𝐷= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆(𝐶𝐷0 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2 )
2 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
1
𝐷= × 1.225 × 38.652 × 12.6 × (0.03 + 𝑘 × 0.4772 )
2
Where,
1
𝑘=
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝑏2 𝑏2 𝑏 10.5
𝐴𝑅 = = = = = 8.75
𝑆 𝑏×𝑐 𝑐 1.2

223
 1
𝑘= = 0.04
𝜋 × 0.9 × 8.75
1
𝐷= × 1.225 × 38.652 × 12.6 × (0.03 + 0.04 × 0.4772 ) = 454.74 N
2

This is the amount of drag that is offered by the system when you are flying at this particular
velocity in that particular trim condition. You need to overcome this drag by producing must thrust
if you are using a jet engine. If you want to use a proprietary engine, then what we need to find out
is power required. Can we quickly find out what is the power required for this condition, if it is a
jet engine, we can say we can talk in terms of thrust that need to be generated? Let us say if you
employ the proprietary engine then we need to know what the power should be generated by the
engine for this particular flight condition.
(Refer Slide Time: 47:43)

What is that means we need to figure out what is the power required by the system which is drag
or thrust required times the velocity of flight. The drag is 454 or 455 newtons closely which is 45
kg, this is an amount of force you need to produce in the forward direction of flight.
𝑃𝑅 = 𝐷𝑉 = 454.7 × 38.65 = 17574 Watt
Close to 17574 watts, this is an amount of power that is required to propel the system forward if
you are using a restless motor proprietary engine. Well quickly solve another problem another
example problem or we will give that as an assignment you know, we will end up this lecture, we
will that problem as an assignment. And we will be demonstrating that you know do you

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remember, can you recollect. This neutral point let us say 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 is equals to 𝑥𝑎𝑐 𝑊 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 of wing

times 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 𝑊 , is not it plus try to erase this part.

(Refer Slide Time: 49:27)

It is not connected with this question; I am talking about a demonstration that we go into take up.
𝑆 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 + 𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) 𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 = 𝑊 𝑑𝛼
𝑆 𝑑𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝑊 𝑑𝛼

This is a definition of neutral point, right, is not it, from the definition we have derived this as a
neutral point. If we consider seeing this is about wing and a tail combination, let us now consider
a case we have identical wing and tail, same wing as tail. For example, if this is my wing, I will
have this as a wing as well as tail separated by an adequate distance, what do you mean by that, I
𝑆𝑡
have same planform area. I have a same planform area for a wing as well as tail. That means 𝑆

will be 1, further I assume there is no downwash you know, downwash effect is minimal, it is
1 2
separated by very large this distance you know. That means 𝜂 is 1 because 𝜌𝑉∞′ will be
2
1
effectively 2 𝜌𝑉∞2 itself and then this term disappears, this becomes 0. That means this becomes 1

and this term becomes 0, not this one that is 𝜖 term becomes 0.

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And lift of wing is nothing but lift of tail because we have 2 identical wings. In that case what
happens is, this is nothing but
𝐶𝐿 𝑊 (𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡 ) 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑤 + 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 = =
2𝐶𝐿 𝑊 2

It is the midpoint, can you see this, this becomes neutral point becomes midpoint of these 2. And
we know if the CG is ahead of this neutral point then we have 𝐶𝑚𝛼 negative, that static margin is
positive, 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is negative. If it is behind the neutral point 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is positive which means the aircraft
behaves unstable. We will try to demonstrate that, in the next lecture, thank you.

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 UAV Design-Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture-16
Flight Demonstration of same Wing and Tail Configuration

(Video Starts: 00:13) Dear friends, welcome back, so we are here for a demonstration of wing
and tail combination. As we derived in our lecture, we noticed that when we have similar wing
and tail identical wings wing and tail separated by a distance assuming a minimum downwash
you know interference at the tail. We figured out the neutral point to be at the midpoint of the
distance between aerodynamics center of wing and aerodynamics center of tail, that is what we
have derived.

So, we are now going to prove that whether our derivation is true or not. So, first of all let me
show you the configuration. So, we have 2 identical rectangular wings, if you can see here, so
they are about 2.4 meters’ span. And, you can see in the side view, so with a chord of 0.23
meters to the aspect ratio is close to 12 you know. So, and then this entire setup weighs about 1.8
kg, right now.

So, I just want to show you the aerodynamic centers of wing and tail, ok. So, we have our friends
here, Kiruba and Sampath who has made this model with the help of Prabjeet yes and yeah
Santosh also helped them, thank you for that. And I will be taking their help to catch this model.

Once we throw it I am not sure whether this model is going to sustain. If it sustains then we will
also demonstrate in unstable mode say when the Cg is behind the neutral point. So, say this is
0.23 approximately you know this bit curved, right. So, 0.23 metres is a chord due to curvature it
is bit more here. Now, we have figured out the aerodynamic center of the wing of the first wing
let us say is at this particular joint you know you can see this particular joint.

So, this is the aerodynamic center of this wing and then the aerodynamic center of this tail is
somewhere here, you know. It is marked here aerodynamics center of tail. So, here this is the
aerodynamics center of tail, right. So, I am now trying to locate the neutral point which is

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midway between these 2. So, can you help me to hold it from there. Yes of course, there will be
some inaccuracy, that is the reason why I will take Cg a bit more ahead of the neutral point as
well as bit behind the neutral point, this may not be so accurate because of this measurement
error.

So, place it on top of this, yes, this is approximately 176 centimeters. So, half of this is the
separation between ac of wing and ac of tail, so half of 176 how much? 88, yeah. So, 88 is where
this neutral point is located, we have a marking here which is close to 88 centimeters with
respect to the yeah aerodynamic center of wing. So, that is a midway between these 2 points. So,
now I will try to throw this out, ok.

So, let us check what is the current Cg of this model, so I am getting inside this model, ok. So,
this is slightly behind the neutral point right now, I would like to add some more weight, so that
it becomes ahead of it will go ahead of this aerodynamic center or the neutral point for this entire
configuration. Do you have a weight with you, yeah there will be a lot of interference because of
this you know strings? But still we will try to fly this model, ok.

So, bring it back, so now what will be let me check the Cg again. So this is definitely ahead of
the neutral point right now, ok, so this is somewhere here I am able to balance this somewhere
here. So, ahead of the neutral point. Now, according to our derivation, now the Cg is ahead of the
neutral point, it has to fly in a stable mode. Let us see whether it is able to or not, right, Kiruba
you may come front bit front.

So, if this model sustains the first landing then we can demonstrate in unstable mode as well. So,
it is able to right, it is able to glide. So, I will try to throw it again, it is able to glide properly,
right, so our derivation is correct, right now it is just maybe 2 centimeters ahead of the neutral
point for this configuration. So, we will try one more time and then see. So, I will try now to
demonstrate in the unstable mode.

So, for that I need to shift the Cg behind the neutral point, so what I do is, I will try to take out
this weights. So, and then and see where is the current Cg location, it is behind. So, this is where

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I am able to balance right now, so this is the place where I am able to balance a model, so which
is the current Cg location. So, this is where the neutral point is my index finger is pointing at the
neutral point.

And my thumb is almost close to the current Cg without added weights, so which is behind the
neutral point. I will try to throw this, so now the Cg is behind the neutral point way behind see
that. So, since because of it is inertia you cannot see that flipping but still it is not able to glide
properly, we can see that again. We will try to throw it again, maybe when we drop it from a
higher altitude you will be able to appreciate.

The Cg is behind the neutral point, you can see it is not able to you know fly in a stable mode,
ok. So, it is important for us to make sure that the Cg is ahead of the neutral point. And we also
figured out that the neutral point for identical wings lies at the midpoint of the separation of
aerodynamic centers of the 2 wings, right. So, now I am on top of this ATC I am trying to throw
this. So, we are now again flying it in a stable mode, the Cg is ahead of the aerodynamics neutral
point here. Thank you. (Video Ends: 08:32)

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 UAV Design-Part II
Qazi Salahudden (PhD Scholar)
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture-17
MATLAB Tutorial

(Refer Slide Time: 00:13)

Hello everyone, I am Qazi Salahudden, TA of the present course. In this tutorial, we will cover the
basics of MATLAB, this tutorial will be very helpful for the beginners. I hope many of the students
know about MATLAB. The basic purpose of this tutorial is for the beginners who do not know the
MATLAB and who want to learn the MATLAB.

So, the MATLAB is a very important tool for all engineering disciplines as well as science and
technology. So, it reduces the effort like, you can take the example of an aerospace system; aircraft
is flying at a steady straight level flight where is lift equal to the weight, you want to calculate the
CL for each velocity, so what you can write

2𝑊
CL =
ρ. V 2 . S

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So, for a different velocity, you will get different CL , if you do manually, it will take [Link] you
write there a small program, where your input is w, reference area, velocity, density, and what
altitude you are flying? You just insert this inputs, for each input, you will get CL , so fixing
everything, if you change the velocity your CL will update.

You just upgrade the value of velocity you will get the updated value of CL. From this example,
you can see how beautiful MATLAB is. This is a very small example, later we will discuss more
about this. So, when you open the MATLAB your MATLAB will look like this, as you are seeing
on the screen. So, basically, this is called the workspace, if you run the program your all variables,
as well as answers, will appear here and this is the folder file.

If you open the particular folder what MATLAB file you have, you will see here. (Video starts:
02:57) Here, if you click, you can use the different types of files a script file, function files, later
we will discuss what will be the script file and what the function file. And here you can open your
particular file, here you can go to the location from where you want to open the file? And here you
can print your results, here you can save your results, here you can run the code, you can execute
your program. So, these are the primary things.

I will explain how the different files exist in MATLAB. And how will you write your program in
what file, script file, function file. Subsequently, I will tell you, what is the use of for loop, while
loop, when we will use for loop and when we use while loop So, as you can see that this is the
example for loop, here you have defined the input. So, you can see that the input it is written in
green colour.

So, this is basically the comment percentage shows the comment, if you write anything like a, b, c
if you put comment it will not be the part of your program. But for your reference, you can see
what we have written ok. So, if you put 1%, see 1% we will look like this if you put double
percentage your section will break. So, suppose that you want to create input as a different section,
so look like this formula.
You can put the double percentage here, so in this, you can see, what is our input. We aim to
calculate the power required drag experienced by the aircraft for a different velocity at different

231
altitude as well and also what CL by C𝐷 our aircraft is flying. So, basically, we want power versus
velocity, drag versus velocity and CL by C𝐷 versus velocity ok. So, you know that drag is nothing
but
1
D = . ρ. V 2 . S. C𝐷
2
Here, ρ, 𝑉, 𝑆 will be the input and then C𝐷 further we can write

C𝐷 = C𝐷 0 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2

So, C𝐷 0 will be the input, 𝑘 will be the input and CL we can compute from

2𝑊
CL =
ρ. V 2 . S

I have given the range for velocity 15 to 30 meter per second at the step of 0.1 ok, rho is a function
of altitude (fundamentals that are already explained to you) So, I have written directly here, g is
9.81 however UAV mass is 13 kg.
And we are flying at a steady straight level condition (load factor will be 1), our wing span is 3
meter, the area is 0.9 aspect ratio can be calculated. And weight will be mg and our span efficiency
factor is 0.9 and our parasite drag coefficient is C𝐷 0 is 0.04. So, basically these inputs you have a
specified. And we are using for loop because we want to fly from 0 to 5 kilometre. So, we will get
the data for 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 kilometres.
So, ℎ = 0 in steps of 1 to 5 kilometre ok and these are the intermediate formula we need 𝑘 can
be calculated
1
𝑘=
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
2𝑛𝑊
CL trim will be
ρ.V2 .S
. Then if we know CL . C𝐷 can be found using C𝐷 0 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2 then Drag (D) will be
1
2
. ρ. V 2 . S. C𝐷 , Power (P) will be Drag (D) into velocity. So, now these are my input we have defined
and now we have an intermediate formula and now we have results. So, we want velocity versus
drag, so these are the command plot, velocity versus drag display the name t line with 1, our x
label is velocity. So, you have to write like this, this is a standard procedure and y label is

232
aerodynamic drag and hold on because, at 1 to 5 kilometre we have to at the same plot, we want
the data.

So, we have to hold on and I will tell you these are the very basic tool for colouring the figure, line
style if you want to make any grade these are the standard command. Now if you run this program
you will get the plots. So, the first plot we will see aerodynamic drag versus velocity, so it will
look like this. So, this is nothing but the legend if you click legend it will appear here. So, as you
can see that the blue line represents the 0 kilometres and your aircraft is flying at a sea-level
condition, your drag variation with flight velocity will be like this.

And when you are flying at 5 kilometres, your drag will be like this sky blue line. There are so
many options here as you can see there are data tips, you can click here and you just put here, you
just drag, you will see you can get the different you can check at what velocity suppose that at 25
(velocity), what is our drag? So, you can check by using this tool. Also like if you want to copy
your figure, you can go to edit and you can copy your figure and you can directly paste into your
report like if you are making the report in MS word.

And if you do not want to do it, you can go to file, you can go to save as, you will get a different
option first is MATLAB file. If you save this, anytime if you open, you can edit it or you can save
in the EPS form, enhance form, JPEG form there is a lot of options available. But good quality
image if you want to save then always save in EPS form or this TIFF image form it will look good.
So, this is nothing but the aerodynamic drag versus velocity.

And another diagram you can see the aerodynamic power versus velocity. So, if you go to the
aerodynamic power versus velocity, you will get like this, if you just insert the region we will get
the variation of the aerodynamic power versus velocity. So, from this diagram, you can get the
information that at what design speed your aerodynamic power is, at what aerodynamic power is
required to fly at this design, suppose that you are flying at a 5 kilometre ok and your design speed
is 25.

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So, you can check at 25 speed where aerodynamic power requirement is 276.51 watt ok. And our
third interest is to see the response of aerodynamic efficiency. You will see these are very
important parameters like aerodynamic efficiency at 25 speed and 5 kilometres your aerodynamic
efficiencies is almost 11.4. And at a sea level, your aerodynamic efficiency goes down to 8.11 ok.
And this flat line is independent of flat speed like this flat line because as you know

CD
CL md = √ 0
k

and
CD md = 2. CD 0

for minimum drag ( or maximum range condition for piston engine powered aircraft) . For
minimum power conditions

3. CD 0
CL mp = √
k

and
CD mp = 4. CD 0

So CD 0 and k is independent of flight. So, you will get the constant L by D ratio, one important
thing of this is like when you flying a very high lift to drag ratio damping will decrease pilot will
feel very difficult to fly, take a very large amount of time to damp the aircraft. So, basically, I am
telling you the basic purpose of this to show the graphs and how to edit the graphs and all.

But see once you design the aircraft you will see the importance of these graph like aerodynamic
power drag L by D some more graphs will come when you will design ok. So, these are the graph
first is aerodynamic drag, second is power and third this L by D ratio ok. So, as you can see this
graph represented from 0 to 5 kilometre, ok. If you want to fly if you want to see the data only for
0 kilometre, in a for loop you can put only instead of 5 you just put 0, to from 0 to 0 you are going,
ok.

So, basically, you are flying at a sea-level 0 kilometre, you just did this program and you just see
the L by D, how the L by D is varied and also how the aerodynamic drag is varying and how the

234
aerodynamic power is varying? Now, if you go to legend, if you click this you will see h = 0
kilometre. So, now there is a lot of option also available if you go this arrow and if you just click
here, ok, you just click this line what you are seeing?

You are seeing cut, copy, delete, colour, if you want to change the colour, go whatever you want?
You can colour it came black if you like a red colour you can go to red. If you do not like this solid
line you can go to the line style you can dash. You can see here so many options is available like
line style, dash, dot, dash-dot check how dash-dot is looked likes, ok fine, ok. See you can increase
the line width it is a 1 hour, if you increase to 2 it will be thick.

Now you have also an option like, suppose that you have so many graphs, how will you
differentiate? one thing is by colour but if I want to print it into the black and white then the colour
will not be matter, you have to differentiate by something else like. We can differentiate by using
marker ok, we can go to the plus ok, you just increase which is very marker size you reduce, ok,
you will get plus ok or you can go to the hexagon, diamond, circle, so many options are available.

So, here you can see how it is like a circle, ok. So, if find you just decrease the line width and make
go to marker and put the marker size 2 and marker whatever you want? So, currently, it is circle
just put a star you will get a star, ok. So, in this way you can modify your figure and also some
option is available, like if you go to the edit and figure property. So, if you go to the figure property,
from that figure property you can edit this axis limit, you can edit the font also, you can edit the
font of the legend also.

If you go to this tool you will see a lot of option is available and I request you to if you face any
problem if you are not understanding anything then please post the question in the forum. I am
promising you I will answer because when you at the time of learning you will face a lot of
problems, like when you run, execute the program definitely you will get the error. And this is a
beauty when you will get the error just correct it day by day you will become the expert in
MATLAB.

235
You just play with the MATLAB, you will learn, like suppose that you have written this program
and you have if you miss this, see if you using for loop ok and see and notice that I am putting dot
ok just remove this dot put backspace you will get an error, why the error? Because element by
element we have to multiply, so basically dot represent the element by element. So, basically at 0
kilometres, you want data, at 1 kilometre also, 2 kilometres.

So, element by element you have to multiply, dot represents that see you are missing 1 dot and you
are getting the error. So, likewise, you will get so many problems but please correct it. If you want
to try to correct it, please go to Google and search how to fix the problem? If you are not getting
the same problem, take the screenshot in a MATLAB post it in the forum I am promising with that
I will answer.

So, this is about the for loop, now we will go to see the while loop and what is the difference
between for loop and while loop? For loop is nothing but you are not putting any condition like
this type of condition; less than or greater than. So, if this condition is not required then we will
use for loop like you want to fly the aircraft at 0 kilometres 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 there is a no condition like
less than greater than, so will use for loop.

But suppose that the problem is such that there is a condition a specified like less than greater than
or for loop or while loop at the same problem we can use for loop as well as while loop depends
upon your choice also. So, let us see the while loop, so suppose that n is number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…..
for the present case, we can take n as 5.
So, we are putting condition N greater than N -1. See what is the logic of mathematics is there?
Same logic we will write here ok. So, suppose that when you calculate the factorial of any number
let us say 5 what you will do? 5 into 4 into 3 into 2 into 1, right. So, you are taking 1 number as a
5 then you are subtracting 1 getting 4 multiplying by 5 and so on.

Finally, you are multiplying 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 you will get the factorial. So, at N = 1 it will stop ok, so
now we have N = 5 if we run our program, so it will appear factorial N = 120 what is the factorial
of 3? It is 6 you know let us see whether we are getting or not, see we are getting factorial N = 6.

236
So, you are specifying the numbers 3 and you are putting the condition N greater than 1. So, this
while loop ends when N will be 1. So this is the use of a while loop.

So, now as far as this problem is concerned it is very simple, now we will see the use of function
file. So, before going to the function file, I want to tell you what is the script file. So, what you
have written this program, this is in a script file. But suppose that your program is 2000, 3000,
6000 line, can you put all the program in a single file? It will be very difficult because if you divide
the section-wise then it will be very easy to see the things for looking into the program you can
easily change whatever you want in the same program. So, in this situation, the function file helps,
like if you use the function file if you suppose that you have the 6000-line program.

So, you can divide into 500 different sections as a function file. So, the beauty of the function file
is you can call the function file anywhere in the MATLAB in the same folder, it will take the data
from the function file, we will see, ok, so these are the beauty of function file. So, for how to write
the function file like? So, function file starts with function and suppose that whatever you want to
take, average you know.

So, this will be the like after the function output will appear like average is the output, what type
of average? You want to take the average of a number; we will see an average. The function files
a start with function, then output, then equal, then name of the function file see you have to be
very careful here, what is the file name should be the same as written here, ok.

And now you will write the computation formula average is nothing but the sum of X column you
are having more than one data. So, that is why you are putting this symbol here and just count the
number like suppose that X is 1, 2 what is the average? 1 + 2 total number is 2, 1 + 2 by 2 is 3 by
2, 1.5 ok. Suppose that you want to compute these things like average, so what you will do? You
will run this file, what you are getting? You are missing something right, error in a function file.

So, you just write the function file error and give the command in the command window. So, like
what command I have to give? Let us say I am putting X = 1, 2 and I want to compute the average
of it, ok, you just copy the same thing and just enter ok you have put the semicolon here, and,

237
ENTER, you will get 1.5 ok. Suppose that you want to compute the average of this 1, 2, 3, so by
manually what will be the answer 1 + 2 + 3 ok, so total 6 by 3, 2 will be the answer, right. Let us
see we are getting to 2 or not, 2 will be the average.

So, this is the beauty of the function file. Till now we have covered the for loop, while loop
different type of files script file, function file and what are the basics? Like basic command things,
how to edit the MATLAB plot and all? So, this all about the basics and here in command window
also you can do some like if you want to add something, like suppose that you do not have any
calculator you want to add 23 + 99 ok.

So, you can like 23 and you can write plus and 99 you will get the answer 122. So, basically as a
calculator you can use this and suppose that you want to write the matrix A equal to this 1, 2, 3
then put 1 column 3, 4, 5, 6 ok then 7, 8, 9 you just close the bracket, ok. So, what you will get
matrix A, the first row is 1, 2, 3, the second row is 4, 5, 6, the third row is 7, 8, 9. So basically, you
can notice that when you are writing matrix A 1, space, space 3, ok, listen again.

You are writing 1 space 2, space 3 this is nothing but 1st row, if you are putting semicolon, now
you are going into second row 4, space you are writing 5 then space 6 then again putting semicolon.
Now after the semicolon, the third row will come, 7 space 8 space 9, so your matrix is A. Now you
want to take the inverse ok, so you have just type inv, you will get this answer inverse, ok.

Now you want to add the matrix, similarly, you can add the matrix, similar way you can multiply
the matrix. Similar way you can subtract the matrix ok, similar way if you want only column matrix
then you just write B = 1, 2, 1 column 2 semicolon 3 ok 1 semicolon 2 semicolons 3 ok. This will
go to the column matrix and if you write the only row matrix then 1 space 2 space 3 matrix, this
way this is the matrix multiplication.

And if you want to find the determinant just type the command; det, your determinant will be like
this. These are the way like you can calculate it, suppose that you want to find that e square exp
this is nothing but the e then 2 you will get e square is 7.3. So, as we are using like a calculator
you can instead of using a calculator if you calculate you can use here itself. Now as you observe

238
that your workspace these are the variable stored, we can put an also lot of things is there in that
command window.

And if you want to remove all the things then what command you can do? You can just clear all
you just press enter. So, you will see that key all the variable which has been stored in the
workspace has been eliminated not present there. And now when you will plus CLC you will notice
that all the operations performed in the command window like in erased. But there are so many
MATLAB commands are there for simple arithmetic operation, ok arithmetical operation.
In this week. I will attach some basic command for MATLAB, like how to compute the inverse?
How to compute the exponential? How to write the identity matrix? There are so many things. And
if I will find some extra material related to MATLAB that will also I will attach in this week ok.
And, thank you so much for listening to this tutorial.
And, once again I am saying that please post a question in the forum like if you are not getting any
error. Because see MATLAB you should know the MATLAB this is very important when you go
for the higher study also.
I am sure that when you install the MATLAB you will get the error. Try to fix the error yourself
and if you are not getting you just take the screenshot and post it in the forum. I am promising you
I will answer, thank you so much (Video Ends: 34:02).

239
 UAV Design-Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture-18
Trim Requirements of UAV

Hello friends, welcome back. We have now completed longitudinal static stability part for both
wing alone and wing and tail combination. We have solved few example problems, how to figure
out the neutral point for a given configuration. And then we also studied about static margin which
is positive for in order to achieve statically stable flight. And then we have also demonstrated the
wing and tail combination, right in stable and unstable mode, so flight of wing and tail
combination. Now let us proceed till now we are talking about an equilibrium condition, right. So,
what is an equilibrium condition?
(Refer Slide Time: 00:58)

We have the flight in which of the state about which the resultant forces and moments are 0. So,
for longitudinal case what will be an equilibrium condition for longitudinal flight? So, when lift is
equals to weight and thrust is equals to drive and the pitching moment is equals to 0 which means
1
𝑀 = . ρ. V 2 . S. C𝑚 𝑐 = 0
2

This implies the pitching moment coefficient (C𝑚 ) has to be 0 for equilibrium condition.

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We call when the aircraft satisfies these 3 equations then what we call is the aircraft or the UAV
is set to be in trim condition, right. That means what exactly trim means we were maintaining a
constant angle of attack, is not it. The aircraft is flying at a constant angle of attack where there is
no resultant pitching moment acting and then the lift is balanced by weight.

And then thrust generated by the engine is satisfying the drag that is required by the system. As
per as the particular trim is concern, that means we are flying at a given angle of attack. So, what
if I want to change that angle of attack, what I need to do when I have to fly at different angle of
attack? So let us closely look at this equation lift is equals to weight which is equals
1
L = W = . ρ. V 2 . S. CL
2

When you talking about a level flight this particular parameter is constant at that particular altitude.
And the for a given UAV see these parameters are constant more or less constant, weight we
consider there is no change in the weight of the UAV due to fuel consumption. So, when I have to
fly at a particular velocity I need to develop a particular CL from the wings, right, how I develop
that CL ?

CL as a linear function we assumed a linear function of angle of attack, right, CL variation with
angle of attack. So, in order to change this CL , I need to change the angle of attack because CL0 is
constant, you cannot vary, right. And CL𝛼 you cannot vary it depends upon the profile of the
aerofoil, once you fixed it then this is fixed. So, the only variable that I have in my hand is alpha,
right, so if I have to change the velocity I need to change this angle of attack of flight, right.

For example, say this is my reference axis or fuselage reference line, ok FRL coinciding with my
body axis, right, say when there is forward velocity V infinity and say it is a level flight. That
means this 𝑉∞ is horizontal, right. So this particular angle with respect to this 𝑉∞ is angle-of-attack
(𝛼) and I have lift perpendicular to 𝑉∞ and weight acting. So, this axis is perpendicular to fuselage
reference line or weight is acting perpendicular to the local origin, so w is the weight.

Now when lift is balanced with the weight you are flying at a particular velocity, right. So, if I
have to increase the velocity let us say, if I want to fly faster then I need to decrease the CL value

241
to generate this weight or to generate a force that can balance this weight. That means what I need
to do? I need to change this angle of attack, I need to decrease this angle of attack, how can I
decrease it?

Or say if I have to decrease the velocity I want to fly slower, then what I need to do is? I need to
increase this CL value, so that this equation is balanced, right, still producing. So, the force is still
equal produced from this lift, right, or the wings is still equivalent to the weight of the aircraft of
the UAV. Now when I have to increase this I need to change this angle of attack again, say I have
to increase the angle of attack in this case.

That means I need to hold the aircraft at a particular orientation, see when I say it is flying at a
particular angle of attack, which means that the aircraft is oriented with respect to the floor at
particular orientation, right. Now when I have to increase the angle of attack, that means I need to
change the orientation of the aircraft and I have to hold that orientation, right. So, how can I do
that? by means of a longitudinal control surface, right.

We have a control surface which is located on the horizontal tail, alright. Let us say there is a
horizontal tail here by deflecting a small surface which is attached to this horizontal tail, I will be
able to either produce force upwards or downwards, right. With the help of this force that is
produced aft of the Cg, right aft the Cg. Say this is my Cg, so this force multiplied this by this
momenta will produce a corresponding moment that helps me to change this angle of attack, right,
that means for each and every angle of attack I need to produce different force at the tail, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:00)

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Let us see what is that what we are going to talk about is longitudinal control, ok. So, how we
achieve longitudinal control with the help of elevator? Let us get back to these equations again.
When I have to increase the velocity what does it mean? I need to produce the thrust which should
be greater than the drag at that particular velocity, is not it or not. Say the engine is producing
thrust which is equals to drag that is nothing but
1
D = . ρ. V 2 . S. C𝐷
2

Initially say I am flying at 30 meters per second, now I want to change it to 40 meters per second.
The initial engine setting or the throttle setting of my engine is producing only the force that is
required to fly this at 30 meters per second, right. Now, suddenly the force from the engine has
increased, so that the engine output is higher compared to what it was initially.

Now with a higher throttle setting will be definitely more than the initial thrust. I have an excess
force that will accelerate my aircraft wing new velocity. So, if I do not change my C𝐿 , if I still fly
at a higher velocity, right, then I am producing additional force even in the perpendicular direction
of flight, right, here in this direction. So, that will take the aircraft away from this level flight
condition, the aircraft will not remain in the equilibrium and then we cannot claim that the aircraft
is in trim, right.

If we have to maintain the trim condition or say level flight condition, then what we need to do is?
we need to decrease this C𝐿 , ok. So, immediately what is happening with the increase in velocity

243
there is a change in C𝐿 , there should be a change in C𝐿 . We need to incorporate, so how we are
changing this C𝐿 ? by changing the alpha, how this alpha is change with the help of elevator? right.

Let us see what exactly elevator is, elevator is a small control surface which is attached to the
horizontal tail, right, for longitudinal control, so which we have discussed earlier. Let us say as we
discuss the horizontal tail is fabricated or made out of symmetric aerofoil, right, ok. Let us say this
is my fuselage reference line, let us say this is my chord line of this horizontal tail, ok.

Now there is a small control surface and it is a part of the symmetric tail, right. So, this particular
portion, which is a part of this tail can be deflected about a hinge point, right. This particular
portion can be deflected about this point up and down, right. This portion is known as elevator,
say, this is my horizontal tail and this particular portion which is a part of this horizontal tail is
called an elevator, right.

This particular and there is an axis about which this elevator can rotate, right. Let us say if I hinge
my elevator about this particular axis, this axis is coming out of this board, so this elevator can
rotate up and down about this particular axis. This is known as hinge line of control surface in this
case it is hinge line of elevator control surface. This particular portion is elevator.

This is horizontal tail and as we discussed earlier thumb along the positive axis of this hinge line
in the corresponding curl of your fingers will give you the positive rotation of the elevator. Now
positive rotation of elevator is when the trailing edge of the elevator deflects downward. So, this
particular angle is delta e elevator deflection, ok. This is positive when you deflect the elevator up
that is negative deflection. A positive deflection, that means what is happening with an elevator
deflection?
(Refer Slide Time: 13:16)

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As we mentioned this is my chord line, right, let me draw it a bit clearer. Say this is my chord line
which in the earlier case is the line joining leading edge and the trailing edge, right. And which is
nothing but the mean as well, is not it, for a symmetric aerofoil this is nothing but the mean camber
line. Now when there is a deflection, what is happening? this chord line is up to this portion is fine
is same but there is a change in the mean camber line at here.

The mean camber is changing here, so when there is a change in mean camber line that means
there is change in or the CL𝛼 of this aerofoil gets affected, am I correct or not? So, because of the
change in the mean camber line there is a upward force the CL𝛼 is either increasing or decreasing.
Let us say initially the aircraft is trim or flying at a particular V infinity prime, this is horizontal
tail, right.
The tail is seeing certain angle, 𝛼𝑡 . Let us assume that as stabilizer angle of attack, 𝛼𝑠 , horizontal
stabilizer and the corresponding angle seen by this horizontal stabilizer. When there is no
deflection, when there is zero deflection, the total angle of attack seen by this tail is equals to
stabilizer angle of attack just stabilizer angle attack which is equivalent to
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼𝑠 = 𝛼 − 𝜖 + 𝑖𝑡

But when there is a deflection with the elevator what happens is? In order to understand this
properly, let us assume that the entire tail horizontal tail itself is a elevator, that means, if I deflect
this about a hinge line, right. An elevated deflection will change the corresponding angle of attack;
am I correct or not.

245
(Refer Slide Time: 15:21)

Let us assume a case where, so say this is my horizontal tail and the entire horizontal tail is my
elevator. This is my horizontal tail and the entire horizontal tail is elevator I am rotating about
certain hinge line, right. Now when I rotate this what happens? The aerofoil still remain same. So,
this is like and giving a delta here which is actually changing the, let us say this is my 𝑉∞ prime.
This is my initial alpha at tail 1, right, this becomes alpha at tail 2, right.

The elevated deflection when the elevator is an entire horizontal tail it is actually affecting this
angle of attack that means you are actually changing the angle of attack with the elevated
deflection. There is an effect on the angle of attack due to elevated deflection, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:25)

246
That factor is generally given as, the change in the angle of attack of the tail due to elevated
deflection is given as tau, elevator effectiveness parameter, even here in this case that may not be
explicitly visible, but still certain portion of the wing is being deflected that is changing the local
angle of attack, right. That the change in the elevator angle of attack at the tail due to elevated
deflection is given as tau which is flap effectiveness parameter or control surface effectiveness
parameter.

This from the historical database you will be able to figure out this parameter tau given the control
surface area upon total lifting surface area. If the elevator control surface is equals to the total tail
area let us say, that means it has to become 1, tau has to become 1. Because change in elevator let
us say positive deflection is rotating it downwards, right, a degree of rotating it downwards is
nothing but degree increase in the angle of attack just now we have witnessed, right in the previous
figure.

That is when tau becomes 1, so it is not exactly linear variation, right, up to 0.8 when this is at 0.7,
we will give you that data, how elevator control surface area if it changes you know with respect
to the total if this ratio changes how this tau changes. It is fixed for a given aircraft, is not it,
because you have a fixed control surface area and the fixed tail lifting area, right.

247
The total lifting area is nothing but the elevator area here or say I am sorry; the total lifting area is
the horizontal tail area here.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:43)

Now when there is an elevated deflection, what happens is? The lifting the tail angle of attack will
now be a function of this parameter tau times delta e. This tau is nothing but,
𝜕𝛼𝑡
𝜏=
𝜕𝛿𝑒
and
𝜕𝛼𝑡
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼𝑠 + 𝛿
𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝑒
or
𝜕𝜀
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼𝑠 + (1 − ) 𝛼 + (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜀0 ) + 𝜏𝛿𝑒
𝜕𝛼

This is the angle of attack at the tail when there is an elevator deflection, when 𝛿𝑒 is zero this
becomes 𝛼𝑠 , this particular equation will be equal to 𝛼𝑠 .

Now, again coming back to this, this figure when there is delta e deflection there is change in
camber, that means the change in lift, am I correct or not? In a layman language what we can see
is, it is trying to obstruct the flow here. The flow will exert a force in the opposite direction. So,

248
now a positive elevated deflection when the elevator is deflected downwards there is an upward
force at the tail, right.

This upward force is at the tail lifted the tail. Say if I extend this if I consider this as my fuselage
reference line FRL, right. And say the Cg of the aircraft is somewhere here, this is my Cg. Now
the lift produced by this tail, right, what effectively happening is a change in the pressure
distribution because of the change in the control surface deflection. The change in the pressure
distribution is creating a change in the force at the tail, right.

That creates a moment about Cg. When there is a positive deflection, there is an upward force that
creates a negative moment. The change in the (()) (20:56) or say the change in the pitching moment
due to change in elevator control surface is less than 0, right, negative or in other words the 𝐶𝑚 𝛿 is
𝑒

less than 0 here, ok. So, we will see what is the 𝐶𝑚 𝛿 here, we will discuss about that in detail here.
𝑒

(Refer Slide Time: 21:26)

This 𝐶𝑚 𝛿 is known as elevator control power, so elevator control power, how good you can
𝑒

control your aircraft using the elevator that is there depends upon this parameter 𝐶𝑚 𝛿 . Higher the
𝑒

value greater is your control, higher the negative greater is your control. Now when there is an
elevator deflection, there is a change in total lift of the aircraft, is not it?

249
∆L represents the total change in the lift of the aircraft which is due to change in the lift at the tail,
right, am I correct or not? This equals to
1 2
∆L = . ρ. V′ . S𝑡 . ∆C𝐿𝑡
2
The equals to ∆C𝐿 of the total aircraft is
1 2
2 . ρ. V ′ . S𝑡 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑡
∆C𝐿 = 𝛿𝑒
1 2 . S 𝜕𝛿𝑒
2 . ρ. 𝑉

Because aircraft reference area is wing reference area and then what you have is change in lift
coefficient at the tail. This change in lift coefficient at the tail is due to elevated deflection, right,
am I correct or not? So, that is nothing but
∆C𝐿 S𝑡
𝐶𝐿 𝛿𝑒 = =𝜂 𝜏𝐶𝐿 𝛼
𝛿𝑒 S 𝑡

What we observed when there is change in 𝛿𝑒 , there is change in camber which in turn affects the
𝐶𝐿 𝛼 , am I correct or not, when there is a change in camber there is a change in lift curve slope.
𝐶𝐿 𝛿𝑒 talks about change in lift coefficient for delta e deflection.

If you have the details about 𝐶𝐿 𝛼𝑡 and 𝜏 which means which can be deduced if you have the

geometric details about control surface area of the control surface and the area of the horizontal
tail taking the ratio of that, you will be able to figure out what is 𝜏 here. And then yeah of course,
S
once you have the details you know what is S𝑡.

And knowing 𝜂 you will be able to figure out what is 𝐶𝐿 𝛿𝑒 of this aircraft, right, this is the 𝐶𝐿 𝛿𝑒 of

the entire aircraft.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:37)

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The lift coefficient of the aircraft can be written as

CL = CL0 + CLα α + CLδe δe

Initially it was just CL0 + CLα α when there is no delta e but there is change this CL due to CLδe δe .
Similarly, there is a pitching moment right, when there is change in the lift at the tail there is a
change in pitching moment, the change in pitching moment apart from C m of wing and tail
combination, when it is in trim we know C𝑚 is 0.

Apart from that, so during the case the contribution is only from Cm0 and Cmα , when there is a δe
deflection, there is a changes in C𝑚 , total pitching moment which is due to the lift produced at the
tail, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:03)

251
The change in the pitching moment ∆M is due to the lift produced at the tail, right, is which
contributes towards negative moment let us assume, if there is a positive lift there is a negative
moment. Let us assume L of t is positive by convention, this produces a negative moment and the
negative moment is because of lifted tail or change in the lift at the tail, right, times the distance
between Cg and the aerodynamic center of the tail which is 𝑥𝑎𝑐 of tail −𝑥𝑐𝑔 , that is a momentum,
we know it.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:43)

or change in the lift of the aircraft which is acting at the tail part, the changes near the tail, right.
our aerodynamic center of the tail multiplied by 𝑥𝑎𝑐 − 𝑥𝑐𝑔 , right. The ∆M, a change in the pitching

252
movement of the total aircraft because of the elevator deflection is due to the change in the lift at
the tail because of the elevator deflection.

This particular parameter is called l of t length of tail upon c bar times change in the lift coefficient
at the tail. We know that change in the lift coefficient at the tail, this change in the pitching moment
coefficient
∆𝐶𝑚 = −𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝜏𝛿𝑒
𝑡

where 𝑉𝐻 is the tail volume ratio, defined as

𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑆𝑐̅

𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 is equals to

𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 = −𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝜏

𝑡

This is one equation and this is the other equation that talks about 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 here ok. Similar to this
the total pitching moment of the aircraft is now can be expressed as

C𝑚 = Cm0 + C𝑚α α + C𝑚δe δe

(Refer Slide Time: 30:28)

253
When you just have wing and tail combination, right, what you have is Cm0 + C𝑚α α and there is
no elevated deflection. But when there is an elevated deflection, we have additional terms C𝑚δe
that elevator control power comes into the picture times δe . And what is C𝑚δe being equals to,
earlier we discussed C𝑚δe has to be negative is not it, whether it is true or not, 𝜂 is positive we
know tail 𝑉𝐻 is positive 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 is positive and 𝜏 we witness it is positive.
This entire positive term multiplied by minus what we have is C𝑚δe as negative. Now you have C
Cm0 , C𝑚α , C𝑚δe and similarly for trim conditions before talking about trim we have CL0 + CLα α

alpha and C𝐿δe δe in the linear regime, right, this is what we have modeled, right. We have come
up with this aerodynamic model for the linear regime which is a function of α as well as δe for
both the equations.
Now we are talking about how to change α from one trim condition to the other trim condition. Or
let us say if I want to trim aircraft at certain angle of attack, what should be the corresponding δe
that I require? Or trim the δe to trim the aircraft at that particular α trim, ok. That means we
witnessed for trim Cm is 0, right.
If you substitute that there what I have is
0 = Cm0 + C𝑚α α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 + C𝑚δe δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 (1)

Similarly, CL is equals to
C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = CL0 + C𝐿α α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 + C𝐿δe δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 (2)

This CL becomes C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 is equals to, how can we estimate CL trim? From the level flight equation
L = W from L = W when you want to fly at a particular velocity then you will be able to find out
what is it the corresponding C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 .
If you know that C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 you will be able to find out what will be the resulting α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 and δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 to
fly at that particular velocity, right, that satisfies the level flight condition, this is equals to CL0 +
C𝐿α α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 + C𝐿δe δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , ok, say this is my equation 1 and this is my equation 2 ok. So, I have 2

equations, see Cm is 0 here and we know C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , so how can we find C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ?

From lift is equals to weight, ok, so

2(𝑊⁄𝑆)
C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 =
𝜌𝑉∞2

254
Given the data about this and the flight velocity that you want to fly, you can find out what is the
corresponding C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 that you require. For this lift coefficient, what should be the α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 and δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ?

You have 2 equations that mean left side is known here, right, and you have a 2 unknowns here in
these 2 equations, you can simply solve it, is not it, you can solve for what is α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 and δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , can
you do that. δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 is equals
C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 C𝑚α + Cm0 C𝐿α − CL0 C𝑚α
δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 =
C𝑚α C𝑚δe
| |
C𝐿α C𝐿δe

(Refer Slide Time: 34:18)

(Refer Slide Time: 38:36)

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This equals to 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 is equals
− [C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 C𝑚δe + Cm0 C𝐿δe − CL0 C𝑚δe ]
𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 =
C𝑚 α C𝑚 δ e
| |
C𝐿 α C𝐿 δ e

So, with these two equations you can find out what is δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 and α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 .
We now got δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 or say what should be the α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 and δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 if you want to fly at this particular
C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 condition, right which corresponds to the velocity for a given UAV. When you want to
change from one velocity to the other velocity, you need to change the C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , the C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 changes
which can be achieved by elevator control, how the 𝐶𝐿 can be changed? by change in the 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
which is achieved from δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 . Let us look at what we have done till now, so this particular
equation.
(Refer Slide Time: 40:20)

256
The C𝑚 equation which is
C𝑚 = Cm0 + C𝑚α α + C𝑚δe δe

What should be the control surface deflection to trim this particular aircraft dδe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ? In this the Cm0
again see we have wing and we have a tail combination and in the tail we have an elevator right
now, ok. So, this Cm0 will still remain the same like Cm0 is equals to
Cm0 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 + CL0 (𝑥̅𝑐𝑔 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝛼𝑡 (𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0 )

This still remains the same and the C𝑚α that we are using in this equation is
𝜕𝜖
C𝑚α = C𝐿α (𝑥̅𝑐𝑔 − 𝑥̅𝑎𝑐 ) − 𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝜕𝛼

These two Cm0 , C𝑚α still remain same and C𝑚δe we derive, right, we just derived the for solving
for this 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 and δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 . C𝑚δe is negative for a statically stable aircraft Cm0 is positive and C𝑚α is
negative, alright. For now, for trim condition, so we will now see what will be the change in that
trim angle of attack with the change in the trim lift coefficient. When I have to fly at different
velocities I need to change my trim lift coefficient, right, that is what we discussed.

What will be the change in the trim? elevated deflection or what should be the change in elevated
deflection when there is a change in trim lift coefficient, ok? Let us derive that. For trim there is a

257
reason to derive it we will soon discuss about that, so for trim C𝑚 has to be 0, so substituting 0 in
this equation, we have
Cm0 + C𝑚α α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = −
C𝑚δe

(Refer Slide Time: 43:59)

Furthermore,
C𝑚
( C α ) (C𝐿α α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 )
Cm0 𝐿α
δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 =− −
C𝑚δe C𝑚δe
𝜕C𝑚
Cm0 ( 𝜕C𝐿 ) (C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 )
δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 =− −
C𝑚 δ e C𝑚δe

Cm0 (𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑥̅𝑐𝑔 )(C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 )

δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = − +
C𝑚δe C𝑚δe

Since here assume CL of total aircraft is dominated by C𝐿α of the aircraft times alpha trim, assume
𝜕C𝑚
CL0 is very small. Since 𝜕C𝐿
is equals to minus of static margin, ok which is minus of (𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑥̅𝑐𝑔 )

of the aircraft, just refer our previous lectures, you will be able to figure out this. And now so can
I express this δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 like this in this form:
(𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑥̅𝑐𝑔 )(C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 )
δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = 𝛿𝑒0 +
C𝑚 δ e

258
By comparing the constants and coefficients of CL trim, what I have,
Cm0
𝛿𝑒0 = −
C𝑚δe

(Refer Slide Time: 47:19)

If your Cg is at the neutral point, that means you do not have this trim coefficient anymore here,
you need to satisfy this 𝛿𝑒0 for this Cm0 and C𝑚δe . We know Cm0 is positive for a statically stable
aircraft and C𝑚δe is negative, this particular 𝛿𝑒0 becomes positive, right. So, this is how the variation
of Cm with δe .
(Refer Slide Time: 49:00)

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Variation of CL and δe , right, so δe is positive here and δe is negative and this is 0, what is δe
positive? We just discussed about it deflecting elevated downwards, is δe positive which gives a
negative moment, that decreases angle of attack. The decreases your CL it has to be, is not it? That
is why if you see this particular equation dou delta e upon dou C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 .

When there is for a positively or for an aircraft or a UAV with positive static stability or static
margin, you have 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑥̅𝑐𝑔 is positive, right. C𝑚δe is negative, so this particular slope is negative.
So, when there is a positive or downward deflection in elevated deflection, The trim that results
the C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 that is going to result is negative or decreased or when there is a positive increase in
delta e there is an increase in C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 .

Or say when you have to decrease your C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 you have to increase that δe or deflect your elevator
downwards, ok. So, that means the slope is negative for this plot, if I have to plot delta e versus
CL trim this particular equation this is nothing but is equals to delta e, right, this is delta e trim,
right. 𝛿𝑒0 + slope times C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , is not it, slope is negative here and δe is positive.

That means 𝛿𝑒0 is positive let us say this is my 𝛿𝑒0 , right, this is positive. And for a given Cg
location for the same UAV for a given Cg location that means the you have placed the weights
and distribute at the weight all other components in such a way that you achieve at this particular
the Cg will result in this 𝑥𝑐𝑔 , right. For that particular Cg location, this 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑥̅𝑐𝑔 upon C𝑚δe is
negative, right.

For that Cg location the slope is negative here for example. 𝛿𝑒0 corresponds to what? If 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 −
𝑥̅𝑐𝑔 = 0, neutrally stable condition, ok. And now when there is when the Cg is ahead of the neutral
point, right, what does it mean? If 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑥̅𝑐𝑔 is positive what does it mean? For example, if this is
my aircraft, let us say this is my aircraft, so wing alone aircraft say this is my reference line.

Say this is my NP, right, neutral point, now if it has to be positive that mean this distance 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 this
is 𝑥𝑁𝑃 should be greater than this distance Cg. Say this is my Cg distance, so this should be greater
than otherwise the Cg should lie ahead of the 𝑥𝑁𝑃 , right, close to the leading edge here, let us say.

260
Now, for this particular location of Cg I have this slope constant, is not it? The slope is constant,
ok. Let us say this particular line represents 𝑥𝑐𝑔1 position, ok, 𝑥𝑐𝑔1 .
(Refer Slide Time: 52:54)

Now consider a second location, so what can I do for that is this corresponds to 𝑥𝑐𝑔 . Say this is my
reference line, so this is my NP neutral point, ok, now this is my 𝑥𝑐𝑔1 location 1, Say I have an
aircraft or a wing alone aircraft something like this, this is my 𝑥𝑐𝑔1 . Now let us say I take my Cg
a bit more or forward or towards the leading edge here, right, towards the nose of this aircraft.

Let us say this is my 𝑥𝑐𝑔2 , that means the distance between this neutral point and Cg location is
increased which makes this slope steeper, is not it? That is more negative here, am I correct or not?
This makes the slope more negative and 𝛿𝑒0 is independent of this location of center of gravity is
not it? That is what we figured it out here.

And then let us assume the third case where this is like 𝑥𝑐𝑔2 , ok, now let us assume another case
where the Cg is more further up further towards the nose which is 𝑥𝑐𝑔3 location. So, that means it
is more steeper now compare to the previous case. So, what I have is this particular slope, let us
say this corresponds to 𝑥𝑐𝑔3 . So, how far I can move this? question is how far I can move this?

261
Let us consider there is another location 𝑥𝑐𝑔4 , ok, so let that be𝑥𝑐𝑔4 , ok. So, what do you mean by
this? I am changing C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 here, is not it? The C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 or what is this C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , I am changing the 𝐶𝐿
value, right, is not it. At each and every when there is a change in elevated deflection, that means
for each and every 𝐶𝐿 there is a particular δe value which means there is a particular alpha trim,
am I correct or not?

If for the same Cg if I take some other 𝐶𝐿 value, there is a particular delta e negative here in this
particular case. If I have to achieve this particular 𝐶𝐿 value then I have to give delta e positive here,
this is what this curve talks about it, is not it, am I correct or not? And if you might have noticed
that at C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 or say this is your desired 𝐶𝐿 let us say this is called design 𝐶𝐿 where you there is no
need of delta e trim, right, δe should be 0, you should be able to achieve this C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , right.

CL design without any control surface deflection, right, that 𝐶𝐿 design yeah corresponds to a
particular Cg location, so corresponds to a particular curve here, am I correct? Coming back to
this, now let us say there is 𝐶𝐿 maximum ok, for any aircraft or we know we have CL maximum
for the wing, right. How can I achieve 𝐶𝐿 maximum? It is again at a particular angle of attack; am
I correct or not? am I correct?

How can I achieve that angle of attack by deflecting the control surface, right, that means in
negative deflection will give me positive angle of attack, what is negative deflection? So,
deflecting elevator upwards will produce a downward force that creates a positive moment which
increase as the angle of attack, right. If I have 𝐶𝐿 max is at higher angle of attack or say angles of
attack higher positive angles of attack.

That I, so it is clear that I need a negative deflection here, right. So, there is a maximum negative
deflection for the elevator, is not it or not?
(Refer Slide Time: 57:49)

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So, let us say if this is my symmetric aerofoil I may not be able to deflect it 90 degrees down.
Apart from the mechanical constraints I am talking about aerodynamic constraints, the flow may
separate all together, right. There is certain value of this control surface deflection where is the
flow is still effective on the control surface, right. That particular value is known as delta e
maximum, let us say this is my delta e maximum, right, negative delta e max or maximum upward
deflection of the elevator, right.

With this δe max I will able to achieve 𝐶𝐿 max let us assume that, this delta e deflection up and
downward, right, otherwise upward maximum deflection will achieve alpha maximum or alpha
stall ok. For with which I can achieve this 𝐶𝐿 maximum, ok, now the Cg location as the Cg location
varies the slope is changing here, right. So, if I look at this particular curve, right, Cg 4 I may not
be able to achieve with maximum delta e deflection.

I may not be able to achieve this 𝐶𝐿 maximum because 𝐶𝐿 maximum is somewhere here, am I
correct or not? I am not able to trim my aircraft at 𝐶𝐿 maximum I have to satisfy myself with this
particular like with the limited regime of 𝐶𝐿 , I may not be able to use the entire 𝐶𝐿 versus alpha
that my wing posses, do you understand? If you take it more forward, right, so this is a constrain
that you face, you cannot be able to use the 𝐶𝐿 , total 𝐶𝐿 available.

263
Now say if I take this Cg a bit backward, right from here I shifted my Cg here, so that means I am
able to increase yeah still I am not able to achieve this 𝐶𝐿 maximum, right. I am able to right yeah
increase the available 𝐶𝐿 regime but I am still not able to achieve this 𝐶𝐿 maximum, right. Now
say I have taken my Cg further backward, so with this I am able to do this, right, do you get this
point or not?

I do not need this delta e maximum here, for example with this delta e maximum I can achieve
something else here more than 𝐶𝐿 max. I do not even require delta e maximum if my Cg is within
this limit, right. For this particular curve orange curve our Cg 1 location, I just need some negative
delta e to achieve that 𝐶𝐿 maximum, some upward deflection that is it.

Now the constraint on the forward Cg location, the most forward Cg location is from this delta e
maximum condition. The elevator control surface with or the elevator control deflection with
which you still be able to trim your aircraft at 𝐶𝐿 maximum. So, the Cg location for which with
the maximum elevated deflection upward elevated deflection, you can still be able to trim your
aircraft at 𝐶𝐿 maximum, right.

That is the most forward Cg location, so by substituting that in this particular equation, what is this
𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑥̅𝑐𝑔 g most forward this becomes 𝐶𝐿 trim become 𝐶𝐿 maximum, alright. Delta e becomes
delta e maximum, ok, by substituting those parameters in this equation we will be able to find out
what is the most forward Cg location, how can I do that? I have
(𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑥̅𝑐𝑔𝑓 )(C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
δe𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛿𝑒0 +
C𝑚 δ e

δe𝑚𝑎𝑥 here is maximum upward deflection, right and 𝑐𝑔𝑓 talks about most forward Cg location.

Now you have trimming aircraft at maximum 𝐶𝐿 . So, by rearranging this equation, so what I have
is 𝑥𝐶𝐺 most forward Cg location is equals to
C𝑚 δ e
𝑥̅𝑐𝑔𝑓 = 𝑥̅𝑁𝑃 − (δe𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝛿𝑒0 )
C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
You cannot simply place your Cg for ahead you know, if you want to still want a control, good
control of your aircraft, you have to limit your Cg forward location, right.

264
What we have is a permissible, now with these details what I can say is so if I have an aircraft
something like this, ok. Say if this is my reference line, say this point as my neutral point, ok and
this is my 𝑥𝐶𝐺 most forward which is governed by this delta e maximum, right. This particular
distance is a allowable Cg traverse, you have to design your UAV to lie within this particular
distance, right, the Cg of the UAV should be within this limits X.

The most aft location is 𝑋𝑁𝑃 , so we are not talking about stick free and stick free condition. Because
in the UAV there is no point of stick free, it is always control by a servo motor, right or an actuator.
This Cg, so this is nothing but the most aft location of a see this is 𝑋𝑁𝑃 corresponding location,
most aft location is the neutral point for static stability.

And most forward location is 𝑋𝑐𝑔𝑓 which is governed by this 𝛿𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 . We have now covered good

enough concepts in order to talk about performance analysis, right. We will consider a UAV data
of a UAV and then we will do performance analysis for various. For example, if I have to trim that
aircraft at different angles of attack, right, within the linear regime let us say.
For different angles of at different angle of attack what should be the corresponding 𝛿𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , right
for a α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 what should be delta e trim. And then say what should be the velocity of the flight
3/2
𝐶 𝐶𝐿
resulting from that and then what should be the thrust required, power required and 𝐶 𝐿 and for
𝐷 𝐶𝐷

that particular configuration, how they vary with velocity or say angle of attack?

That is what we will solve using an iterative approach, I wish you should like one of our TA Qazi
Salahudden made it tutorial on MATLAB. You can start getting comfortable with the MATLAB
environment. We will be solving that problem using MATLAB, right, that iterative problem using
MATLAB, thank you.

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 UAV Design-Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture-19
Examples on Performance Analysis of UAV

Dear friends, welcome back. So, in our previous lecture we discussed about the conditions for trim,
where what should be the delta e deflection in order to achieve a particular angle of attack? right,
so for which we have solved the 2 equations.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:27)

The pitching moment equation which is

Cm = Cm0 + C𝑚α α + C𝑚δe δ𝑒 = Cm (α, δ𝑒 )

And then in general also the total lift coefficient of this aircraft or the UAV must be equals to the
C𝐿 = CL0 + C𝐿α α + C𝐿δe δ𝑒 = C𝐿 (α, δ𝑒 )

So, we have modeled the pitching moment as a function of angle of attack and the control surface
deflection.

Similarly, the total lift coefficient of the UAV as a function of angle of attack and elevator control
surface deflection. So, this we need to be careful here this C𝐿α is for the entire UAV just to remind

266
 𝜕C
you and CL0 is also for the entire UAV, where C𝐿δe as we know is equals to 𝜕δ𝐿. So, the change in
e

the lift coefficient of the aircraft due to elevated deflection.

Similarly the C𝑚δe here which we have discussed in our previous lecture is the elevator control
𝜕 C𝑚
power which is . Now what are we going to do in this lecture? We will consider a UAV right,
𝜕δe

with it is all the coefficients and the parameters given. And then we will see if you want to trim it
at a particular angle of attack, what will be the corresponding delta e trim?

And what will be the resulting flight velocity? And then the thrust required as well as the power
required to achieve such flight condition, right. So, that means given a UAV we are now trying to
analyze the performance of the UAV for the level flight, where we will see what should be the
power required to fly at different velocities which results in definitely a particular angle of attack
for trim as well as delta e for trim.

Let us consider an example, consider an UAV with the following data where you will just try to
note down the parameters, where CL0 of the UAV = 0.06 , CD0 is 0.03 and Cm0 is 0.01, C𝐿α of the
entire UAV is 2.92, C𝐿δe is 0.265 and C𝑚α is - 0.292. And then C𝑚δe of this UAV is − 0.4. The
value of k that can be figured out from the geometry.

The UAV is a cropped delta wing alone configuration with a root chord of 0.9 meters and tip chord
of 0.15 meters in the span of 1.5 meters. With this we will be able to figure out with an Oswald’s
efficiency of e = 0.89. With this we will be able to figure out what is the induced drag correction
factor? First of all let us complete this question where we need to find out?

Then find the power required, thrust required and it is variation with angle of attack. That is a
question we have the data of a UAV which is a crop delta reflex wing configuration and we were
given about the geometry where it is yeah we have solved this particular example many times in
terms of the geometry. We figured out what is the planform area based upon, root chord tip chord
yeah from which you can calculate taper ratio.

267
Using taper ratio and the span and the root chord we will be able to find out the planform reference
area. And with the help of yeah this data we will be able to figure out what is the aspect ratio? And
we were given the information about e which is 0.89 Oswald’s efficient factor is 0.89. We can use
that to figure out what is the induced drag correction factor k, right. Why because why do we
require K is because we are talking power required and thrust required.

We know power required and thrust required, power required for a propeller engine let us say is
3/2
𝐶𝐿 𝐶
varies with a factors right and for thrust required it varies with the factor 𝐶 𝐿 , right. So, now we
𝐶𝐷 𝐷

need to find out what is the if I trim the aircraft at a given angle of attack, what should be the
corresponding delta e? What will be the resulting velocity? And then what should be the 𝐶𝐿 for
that particular alpha? And as well as 𝐶𝐷 .

From there you can figure out what is the corresponding thrust required and power required? Let
us write down the steps that are required to solve this example.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:45)

So before getting into the steps let us figure out what are these non-dimensional parameters? Some
of this geometric non dimension parameters, first we have root chord, right, and then we have tip
chord information of span is also given, right. This is the UAV that we are talking about. Where
the root chord is about 0.9 meters and the tip chord is about 0.15 meters, right, and then the span
of this UAV is about 1.5 meters.

268
Let us quickly figure out what is the taper ratio lambda (𝜆) is
𝐶𝑡
𝜆=
𝐶𝑅
So, I am intentionally repeating the steps though we have calculated lambda many times in our
previous example. But I still want you to get used to this particular parameter, which is about 0.167
and then the aspect ratio is b square upon 𝑆. We need to know what is 𝑆 here? 𝑆 we can figure it
out by
𝑏
𝑆= 𝐶 (1 + 𝜆)
2 𝑅

So it turns out to be 0.787 𝑚2 . With the help of this yeah planform area we will be able to figure
out the aspect ratio which is 1.5-meter square upon 0.787 which is 2.86, 2.86 is the aspect ratio, so
with the help of this data we will be able to find out what is the induced drag correction factor?
1
𝑘=
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
The aspect ratio is 2.86. The value turns out to be 0.125. Now we know what all we require in
order to find out what is the power required and thrust required here? Let us follow the steps here,
so the first step I would like to consider an alpha for trim, right. You consider alpha trim using
these 2 equations, so this one right. Using these 2 equations, we will be able to find out what is the
corresponding delta e trim?, how can we do that?
(Refer Slide Time: 11:12)

269
For trim we know that Cm has to be 0. So, this we discussed in a previous lecture because it is an
equilibrium condition about which the resultant moment and the forces has to balance and the
resultant moment is should be 0 there, right. Cm has to be 0 where which is equals to

Cm = 0 = Cm0 + C𝑚α α + C𝑚δe δ𝑒

When you trim the resultant pitching moment Cm is 0 and then the corresponding δe is a δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 for
that particular flight condition. And then the second equation CL out to be C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 which is equals

C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = CL0 + C𝐿α α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 + C𝐿δe δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚

So, if you solve all these 2 equations, what we get

−C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 C𝑚α − Cm0 C𝐿α + CL0 C𝑚α
δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 =
C𝑚δe C𝐿α − C𝐿δe C𝑚α

Similarly, you can solve for α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , simply consider the top equation as equation 1 and the bottom
one as equation 2.
−C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 C𝑚δe − Cm0 C𝐿δe + CL0 C𝑚δe
α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 =
C𝑚α C𝐿δe − C𝐿α C𝑚δe

If you want to solve for δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 and then what you can do is equation 1 multiplied by C𝐿α and
equation 2 multiplied by C𝑚α subtract both the equations. When you want to solve for α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , then
multiply equation 1 with C𝐿δe and equation 2 with C𝑚δe and subtract them, right.

This is simple, 2 equations 2 variable problem. Once you know all these parameters you can get
δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 directly and α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 which can be used to solve a numerical problem.

But here we are trying to use any iterative approach, see we need to find out power required and
thrust required for each and every angle of attack, right. For that first of all let us see before getting
into the steps, let us see what is the power required and thrust required for a UAV in the level flight
condition?
(Refer Slide Time: 15:08)

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We are talking about level flight analysis, power required is drag of thrust required times velocity.
Thrust required is equals to drag generated by the system times velocity of flight, right. And then
similarly thrust required let us say when you are talking about and thrust required is equals to drag
of the aircraft which is
1
𝑇𝑅 = D = . ρ. V 2 . S. C𝐷
2

and C𝐷 = C𝐷0 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2 using drag polar.

And then, value of 𝑘 we figured it out the

C𝐿 value here is
C𝐿 = CL0 + C𝐿α α + C𝐿δe δ𝑒

Now we have to approach this now what is the C𝐿 ? Corresponding we are talking about α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 and
δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 . When you trim the aircraft at a particular alpha what you get is? δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , with that you are
trimming this aircraft you need to generate a trim lift coefficient at that particular flight velocity,
right.
How to figure it out C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ? we know
2(𝑊⁄𝑆)
C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 =
𝜌𝑉∞2

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You need to know what is the corresponding flight velocity? If you know what is the corresponding
flight velocity you will be able to find out C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 . Once you know C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 and using these 2 equations
you can find out what is δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 as well as a α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 by substituting C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 in this equation with the
given data. Once you have alpha trim and delta e trim, you know what is C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ?

When you substitute C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 here, so what you get is C𝐷 for that particular trim condition. The C𝐷
for that particular trim condition can be figured out like can be used to figure out what is the drag
acting on the system which we need to satisfy in order to move at this particular velocity V infinity,
right. Our engine has to say if you are using a jet engine it has to produce so much thrust to move
forward.

Otherwise when you talk about a propeller aircraft, if you want to install an electric brushless
motor with the propeller combination to propel this or to make this aircraft move forward. Then
you need to satisfy this power requirement condition for the particular aircraft, right, which is
thrust required times velocity. This is what we are going to solve, we will consider instead of
approaching in this particular manner by assuming some velocity what we try to do is?

We try to iterate for alpha trim, substituting alpha trim in this equation what you get is δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , right.
Once you have δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , what you can do is? You will be able to find out what is the corresponding,
C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 . And then so once you have alpha trim using this particular equation : Cm0 + C𝑚α α + C𝑚δe δ𝑒 .

You can find out what is δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ? Use that δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 in this equation to find out what is C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ?

Use that C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 right, so using that C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 you can find out what is the velocity of flight? Do you
understand? What we are not approaching it the way we solved a numerical problem rather we are
trying to find out what will be the resulting velocity if I have to trim at this particular angle of
attack, ok. So, and then with this C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 I will be able to find out the drag coefficient and thereby
drag which is thrust required by the system and the power required.

3/2
𝐶𝐿 𝐶
In this process we will also try to figure out what should be as well as what should be 𝐶 𝐿 , ok
𝐶𝐷 𝐷

and it is variation with yeah angle of attack. So, since we are varying alpha here, alpha is considered

272
as an input variable. So, we will try to find out what is the variation with alpha, ok. We need to
3/2
𝐶𝐿 𝐶
find out and 𝐶 𝐿 variation with alpha, right.
𝐶𝐷 𝐷

In order to complete this question, let us consider the following data, which you must be having
by this time? Let us consider the weight of the UAV as 3.5 kg, right, and that the flight is at sea
level, which means you are forcing the density should be 1.225 kg upon meter cube. I think you
are now by this time you are comfortable with the MATLAB environment. We will try since it is
an iterative approach, we need some program to solve this, let us build a small sub routine to help
us in solving this example problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:31)

I just opened the editor page where I can start typing my code. Just before this I will try to write
down the steps which we just discussed. Let us consider phase 3, so step 1, steps otherwise. The
first step what we will do is? Consider an alpha for trim which means alpha trim, right. Use moment
equation like C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , right, Cm equation to find corresponding delta e trim.

Now, the third step is find C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 using α𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 in the assumed aerodynamic model TK. And
then the fourth step should be, so determine respective flight velocity, this should correspond to V
infinity sorry C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , right, is not it. The corresponding flight velocity is twice the wing loading
upon the density at which the flight density or air at the particular altitude times the C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 that we
have figured out from step 3.

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Then once you have flight velocity then you can and you know, what is C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ?, also estimate C D
for that particular trim C D for the trim using drag polar. So, what we need to do?
C𝐷 = C𝐷0 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
Now once you know this find the thrust required which is drag acting on the UAV, right, which
is T thrust required or should be dragged which is
1
𝑇𝑅 = D = . ρ. V 2 . S. C𝐷
2

we know it from step 4 and reference area times C𝐷0 or C𝐷 directly right C𝐷 we got it from step 5.
3/2
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿
Now find and . This using steps yeah 3 and 5, ok, and now you can find out what is the
𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐷

power required? The power required is thrust required times V which is drag times V, right. Now
we need to plot this, so this is what typically the procedure that we are going to adopt to solve this
problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:04)

Now I have quickly try to program this, clear all, close all clc. Let us first write down the given
data, the weight of the aircraft is given as 3.5 kg, right. So, I am trying to multiply this by g ok,
this is our weight of the UAV, ok. So, I can do g I am trying to use it as 10 meter per second square,
so which is in meter per second square. Weight of the UAV in newton’s.

And then the reference area we just figured it out, right, in our previous calculations which is 0.787
meter square and then the value of an aspect ratio is equals to b square upon s, where b is 1.5

274
meters wingspan of UAV in meters, reference planform area in meter square. Instead of giving
this directly, what we can do is? We can use the data which was given
𝑏
𝑆= 𝐶 (1 + 𝜆)
2 𝑅
This b should be ahead of this because it requires, so to compute this equation at row 7 we need to
have the information about b. From the given data C r root chord is 0.9 meters, right, this is root
chord which is 0.9 in meters and 𝐶𝑡 is the tip chord which is 0.15 in meters. So, what I find is
lambda with this data which is taper ratio or say instead of lambda I will say T r right taper ratio
which is 𝐶𝑡 upon 𝐶𝑅 which is taper ratio say bracket lambda ok instead of lambda what we will try
to use is?

And now, so I am in a position to find out the aspect ratio as well here. With and we know what is
an Oswald’s efficiency factor which was given as 0.89, right. So, this is Oswald’s efficiency factor.
1
And then e is given. I can calculate k which is induced drag correction factor. So, 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅, so this is

our Oswald’s efficient sorry induced drag correction factor, ok. So, now we need to do iterations,
right, so for example I need to start our step 1, what is our step 1?

This is considering an alpha for trim which is alpha trim, I need to consider this. Let us say I vary
this alpha aoa let us say is an angle of attack. I would like to vary this from. This is like starting
with 0 angle of attack, right, 0 with an increment of 0.5 and up to let us assume this linear variation
is up to 12 degrees. This is what we are assuming here, what is the meaning of this step? the
variation.

Let us say this is my variation of lift coefficient 𝐶𝐿 with angle of attack alpha, right. What I am
considering here is a linear variation. This is typically for this delta wing UAV I intentionally try
to you know make this plot this is what V observed, this is how the 𝐶𝐿 variation for this
configuration. What I would like to consider is?

This particular regime which is up to alpha = 12 degrees, right, is almost linear. And also assume
𝐶𝐿0 of the configuration is given from the given data we have what is 𝐶𝐿0 ? 𝐶𝐿0 is 0.06. 𝐶𝐿0 what we

275
have here is? 0.06. In this particular regime we are using this linear approximation where 𝐶𝐿 =
𝐶𝐿0 + C𝐿α α a right, 𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + C𝐿α α and then superimposed by C𝐿δe δ𝑒 .

This particular aoa from 0 to 12 degrees is linear, that we can use those equations. And the step
here is 0.5 degrees angle of attack that I would like to consider, for these iterations to happen if I
have to save the data I am using a variable i starting with 0, right, just variable for iterations. What
I do is? I will try to increment this i during the variations, so, i = i + 1. The current value of I during
the first iteration is 1, right, where the angle of attack is starting from 0 degrees.

Now I need to convert this aoa, so here we consider degrees right but in MATLAB we may not be
able to use degrees as such. So, MATLAB do not understand degrees we need to converted into
radians here, so what I try to do is? So, alpha right let it be complete is equals to aoa times pi by
180, converting it leads to radians. I would like to store this data as well, so whatever we are going
to get, I would like to store this data.

This can be like alpha of I, this will become a column vector, is not it. I am trying to save this data,
so alpha is increasing inside the loop that is a reason why there is it is highlighted either like you
can try to assign the size of this alpha outside this loop itself. Once we have alpha then we need to
find out using the step 2 we need to use C m equation to find out the corresponding delta e trim,
right.

What is that Cm equation to find out delta e trim? so this Cm equation, right, Cm(trim) = 0, right, is
not it. For Cm(trim)= 0 which is Cm0 + C𝑚α α + C𝑚δe δ𝑒 .
(Refer Slide Time: 34:28)

276
Now substituting this particular alpha trim what we have assumed earlier? right. Substitute that in
this particular equation to find out delta e trim which is equals to minus of Cm0 + C𝑚α α upon C𝑚δe ,
substitute this. (Video Starts: 34:56) Instead of alpha let us say aoa trim, right, that means we are
talking about aoa underscore trim, ok tr talks about converting trim angle of attack from degrees
to radians.

Once you have this we know what is delta e trim? So, say δ𝑒 underscore tr is equals to of i, 1 I am
trying to store this value as well is equals to this. This is a variable here, right, upon C m underscore
del e right, so what do we require here? We need Cm0 , C𝑚α and C𝑚δe , so let us give those inputs
here.

Let me consider them as, so these are the input geometric parameters. These are input geometric
parameters. We should also talk about input aerodynamic meters, right. What we have is CL 0 is
0.06 from the given data and CL underscore a talks about alpha otherwise, C𝐿α which is 2.92 per
radian and C𝐿δe is 0.265.

Otherwise let us round it up to 2 digits here and then CD0 is equals to 0.03. This is again from the
given data. So, Cm0 is 0.01 for it is positive for this UAV, right. C m alpha is - 0.29 and then C𝑚δe
is - 0.41. k is already figured out from here which is 1 upon per year. We can if you want we can
shift this to aerodynamic parameters.

277
And now we are proceeding ahead to figure out over requirement and the thrust requirement with
for different trim angle of attacks. CL del e underscore trim, right is equals to this and then now
the third step here is find CL trim using alpha trim and delta e trim using the assumed aerodynamic
model, ok. So, CL underscore tr C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 again let us store this C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 of i, 1 C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 is equals to 𝐶𝐿0 +
C𝐿α underscore al alpha times alpha trim aoa underscore tr of i, 1, ok C𝑚α sorry 𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + C𝐿α α +

C𝐿δe δe .

We have this 𝐶𝑚 underscore del e, let us make this one also capital del E, so C𝑚δe , ok. So,
C𝐿δe δe𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , let me write this one also del E capital underscore tr of i, 1. And the third step right now

is determining the respective flight velocity, right, so we need to find out what is V infinity. So,
flight velocity V for this trim condition is equals to square root of twice the wing loading 2 times.
Let us find out the wing loading error w for say, that is a good practice let us w underscore s talks
about wing loading which is equals to w which is in newtons here, you need to observe that. Even
mass is let us say m is a mass of the aircraft which is given as 3.5 kg, so it is given mass of the
aircraft, ok in kg. We converted it to weight in Newtons and then now we now changed the wing
loading in Newton upon meter square.

The same wing loading I am using here underscore s divided by density, density is equals to 0
sorry it is a tree level, so it is 1.225 kg upon meter square. So, density of air at sea level in kg upon
meter cube. We now got the density times C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , right, 𝐶𝐿 underscore tr of i, 1, ok. This is in the
denominator and this entire thing is inside this square root, you can see once I select the end
bracket.

The bracket which is immediately squrt is the starting of that bracket. That means this entire
expression is within this square root, so after finding velocity we need to find 𝐶𝐷 that is the step
here estimate CD for the trim using drag polar. What I can do is CD of i, 1 is equals to CD0 + k times
k is the induced drag correction factor which we have figured out earlier, right of the given data
times C𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 square.

278
This drag is corresponds to the trim flight curve i, 1 square, once you note drag you can find out
the thrust required T let us say thrust required T r which is half density rho times V infinity square.
so, V of i, 1 square of rho V square times the reference area S half rho V square S times CD of i, 1.
So, this will this equation will try to figure out what is the thrust required of the drag acting on the
aircraft based upon the flight velocity at that yeah at V of that particular.

i, 1 corresponds to this particular iteration at this particular angle of attack, right. Initially at 0 alpha
what is the corresponding V i and the CD i, so it should correspond to this particular angle of attack.
So, we are trying to use this indexing CD of i, 1, and V of i, 1, so that we will get the corresponding
thrust required for that particular angle of attack. and then the power required of i, 1 is equals to
thrust required i, 1 times velocity of flight, V of i, 1.

In the process we can also figure out what is 𝐶𝐿 to 𝐶𝐷 , 𝐶𝐿 underscore 𝐶𝐷 of how L by D is varying,
right. So, 𝐶𝐿 underscore 𝐶𝐷 , of i, 1 which is equals to so 𝐶𝐿 underscore trim of i, 1 upon this is t r
ok, 1 upon 𝐶𝐷 , of i, 1 when 𝐶𝐿 3 underscore 2 let us say 𝐶𝐿 3 by 2 underscore 𝐶𝐷 , ok. Let us say
𝐶𝐿 32 talks about 𝐶𝐿 power 3 by 2 let us assume that let us consider this as the nomenclature.

3/2
𝐶𝐿
i, 1 for , 𝐶𝐿 rise to the power of 3 by 2 upon 𝐶𝐷 , right. So, so this entire variable is varying,
𝐶𝐷
3/2
𝐶𝐿
right, with alpha which is equals to again. So, this is the end of the code, we will see whether
𝐶𝐷

this code runs or not, so in order to see this output we need to plot is not it.

Let us start a figure here, figure 1 that talks about now let us have 6 subplots here, for all the
variables, subplot of what all we required alpha delta e 𝐶𝐷 thrust required 𝐶𝐿 and power required
about 6 subplots right. Let me make it 8, for those other variables as well, plot. What I am trying
to plot is on the x axis I would like plot velocity because that is how we are use, right.

The variation of velocity and the corresponding power required and thrust required and let us adopt
to the same convention. So, I will try to plot velocity on the x axis which is V it will in the
corresponding first plot should be. So, the first plot can be from yeah aoa angle of attack for trim
aoa underscore tr, ok, colon k star, this is for the line that I would like to plot you know we can.

279
y label is alpha underscore trim y label, ok, so to first plot we have angle of attack variation with
velocity. And the second one will be about delta e trim, right, velocity in del E underscore T r
right. So, which is delta underscore E underscore trim, ok. And then the third subplot is about
variation of 𝐶𝐿 underscore trim with alpha. This I can write 𝐶𝐿 C underscore L underscore trim,
ok. So, I will not write the complete T, T stands for trim here.

And the fourth plot should be about 𝐶𝐷 variation with alpha which is 𝐶𝐷 , right, so this is C
underscore D. And the fifth plot should be thrust required T r right T r variation with on y axis we
need to talk about T r and it is variation with alpha, ok. Let us go fifth plot, so the corresponding
y label for this is T underscore r thrust required in Newtons again, the sixth plot is about 𝐶𝐿 upon
𝐶𝐷 , ok, so this is C underscore L divided by C underscore D 𝐶𝐿 upon 𝐶𝐷 .

And the seventh subplot is the variation of power required Pr with velocity and the final plot is
3/2 3/2
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿
about variation of with alpha. What , in the x label is velocity or say V underscore in meters
𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐷
3/2
𝐶𝐿
per second. So, let us just run this code and see, so you can see variation with ok. There are
𝐶𝐷

small like errors in the symbols I will just try to correct them. Here, can you see the variation here
which so the alpha trim which V varied from 0 degrees to say yeah which V varied from 0 degrees
to.
It is radiance let me just plot it in degrees here, so delta E and alpha are in radians, so it is better I
convert them to write degrees. This is multiplied by 180 upon pi I am just converting from radians.
See, alpha is varied from 0 to 10 degrees, right at 0 degrees angle of attack almost see y is 0 here.
So, you need to fly this UAV at say about close to 33 meters per second.
You have to fly this UAV at 33 meters per second because the total lift is depend upon 𝐶𝐿0 there
and alpha S 0. So, in the corresponding trim delta e is almost close to yeah, ok, so it is close to -1
degrees here, so trim delta e is. And then CL trim, so at 0 yeah it is almost 0.06 which is nothing
but 𝐶𝐿0 close 𝐶𝐿0 + C𝐿δe δe here, right. This plot typically talks about the performance analysis here
for the level flight.
When I have to trim an aircraft at different angles of attack what will be the corresponding variation
or thrust requirement. When I have to fly at o angle of attacks, I need to produce more thrust here
which is 15 in order to produce the same lift, I need to fly at higher velocities when I am trimming

280
it at 12 degrees angle of attack I can fly at low velocities maybe 12 meters per second here, close
to.
x is 10.6 or 11 meters per second here and the corresponding power required here is say 47 watts.
And then the thrust required is about just 4 newtons you know, close to what? 0.4 kg, 400 grams
of thrust is required, fine. I wish you should repeat this exercise, you should practice this, so that
you get comfortable as we progressed to the other sub routines that we are going to develop, thank
you. (Video Ends: 57:33)

281
 UAV Design - Part II
Mr. Qazi Salahudden (PhD Scholar)
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology- Kanpur

Lecture-20
Weight Estimation and wing Sizing with Example

Hello everyone, I am Qazi Salahudden TA of the present course; the course name is UAV design
part 2. Today I will discuss some example problem suppose if you have any mission requirement,
and based on the given requirement, how will you design the aircraft or UAV? So, let us say we
have the mission requirements which are following:
(Refer Slide Time: 00:43)

(Refer Slide Time: 02:26)

282
Mission requirements:
1) the weight of the aircraft should be less than 3000 kg,
2) 4 passenger + 1 crew.
3) maximum range= 3000 km
4) service sealing= 7 km
5) Flight altitude =MSL to 10,000 feet
6) Design cruise speed = 70 to 100 m/s
7) Rate of climb = 5 to 6 m/s
8) Take-off distance= 550 to 650 m
9) Landing distance= 500 to 600 m

Like here we are designing the manned aircraft, see suppose that we remove the person from the
aircraft then it becomes the payload. So, you can consider this is a weight of the payload also, so
from this mission requirement you can design the mined aircraft as well as unmanned aircraft also.
The third requirement is the maximum range. Our aircraft should cover the 1000 kilometre range
at least and service sealing should be the 7 kilometers, this is nothing but maximum altitude at
which the aircraft can fly. Flight altitude should vary between mean sea level to 10000 feet like if
you want to fly at 0 kilometers, 1 kilometre. So, our aircraft should not be feasible to fly only mean
sea level, it should also fly at least from mean sea level to 10,000 feet, ok

283
6th requirements is designed to cruise is speed should be in between 70 to 100 meter per second.
Because here you are changing the altitude know, so your flight speed will also change. And the
seventh required means is the rate of climb should be 5 to 6 meter per second this is also very
important criteria for designing any aircraft. Because you want to climb as fast as possible or
sometimes we want the aircraft to fly as low as possible like based on the mission requirement, the
rate of climb is a very important criteria.
And the eighth one is takeoff distance should be 550 to 650 and the last one is landing distance
should be in between 500 to 600 meter. Because these are also the restrictions sometimes the
shorter and sometimes we required longer runway these 2 will also come ok. So, typically we will
see how the mission profile will look like?
(Refer Slide Time: 06:22)

As you can see you will start from here,

284
suppose that you are starting from here you marked as a 0 and then you are basically taxing ok and
then you are going to climb and then there will be the cruise and then descent. Here you can also
loiter (06:47) and then you will land your aircraft . So, this is 3 and this is 4 and this is 5. So, this
is nothing but the takeoff phase, this is your takeoff phase, this is your climb phase and this is your
cruise phase and this is your descent and then finally you will land your aircraft ok. So, now if
your aircraft is fuel-powered, you are taxing from 0 to 1 then taking off and climbing from 1 to 2
then cruising from 2 to 3 and then descending from 3 to 4 and finally landing from 4 to 5.
Continuously the fuel will consume, so your aircraft weight will not remain the constant, ok. So,
in our design example first, we will estimate the weight of the aircraft like what should be the
weight of aircraft? To achieve this requirement, so let us see how to estimate the weight of the
aircraft. So, first, we will define what are the different types of weight aircraft has like?
(Refer Slide Time: 08:38)

First weight will be the 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 , the weight of the crew member, ok. So, very short-form is
𝑊𝑐 , 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 equal to the weight of crew, 𝑊𝑝 is weight of the payload, 𝑊𝑓 is the weight of fuel is also
we can 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 , 𝑊𝑒 is an empty weight of the aircraft. So, total weight of the aircraft you can write
as 𝑊0 , then 𝑊0 , will become
𝑊0 = 𝑊𝑐 + 𝑊𝑝 + 𝑊𝑓 + 𝑊𝑒
(1)

285
You can take as an equation 1. One thing you can notice in equation 1, you do not have any weight,
right, you do not have 𝑊𝑐 , 𝑊𝑝 , 𝑊𝑓 and 𝑊𝑒 . Now, what you will do here? We will find out the
fraction weight, how we will see later?
(Refer Slide Time: 11:06)

If you do some mathematical manipulation here then equation 1 can be rewritten

𝑊𝑐 + 𝑊𝑝
𝑊0 =
𝑊𝑓 𝑊 (2)
1 − 𝑊 − 𝑊𝑒
0 0

You marked this as an equation 2. So, now equation 2 is nothing but written in terms of fraction
𝑊
(fraction with 𝑊0 ). So, this fraction we can find out like 𝑊𝑓 we can find out. I will tell you how we
0

can find out these things?

So, when you are designing your aircraft you know the crew weight, right, and you know also the
𝑊𝑓 𝑊
payload. So, if you know these 2 fractions and 𝑊𝑒 , you can find out the value of the total weight
𝑊0 0

𝑊𝑒
of takeoff, right. So, let us find out the , so as you know so many aircraft already have been
𝑊0

designed, right, numerous number of aircraft has already been designed which lie on the category
of the aircraft which we want to design like less than 3000 kg like.

If you do the latest survey then you will find out to based on the current weight requirement your
𝑊𝑒
will come out around 0.62. You can follow one book which is aircraft design by D. P. Raymer
𝑊0

286
it is a conceptual approach and another one is J.D Anderson aircraft performance and design. So,
𝑊𝑒
in that, you can find out these values because I am taking from there only, ok. is 0.62, if we
𝑊0
𝑊𝑓 𝑊
found out , we can get the 𝑊0 , so now we will find out 𝑊𝑓, ok. You can notice that your aircraft
𝑊0 0

is cruising from point 2 to 3. And you also have the range requirement, range requirement is what?
It is maximum range should be 1000 kilometre, so 1000 kilometre you have range. So, based on
this data range, you can find out the weight fraction from here to here, how will you find out? See
if you already want to design the propeller-powered aircraft like generally, it is a category of
aircraft lies will be the propeller-powered only not jet-powered, ok. So, you can write a range of
propeller-powered aircraft.
Propeller powered aircraft means the engine will be piston engine or a reciprocating engine and
connected to the propeller, ok. So range formula for the present case we can wrire as
𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝐿 𝑊2
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( ) 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑐 𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑊3

You can notice that, if you know the range and if you know the engine specification like how much
𝐿
a specific fuel consumption the engine has and propeller efficiency? And at what 𝐷 you are flying?
𝑊
You can found out the 𝑊2, so in our case what is range? So, after this follow me here.
3

(Refer Slide Time: 16:18)

287
 𝐿
You have range 1000 kilometre, right, (𝐷) also given, let us say 13. If it is not given then
𝑚𝑎𝑥

assume, ok, see these are the iterative process, if your mission requirement does not satisfy you
have to take another loop. 𝜂𝑝𝑟 is 0.85 generally and 𝑐 is once you select the reciprocating engine
you will get their specific fuel consumption, generally it is 0.4 lb hp per hour. You can notice that
it is better to convert all the unit in a SI unit only, Here
𝑐 = 0.4 𝑙𝑏⁄hp − hour = 0.4 × 9.81⁄746 × 3600 = 1.4611 × 10−6 /𝑚

You can see this has no unit, this has no unit, this also has no unit, and this is 1 by meter, meter
will go up you will get the range in meter, ok. So, if you substitute these value, you will get

𝑊3
= 0.87614.
𝑊2

(Refer Slide Time: 18:37)

I request you to please take at least 5 digits so that you can get the good results. If you approximate
here means you are approximating here and if you are approximate here, you will be approximating
𝑊 𝑊
[Link], what will there like? 𝑊4 and 𝑊4 like what is the fuel consumption in descent phase? what
1 5

will the fuel consumption in the landing phase?

Now from this data we can find out how much fuel consumed in cruise phase, not the descent
phase, not the landing phase, not climb phase not as well as the takeoff phase. So, in these 4 phases
1, 2, 3, 4 we have to approximate and from the given data we can find out the amount of fuel

288
 𝑊3 𝑊𝑒
consumption in cruise. So, you just remember this , we will use this, ok, and which is 0.62.
𝑊2 𝑊0

Actually, we did not get this, we have taken from the literature survey. I will tell you what is the
use of this?
(Refer Slide Time: 21:06)

𝑊
You just see from 𝑊5, you can write mathematically
0

𝑊5 𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑊4 𝑊5
= × × × × (3)
𝑊0 𝑊0 𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑊4
𝑊 𝑊𝑓
Here, 𝑊5 is nothing but for landing and what will be the fuel weight? Like if you consume all
4 𝑊0

the fuel you are starting from here and landing at this place and you are saying that all fuel you
will get consumed. So, at the end what you will have? Here you have 𝑊0 weight and here you have
𝑊5 weight and all the fuel get consumed. You can write

𝑊𝑓 = 𝑊0 − 𝑊5 (4)

Earlier we have to make a question 1 out 2. So, you just make thses equations as 3 and 4 ok, you
just do some mathematical manipulations, simple you will get
𝑊𝑓 𝑊5
= 1−
𝑊0 𝑊0
Now if you say my fuel did not get completely consumed like 6% or 7% we have a saving then
this expression you can further modified

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 𝑊𝑓 𝑊5
= 1.06 (1 − )
𝑊0 𝑊0
that means 6% fuel you are reserving like see in your everywhere in your bike your car also some
amount of fuel is reserved. In aircraft also some fuel is a reserve, let us say we 6% fuel is reserved.
𝑊𝑐 +𝑊𝑝
If you go back to my when I started the lecture I had written, 𝑊0 = 𝑊𝑓 𝑊 , if I am not mistaken.
1− − 𝑒
𝑊0 𝑊0

𝑊𝑓 𝑊
To estimate the weight of the aircraft, so we do not have , will from literature survey we got 𝑊𝑒.
𝑊0 0

𝑊𝑓 𝑊𝑓
But that time we do not have , so you can see now we are finding , ok. So, in order to find
𝑊0 𝑊0
𝑊𝑓 𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑊4 𝑊5 𝑊3
, we need , 𝑊 , 𝑊 , 𝑊 and , so we have already found out, ok. So, now we want
𝑊0 𝑊0 1 2 3 𝑊 4 𝑊2
𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊4 𝑊5 𝑊3
, , and , ok. Every value is important. And 0.87614 this , erase this we will get the
𝑊0 𝑊1 𝑊3 𝑊4 𝑊2

space in order to do the further calculation.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:23)

𝑊 𝑊1
You just closely observe equation 3, 𝑊5,. So, , means from 0 to 1, so the ratio in the literature
0 𝑊0
𝑊 𝑊
survey you will get 0.97, for this weight category of aircraft, and 𝑊2 will be 0.985 ok, and 𝑊3 you
1 2

𝑊4
already got the very correct value, ok. And then 𝑊 = 1.0, means at descent you are not consuming
3

𝑊
any fuel. In reality, you will consume some fuel as of now you just consider 1, and 𝑊5 in landing
4

0.995. Finally,

290
 𝑊5
= 0832022
𝑊0
𝑊
And, if you put this 𝑊5 in the modified equation with 6% fuel reserved, you will get
0

𝑊𝑓
= 0.177
𝑊0
𝑊𝑓
Now, you can observed that, is very less compared to these 2 fractions. So, weight fuel fraction
𝑊0

is less compared to the empty weight fraction, and with respect to the total weight, the fuel weight
is very less.
But there is a way to put the find out the payload, how will you find the payload? Like we have
already a specified the passenger way 4 passengers there, right, and you know if you are going for
a flight you will also have some bags and all. So, that weight also will come into the picture, like
at least 15 kg bag weight, ok. So, these two fractions is there, now we will write approximately
here.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:32)

The average crew weight will be the 80 kg that is the normal, healthy human weight. So, we have
4 passengers, right, And let us say every person is carrying 10 kg extra weight. Hence, total payload
will be
𝑊𝑝 = 4 × 80 + 5 × 10 = 370 𝑘𝑔
This is nothing but your payload weight and 𝑊𝑐 will be 80 kg. So, you just substitute these value
you will get the answer.

291
(Refer Slide Time: 31:13)

Now I am estimating W 0,
80 + 370
𝑊0 = = 2217.84
1 − 0.1771 − 0.62

This is nothing but less than the 3000 kg which is our requirement, ok. So, now you have 𝑊0 right,
additionally, you can found out the 𝑊𝑓 also, how much amount of fuel is required in order to
𝑊𝑓
complete this mission? So, × 𝑊0 = 392.77 𝑘𝑔.
𝑊0

Now, your weight is estimated, remember that your weight. I request you to do this exercise with
no passenger, no crew, just payload weight 100 kg, that means unmanned aircraft right, this is the
manned aircraft, you have a passenger. So, I request you to do the exercise for an unmanned aircraft
you will get the feel. So, our weight is estimated, right, this weight, but your aircraft is flying, how
will you lift this weight?
So, This much weight 2217.84 𝑘𝑔 you have to lift and you know aircraft wing can lift the whole
aircraft, right, means 90% of the lift is coming from the wing. So, how long and how wide your
wing should be in order to meet this requirement? Like lifting this much kg of the weight, so next,
we will see the wing design for lifting the weight, ok. Mostly our aircraft is flying at a steady-state
level flight, like if you compare that time from 0 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5 you will get your
aircraft is mostly fly from 2 to 3, ok.

292
If you are aircraft is in mostly flight that particular condition then we have to take the consideration
like we have to design our craft which is satisfying all the requirement in that phase 2 to 3. So,
when your aircraft is flying at a steady straight and level flight means your wing is level. You are
not rolling th wing right and left and your wing and you are maintaining the constant [Link]
means you are not dropping altitude and you are not increasing the altitude and you are following
the straight path. So, steady means variable is not changing with the time. Here, the altitude is not
changing with time.
(Refer Slide Time: 35:24)

That means your weight or the aircraft should be balanced by lift and which is nothing but
1
L = W = . ρ. V 2 . S. C𝐿
2
Now this expression will become
W 1 2
= . ρ. V𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 . C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
S 2
Sometimes these in a requirement is stall speed is also given like the stall speed should be
minimum 30 meter per second like if it is saying. In the present case suppose that you are flying
at a sea level, you take density 1.2256, 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 is nothing but already you are a specifying your
aircraft should fly at a minimum at least 30 meter per second.
And see if you are taking off you will deflect flaps to generally C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 will be 1.1 to 1.5. But you
without flap deflection, if you deflect the flap your C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 will increase. So, in the present case this

293
value is 2.3. Remember that flap is the device which is used to increase the C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 , it is always
deflected in the downward direction.
And usually, we will disturb the flap in a takeoff or landing motion, we do not generally disturb
the flap in a cruise condition. Generally, if we want to make more lift like in during the takeoff if
you want to cover the shorter distance if you are taxing in the runway, if you deflect the flap you
will get more lift , so at a minimum speed, you can takeoff, ok. So, if you put this value what you
will get your wing loading will be
W
= 129.306 kg/m2
S
That means 1 m2 is capable of lifting the 129.30 𝑘𝑔 weight, this is a beauty of wing loading. But
see you are taking only one phase, you are calculating the wing loading based on the stall approach
that is not enough. Our aircraft flying as a stall condition as well as design cruise speed, in takeoff
also, in cruise also. So, we have to take that case also, we should not limit our calculation to this a
stall condition only. So, let us say we are cruising from 2 to 3 cruising and our design speed is
70 𝑚/𝑠 and our design 𝐶𝐿 is 0.4.
(Refer Slide Time: 39:48)

Just rewrite the equation this again

1
L = W = . ρ. V 2 . S. C𝐿
2
Now this expression will become
W 1
= . ρ. V 2 . C𝐿
S 2

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 W
Now,
S
at design speed which is 70 𝑚/𝑠 at this design speed C𝐿 is 0.4, ok. So, you will get that
of wing loading approximately
W
= 122.435 kg/m2
S
First here if you calculate you will get Newton you just divided by 9.81 you will get IN kg/m2
W
This is your S
at design cruise speed because if you remember at the starting of the lecture the
cruise speed is also given as a machine requirement. The design speed is 70 to 100 meter per
second, remember. So, these two approaches I have calculated wing loading based on stalled
approach and design speed.
That means this is nothing but the takeoff phase and this is nothing but the cruise phase. I want to
give one exercise you just calculate the wing loading based on the landing like takeoff you have,
cruise you have, you just do the calculation for landing. I have done I will attach this material like
based on the landing I will attach in this week as a separate extra material. But before that, I will
request you to find out the wing loading based on the landing approach, the book names I have
already given to you, you can take those refernces for your calcilations.
Now you have wing loading, right, and that means if you have weight you can find out the area.
See our primary purpose is to find the wing area, how much wing area is required in order to lift
the weight which we have found out in the first step after so many calculations, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 43:06)

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 𝑊 𝑊
Wing area you can write S is nothing but , 𝑆 = 𝑊 . I am selecting as a cruise condition which is
𝑆
𝑆

at design speed. You can also select from the stall but if you are selecting this wing loading instead
of the wing loading which we have found out from the stall approach. There is some difference
when you fly from 0 kilometer to 5 kilometer like, when you are calculating from that takeoff
approach means your 𝑊0 is at the starting value when you are cruising your fuel is getting
consumed, so there will be some difference.

(Refer Slide Time: 44:48)

Finally, wing area will be

2217.84
𝑆= = 18.11 𝑚2
122.435

This wing loading corresponds to that design speed, if you take the stall wing loading, that means
the wing loading which you calculated at the stall speed, you will get S is 17.15 𝑚2. There is a
one-term in aircraft design which is the aspect ratio. That tells the how wide your aircraft is
compared to the span wise length.
(Refer Slide Time: 46:04)

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 𝑏2
Aspect ratio is nothing but, 𝐴𝑅 = . For a rectangular wing, this is your span, this is your chord
𝑆
𝑏
𝑐̅ or 𝑐 , the area you can write 𝑐̅ × 𝑏, Here, b will get cancel, so 𝐴𝑅 = 𝑐 . This is your wing, so this

is nothing but the span, so this is considering as a length and this is as a width. So, how long
compared to the width that basically aspect ratio, this is for a rectangular wing and this is the
general case.

This is also one of the selection criteria for designing aircraft like you might have heard glider
aircraft, fighter aircraft, commercial aircraft, general aviation aircraft. These aircraft belong to the
particular class of aspect ratio like glider has a high aspect ratio you can see glider has a very large
wing span, very large span b square aspect ratio will be higher. Fighter aircraft very short wing,
less aspect ratio b will decrease aspect ratio will decrease.

General aviation aircraft like as per ratio 10, 11, 12, 13, so basically what aircraft we are designing
the aircraft that belongs to the general aviation category. Basically, the trainer aircraft where 4 or
5 passenger will be there 1 pilot will be there, 1 co-pilot will be there max to max 6 or 7 persons.
(Refer Slide Time: 48:18)

297
Aspect ratio you just assume 10, ok, so you know the area, you know the aspect ratio, you have
assumed, right. You can find out the how much is span of the wing, so this is nothing but 10 into
18.11 you will get 13.45, this is span. If you calculate from another part if you put 𝑆 = 17 𝑚2 ,
you will get span. For denoting second approach put 2, put to 1 here for first approach . it is better
So, 𝑏1 will be 13.09 𝑚, little difference is coming than compred to 2 approach.

First, we will do the primary design, after that we will do some optimization, right. So, let us say
we do not have any tapered, sweepback, dihedral, that is things will come later. Simply we are
taking rectangular wing in the present case for later we will do the optimization. So, 𝑐̅ will be
nothing but from this equation, ok, for rectangular wing aspect ratio already I told you b by 𝑐̅,
right. The 𝑐̅ will become
𝑏2 13.45
𝑐̅2 = = = 1.345 𝑚
𝐴𝑅 10
Here, 𝑐̅2 means calculation of chord based on second approach, right. And from the first approach
(𝑐̅1), that means you are calculating based on the stall approach (is coming 1.309 meter). It can be
observed that a little difference is present.

Now your wing sizing is now completed, first is weight estimation for that particular weight you
require the wing, you design your wing; the area, span and wing chord. So, this is nothing but the
wing sizing but see you are taking off, climbing, cruise, descending, landing where you will get
the power?

298
The aircraft need some velocity to fly, where you can get that velocity? You are not falling any
under gravity. You are climbing against the gravity from where the power will come? So, basically
from the engine, the power will come, so in the next class, I will explain how to select the engine?
Like to meet the specific requirement for taking off from 0 to 1, climbing from 1 to 2, cruising
from 2 to 3, descending from 3 to 4 followed by landing from 4 to 5. So, how will you select the
engine? That I will discuss in the next class, thank you so much.

299
 UAV Design-Part II
Mr. Qazi Salahudden (PhD Scholar)
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture-21
Power Plant Selection with Example

(Refer Slide Time: 00:13)

Welcome back, in last class we have seen the weight estimation process, also we have estimated
the required weight and in order to lift that weight how much wing area is required that also we
have figured out. With this also we have found out the how much span is in order to distribute that
area? How much wing aerodynamic chord is required in order to maintain the aspect ratio 10 which
we have assumed selected?

We miss that what is the empty weight. I have not given the definition of the empty weight. So, in
this class in 5 seconds I will cover the definition of the empty weight. So, empty weight of the
aircraft is nothing but when you have the complete aircraft weight, if you remove the crew weight,
payload weight and fuel weight, what are the things you have that is called the empty weight.

The empty weight consists of the structures weight and power plant weight. So in this class we
will see the engine selection. In last class you have estimated the weight and to lift that weight

300
how much area is required? That also we have to found out. But you can observe that, when your
aircraft is flying in a steady state level flight or taking off or climbing?

In order to generate the aerodynamic lift your aircraft movement is required, so how will you move
the aircraft? When you have the engine then only you can move the aircraft against the gravity like
taking off or climbing. So, in this class we will do the engine selection, how we will select our
aircraft engine? So, let us see. Our first phase of aircraft is takeoff phase. We will stick to that
phase and later we will move on to the cruise phase. So, based on takeoff phase how will you select
your aircraft engine?

(Refer Slide Time: 02:35)

Let us say your aircraft roll distance is defined by 𝑆𝑔 , this whole distance means your wheel is at
the ground. This is nothing but
1.2 (𝑊⁄𝑆)
𝑆𝑔 =
𝑔 𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑇⁄𝑊 )

(𝑇⁄𝑊 ) is thrust to weight ratio and this is (𝑊⁄𝑆) is a wing loading, ok. So, (𝑊⁄𝑆) we have already
found out 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 with slight deflection we know ok. And we have to put the value of 𝑆𝑔 and we

have to find out the value of (𝑇⁄𝑊 ).

301
So, W we know and we can find out the required thrust. Before going to this we will find out the
minimum velocity at takeoff. From that stall velocity we will find out the lift off velocity because
there is a relation between the stall velocity, lift off velocity, stall velocity to cruise velocity there
is some percentage you can imagine like cruise velocity is 1.3 times on stall velocity takeoff
velocity is 1.1 times of stall velocity.

So, first we will find out the stall velocity. So, as we know stall velocity of aircraft during takeoff
phase is

2(𝑊⁄𝑆)
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 =√
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥

ok. So, if you put all this value for time being consider 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 deflection is 2, ok. So, you just find
out the stall velocity it will come 31.30 meter per second, you just the wing loading we have
calculated at the stall approach and design cruise speed approach.
I am taking as a design crew’s approach, so put (𝑊⁄𝑆) as that value, put 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 , put sea level
density, you will get a start velocity. So, we say that your lift of velocity will be 1.1 times of the
stall velocity for the present aircraft like for the General aviation aircraft belongs to the general
aviation category. So, that will turn out to be 34.435 meter per second that is your lift off velocity.

See when you are taking off, you are not taking off directly from this directly to this. In this phase
you required some kind of pull up maneuver, if you do like this your elevator will hit the ground.
So, you have to pull up your aircraft with the specified as 10 radians with a given velocity.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:52)

302
So, in order to pull up your aircraft in takeoff phase, your turn radius will be
6.98 𝑉𝑠 2
𝑅=
𝑔
you just put the stall velocity you will get 697.06 meters pull up radius ok.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:21)

Now we will calculate the induced flight path angle, what should be our flight path during that
takeoff? Very important. So, from geometry you will get theta tail
ℎ𝑂𝐵
𝜃𝑂𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (1 − )
𝑅
So, basic a simple geometry, see when you are taking off first thing you have to consider that is
screening height in a for certification of any aircraft there is a rule like DGCA or like aircraft rule
there is a lot of aircraft rule is there, if you design an aircraft.

That tool you have to follow like minimum screening height like when you are taking off from
runway you have to at least clear some obstacle distance, why? Because you are in beside the
runway or after some distance from runway, there is a pole, there is a tree, so the length of the tree
you have to clear that distance. So, one minimum distance is specified that is nothing but the
screening height which is nothing but h, ok, which is approximately 15 meters.

So, generally our trees and poles are less than 15 meters, right, 15 meters is required, ok. So, if
you put h equals 15 an R which we have calculated, you will find, to clear this distance you need
some angle, right, you need some angle, that angle is I am finding, ok. So, we need 11.9 degree

303
angle, ok, that angle. And you can notice that as we already know your aircraft will not take off
like this, your aircraft will be like this.

So, to this distance there is an airborne distance, your aircraft is above the ground but not climbing,
climbing will start from here to here, this is the rolling part. So, this distance is nothing but called
the airborne distance. So, that can be written as
𝑆𝑎 = sin 𝜃𝑂𝐵
If you put you will get 143.82 meter, this is airborne distance, ok, 153 meters. So, in the last lecture
I have given you the takeoff distance as specified, the takeoff distance is specified was 550 to 650
meters, for time being let us consider our we want takeoff distances 600 meter.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:32)

So, total takeoff distance is 600 meters, right, and what is takeoff distance? Is nothing but the
ground roll plus airborne distance, ok. So, I have given one formula to you
1.2 (𝑊⁄𝑆)
𝑆𝑔 =
𝑔 𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑇⁄𝑊 )

if you put (𝑊⁄𝑆), 𝑔 which is nothing but 9.81, 𝜌∞ is 1.225, 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 is 2, you will get the relation

between 𝑆𝑔 and (𝑇⁄𝑊 ) which is turned out to be

60.43
+ 143.82 = 600
(𝑇⁄𝑊 )

304
Now only one parameter is there (𝑇⁄𝑊 ) rest here are the numerical values, you can bring (𝑇⁄𝑊 )

here, do the mathematical calculation, you will get (𝑇⁄𝑊 ) 0.13246, ok, this is (𝑇⁄𝑊 ), ok. How

will you find the liftoff velocity? The question is, see (𝑇⁄𝑊 ) you know but at this tells that what
is the thrust loading is in required in order to takeoff but at what velocity? So, that velocity you
can find out, lift off velocity we have found out, right, 1.1 into stall velocity, yeah yes already we
have found out.

But based on this data how will you select the engine? Based on lift off velocity you are not
selecting engine based on stall velocity you are not. Like what is a free steam velocity cruise speed
based on that you will select the engine, right. So, generally 𝑉∞ taken as
𝑉∞ = 0.7 ∗ 𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑓
for the present case, ok, so you will get 24.1045 m/s. Why we are finding this velocity? Because
we need power, based on the power we will select the engine.

So, for power we want we required thrust as well as velocity, if your power required is nothing but
thrust into velocity. So, thrust we have, velocity we do not know, we have found out, so based on
that thrust we know, velocity we know. So, if you multiply both of them, then we will get the
power and based on that power we will select the engine. But you can notice that we are taking
free stream velocity 0.7, we are multiplying 0.7.

So, this is nothing but the cruise speed, this is not liftoff velocity, this is not stall velocity. And this
is not also the final criteria for selecting the engine, we will go for climb also, we will go for cruise
also. In cruise we will fly the maximum velocity but because sometimes suppose that you have
selected the engine based on the design speed which is nothing but 70 m/s, will these meet the
requirement? Certainly no.

Because you sometimes you need maximum velocity, you want to cover the distance as soon as
possible. So, you have to required more velocity maximum velocity, you want to demand
maximum power from the engine sometimes. So, in that condition we should select the engine

305
based upon the maximum velocity because when a speed increases at a maximum speed if you
select the engine your power requirement is more.

So, if power requirement is more and sometimes if you demand the less power then automatically
the requirement will be meet but if suppose that you have selected the engine based on the lower
speed and sometimes your demand is more then you cannot meet the requirement. So, it is better
to select for the maximum velocity instead of selecting your power plant based on the design speed.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:58)

So, now what is our power required? So, simply power required thrust generated into velocity, you
can modify it this is
𝑃 = 𝑇 ∗ 𝑉∞
𝑇
𝑃= 𝑊 ∗𝑉
𝑊 0 ∞
(𝑇⁄𝑊 ) you know, 0.1324, takeoff weight you have estimated 2217.84 kg into speed you have find
out, 1.12 24.10. So, this will come into what divided by 746, you will get in hp to power required
will be 93.06 hp but remember this is not the final one, ok.

So, this will be the 93.06 hp but these are the power required, but what the power is coming that
is coming from engine transferring to the shaft, propeller is rotating then there will be some amount
of loss will be there, right. Like what the power it develop our engine cannot directly 100% cannot

306
be transferred into the shaft, there will be the loss. So, you have to take the efficiency of the
propeller, propulsion efficiency.

Then power available is to you will be this, this is power required, ok. So, actual power available
will be power required is 93.06 divided by 0.8 this will be nothing but 116.3969 hp, this will be.
Notice that power required this is in kg, right, so you have to multiplied by 9.81 also. So, your
power available is 116.39 hp, ok. So, conclusion can be draw from here, like for taking off at least
your power should be 116.

So, as a designer you will write power available should be greater than or equal to 116.4 hp for
takeoff, remember this value, we will surprise when you will calculate the power at climb and
cruise condition. So, our second phases obviously climb, ok, now we will move to the climb. See
I feel that there is some expression like take off distance and you might not have aware, so that is
why I have given you two references please go through that. If you do not understand anything
please directly post on the forum I am promising that I will give the answer, ok.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:50)

So, now next is we will go in a climb phase, so in climb phase you will use this. See derivation I
am not explaining you because we do not have the purpose of this lecture is to give the idea of
how to design the aircraft not for the derivation, for derivation you just follow the book, ok, that

307
is why I am writing only expression if you by your demand if you want I can give you the
derivation also, we just post on the forum.
1⁄
2
𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝑃 2 𝐾 𝑊 1.555
= (𝑅⁄𝐶 ) +[ √ ( ⁄𝑆)] ∗
𝑊 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜌∞ 3𝐶𝐷0 (𝐿⁄𝐷)
𝑚𝑎𝑥

ok. So, now I think you are aware of propeller efficiency, power, W, sea level densities, 𝐶𝐷0 is
nothing but the parasite drag coefficient, you write drag polar
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2
that 𝐶𝐷0 is here, 𝐾 is induced drag factor if your wing is so large this value will be very less.

If your wing is very short this value will be more because k is nothing but
1
𝐾=
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
if your aspect ratio is more your induced drag factor will be very less, if your aspect ratio is less
this value will be more. So, fighter aircraft this value will be very more and for glider this very
low, ok. So, you just notice that, I also given the maximum rate of climb I think it is 5 to 6 meter
per second yes rate of climb, it is also the requirement.

Because why it is a requirement? You can understand from this graph like. Suppose that you are
taking from this point, ok, you want to climb let us say 0 to 2 kilometer, ok, if you are taking very
small flight path angle you will cover this much distance, if your flight path increases this will take
less time to reach this point. More if you increase the flight path angle, it will take very quick to
attend this 2 kilometer to is depending upon, at what rate of climb you are flying, ok.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:02)

308
So, that is also the requirement, simply the rate of climb is nothing but
𝑅 𝑑ℎ
=
𝐶 𝑑𝑡
dt you can write
𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 =
𝑅⁄
𝐶
ok. Further suppose that your initial altitude is final altitude is 2 kilometer like, initial altitude is 0,
your 𝑅⁄𝐶 is some value and your time will be directly I am writing this to this, ok. So, as 𝑅⁄𝐶
increases, you will require less time to reach the 2000 meter, so that is the importance of rate of
climb. So, that is why I have given the rate of climb requirement also, ok. So, now if you put all
this value I am putting (𝑅⁄𝐶 ) is 5 with the present case.
𝑚𝑎𝑥

(Refer Slide Time: 23:13)

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This value is I am putting 5 this value was known is 13, k, 𝐶𝐷0 you can calculate ok, 𝐶𝐷0 for the
present case you just assume 0.035. Remember that the 𝐶𝐷0 value is will change in the flight also,
𝐶𝐷0 value is a parasite drag coefficient. Sometimes during the landing you will deploy the landing
gear, the 𝐶𝐷0 value increase. If during the takeoff, during the landing, you will deflect the flap,
deflecting the flap will change the 𝐶𝐷0 value.

Deflecting the control surface if you want to execute the maneuvers like rolling yawing, pitching
you will deflect the elevator. So, sorry you will deflect the control surface, for pitching you will
deflect the elevator, for rolling you will deflect the aileron primary, ok and for yawing you will
deflect the rudder. So, control surface deflection will change the 𝐶𝐷0 value.

So, this value will change in flight but for the present case we are estimating the constant because
max to max the change will be the 3%, 4%, ok. So, that is why we are assuming constant. So, you
just take 𝐶𝐷0 = 0.035, take (𝑅⁄𝐶 ) 5, put the propulsion efficiency already we have told you
𝑚𝑎𝑥
1
how much value you have to take, ok, k value you can find out 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅, aspect ratio you know, e you

just take 0.8 to 0.85 depending upon the your shape of the wing.

If it is elliptic your e will be 1 but generally elliptic configuration does not exist. So, you just take
it 0.85 for it you will get k 𝐶𝐷0 already I have told you. Then loading, we have already estimated,

310
you will find out the power required during the climb will be 296.5 hp power is required, ok. So,
you can see that this much power is required in order to climb.

So, as a designers what you will conclude? You will conclude our power requirement for to
perform the climb should be greater than 296.5 hp. You can notice this two number 296.5 hp and
at the takeoff 116.4 hp, this is more, why more? Because during the climb you have to climb as
well as with the thrust you have to lift the weight also. Like when you in the climb if you resolve
the forces let us say you are climbing like this.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:14)

So, your thrust direction will be this and your drag direction will be opposite and your lift will be
perpendicular to the free stream velocity, ok. And your weight will act at the downward direction
and this angle is nothing but this from this flight path angle you are flying, ok, so this also become
the 𝛾, ok. So, this component will be 𝑊 cos 𝛾, right, and sine component will come here, 𝑊 sin 𝛾,
ok.

So, what is your thrust at a steady state climb? Net force will be balance, right. So, T will be
nothing but the D, D is aerodynamic drag plus one weight component also is coming, so 𝑊 sin 𝛾,
ok. So, at cruise condition 𝛾 is 0, you are maintaining the height ok, so thrust will be the drag but
here thrust is the
𝑇 = 𝐷 + 𝑊 sin 𝛾

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So, apart from drag you are lifting the weight also and see this weight 𝐷 + 𝑊 sin 𝛾, right.

So, your thrust requirement will be more of your thrust requirement will be more power is what?
Thrust into velocity, your power will also be more. So, that is why our power in climb is coming
more than of than takeoff, so I hope you got this. So, next we will go for the, as exercise I am
giving you third phase is cruise, ok, first we will erase this thing then we will explain.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:22)

So our third phase is cruise condition, this type of cruise a steady state and level flight, ok, thrust
is nothing but drag, drag you can write
1
𝑇 = 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐷
2
1
𝑇 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆[𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2 ]
2
right, ok. 𝐶𝐿 what you can write?
2𝑊
𝐶𝐿 =
𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆
You just put 𝐶𝐿 value here, what you will get?
1 2 2𝑊 2
𝑇 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 [𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾 ( 2 ) ]
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
ok, this thing you will get now.
In one more what you will get?

312
 1 2 4𝐾𝑊 2
𝑇 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 [𝐶𝐷0 + 2 4 2 ]
2 𝜌 𝑉 𝑆
right. In one more step you will get
1 2
2𝐾𝑊 2 1
𝑇 = 𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐷0 𝑉 +
2 𝜌𝑆 𝑉 2
ok.

Just notice here, this value is constant for a given flight condition whereas this value is also
constant, ok. So, this thing you can write
𝐵
𝑇 = 𝐴𝑉 2 +
𝑉2
1 2𝐾𝑊 2
A is nothing but 2 𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐷0 and B is nothing but , ok.
𝜌𝑆

(Refer Slide Time: 31:17)

So, now power will be thrust required into velocity this T is nothing but the thrust required. So, if
you multiply by V you will get
𝐵
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑉 3 +
𝑉
this is your power requirement, ok. So, the observation can be made here, as soon as you increase
your flight velocity, your this part will go down and this part will rise up. So, this is nothing but
the induced drag, this part is induced drag, this is profile drag.

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So, the thrust requirement is coming from here it is profile and from here it is induced, ok. And
this is nothing but called this if you increase the velocity your induced power this term is nothing
but the call the induced power, ok. So, induce power will decrease as soon as you increase the
velocity but your profile power will increase, why it is happening like when you increase the
velocity you are in induced drag is going down?

So, you can observe that as soon as your increase your velocity, suppose that your aircraft is angle
of attack 8 degree. If you increase if you want to maintain the same altitude and you are decreasing
the angle of attack. So, decreasing the angle of attack by this equation
2𝑊
𝐶𝐿 =
𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆
decreasing the angle of attack means you are decreasing the 𝐶𝐿 to balance the lift = weight, V
automatically will increase.

So, 𝐶𝐿 value you are decreasing, so if 𝐶𝐿 value decreasing from 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2 , drag will also
increase this part will decrease, right. So, this is nothing but the induced drag part. So, if this
decrease the thrust will also decrease and power will also increase but it will not increase in the
same manner, this is 𝑉 2 and this is V, ok.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:47)

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So, now, you can notice that, in flight if 𝐶𝐷0 is constant this A and B value will be constant. So, if
we put the maximum velocity you will get the maximum power. So, already I have given you the
design cruise speed 70 meter per second to 100 meter per second, right. This is designed if you
calculate based on this speed your power required minimum will be obviously minimum, right,
will not be more compared to the 100, ok.

So, suppose that you have selected the engine based on 70 meter per second, ok. But sometimes
you need to fly at the 100 meter per second also. So, the requirement will not meet and if you
select the 100 meter you can fly it and 90, you can fly as the 80 also, you can fly as the 70 also.
So, you have to select based on the maximum velocity, you just put the maximum velocity you
will get the power required in order to perform the cruise at a maximum velocity.

So, this is all about the power requirement, that means engine selection also you can notice that
2𝑊
we have written 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2 , 𝐶𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 . And we are cruising profile this you know takeoff,

climb, cruise this is 2 to 3, right, if it is 1 and if it is 0, ok, your fuel is continuously consuming.
So, there is a method like mid cruise weight like we have to take the average weight not as W0.

Because if it is let us see 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2 , W you are putting at a takeoff weight but in reality this is not
the takeoff weight which we have estimated it will be less than. So, there is a concept like mid
cruise weight. So, I am giving as exercise, please go through that what is this mid cruise weight
estimation? So, we will find out the average value of W0, then you put this value you will get the
power, ok, so this is all about the engine selection.

So, let us summarize our last lecture and this lecture what we have done? ok. So, again I am
requesting you if you did not get anything you just post on the forum, I will give the answer. So,
let us one by one we will summarize.
(Refer Slide Time: 36:43)

315
First we have estimated the total weight, total weight is estimated W0 is 2217.84 kg, ok. Fuel
weight in order to cover the 1000 kilometer range 392.77 kg is required, which is approximately
17%, in order to lift the total weight of the aircraft the wing area SW you can say or S we have
calculated 18.11 meter square. To distribute this area we have calculated the wingspan which b in
symbolic nothing but 13.45 meter.

By fixing the aspect ratio we got the chord nothing but c bar or mean aerodynamic chord is 1.345
meter, ok. Aspect ratio obviously we have fixed as a 10, ok if something you are fixing and finally
you are you are getting what you required? That mean what we are fixing it is a correct value, ok.
(Refer Slide Time: 38:54)

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(𝐿⁄𝐷) will effects as a say 13, ok, wing loading we have calculated, wing loading we have
𝑚𝑎𝑥

found out, I am writing only based on design a speed approach. However we have calculated based
on the stall approach also. Power loading it is not as a same as wing loading, power loading will
be nothing but the 𝑊⁄𝑃 is 7.48 kg by hp. This power loading is depend upon it which condition
you are taking at a cruise or climb, so these are will be different, ok.

K value induced drag factor we have calculated 0.04 based on the configuration we assume that
𝐶𝐷0 which is parasite drag coefficient 0.035, ok. So, this power loading is nothing but is based on
the let me check if power loading is based on what? Based on climb or based on takeoff, so, this
power loading is nothing but the based on the climb. So, these all about the summary of the last
lecture and present lecture if you have any doubt then please post on the forum. Again I am saying
you I am promising that I will give the answer, thank you so much for attending this lecture.

317
 UAV Design-Part II
Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur

Lecture-22
Subroutine for Takeoff Performance (Powerplant Selection)

Good morning friends, Welcome back. In our previous lecture, we discussed about level flight
performance and we have come up with a sub routine, where we identified what should be the
thrust required and the power required when you fly at different velocities and what will be the
corresponding trim angle of attack and control surface different deflection required? At the
𝐶
same time we also looked at aerodynamic parameters like 𝐶 𝐿 .
𝐷

3
𝐶𝐿 2
And and its variation with velocity or you can also say the trim angle of attack, right for
𝐶𝐷

that what we did is? We considered a trim angle of attack and then we estimated using the 𝐶𝑚
and 𝐶𝐿 equation, we estimated what should be the 𝛿𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 from 𝐶𝑚 equation, which talks about
statics pitching moment for the longitudinal case for equilibrium you equated the equation to
0 and then figure out what is 𝛿𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 .

From using the 𝛿𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 and the initial considered 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 in 𝐶𝐿 equation like the aerodynamic
model I am talking about
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ∗ 𝛼 + 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 ∗ 𝛿𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
From there you figured out what should be the corresponding 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 that you need to maintain?
to maintain that 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 you have to fly at a particular velocity to generate lift is equals to weight,
that is one of our level flight condition right.

So, from there you can figure out what would be the velocity for that particular trim condition?
or to maintain 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , once you get velocity. Now, you have 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 we can also figure out the
corresponding CD for that 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 which is CD using drag polar which is
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2
So, 𝐶𝐿 there will be replaced by 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , once you have 𝐶𝐷 and you know what is the velocity?

Now, you can figure out what is the thrust required which is nothing but drag that is equals to

318
1
𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐷 right. So, you know both the variables V and 𝐶𝐷 in that particular equation. So, once
2

you know thrust required you can proceed to figure out what is power required which is thrust
required times the velocity of flight right. So, for when you start this entire procedure to solve
this entire steps so, you are trying to vary the angle of attack right.

So, that is considered as an input for these entire steps. And then we also solve for what should
3
𝐶 𝐶 2
be the 𝐿⁄𝐶 for that particular alpha trim and its variation? right. So, we also talked about 𝐶𝐿 ,
𝐷 𝐷
3
𝐶𝐿 2
we just want to see how the power required condition depends upon right and thrust required
𝐶𝐷

𝐶𝐿
condition depends upon aerodynamic efficiency ⁄𝐶 .
𝐷

So, we have solved for all these variables and its variation with velocity. So, let us now proceed
with the same example to figure out what will be the power required or yeah power required
for takeoff as well as what is power required for climb? right. So, why are we doing this
exercise? So, the reason is simple.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:15)

If we consider a typical flight envelope of the UAV right, let us assume it is not a hand launched
model. So, what you have is a ground roll see the takeoff. So, on ground it will try to run right
and then it will try to rotate. So, the time period for which this remains on the ground the aircraft
runs on the ground we consider it as ground roll followed by a rotation and then it starts
climbing to the desired altitude right.

319
So, what we call it as climb and then from there, you start performing your mission which is
majorly dominated by cruise and then say there can be loiter. So, but why we are doing these
exercises, because we try to now figure out what should be the power requirement for by the
system at each and every phase, thereby you can select a particular power plant, that satisfies
the power requirement or the thrust requirement of all these flight envelops.

So, let us now proceed with the same example what I discussed. So, by doing that we will
actually solve again, we are going to again come up with a sub routine that helps us to estimate
the power requirement for level, takeoff during takeoff condition as well as climb condition.
And now we will try to ignore this particular portion the rotation portion power requirement
during rotation, which is very minimal for unmanned aerial vehicles, right.

So, let us take up the example problem instead of just doing it in a general manner. We will try
to solve it using an example problem, right. So, what we are going to talk about is sub routine
to let us assume the first one a sub routine the earlier example that we solved is sub routine I,
let us talk about sub routine II okay. So, consider this is the question we will take it as a general
question and then we will solve it yeah.

We take it as an example and then we solve it for general purposes. So, consider that delta wing
UAV presented in example 1 that our previous example where we talked about level flight
performance right. So, it has to take off from a bitumen runway or you can say bitumen runway
located at an altitude. So, let us also give the details about this frictional coefficient on the
runway with the frictional coefficient of 0.05 to runway located at an altitude of 1000 meters
with respect to MSL mean sea level okay.

So, the runway itself the geographic location of this runway itself is 1 kilometre altitude right
is at an altitude of 1 kilometre. So, find the power required or say to be delivered by the
brushless motor. So, with a propeller efficiency of 0.95 during takeoff when the takeoff angle
of attack alpha takeoff let us assume okay, let me write it down for the first time angle of attack
during takeoff is maintained has 5 degrees okay.

So, this is our question, we need to figure out what is the power requirement during takeoff for
this particular UAV which was presented in example 1. What was that UAV? we talked about

320
a delta wing UAV. So, we talked about top delta wing UAV okay. So, this is the delta wing
UAV that we are talking about, which has a root chord of 0.9 meters and tip chord of 0.15
meters. So, and then the span of 1.5 meters okay.

So, you can refer to our previous example where we talked about this. So, the lambda for this
is 0.167 and aspect ratio, which is turned out to be 2.86 and the reference area is 0.787 meter
square okay. So, do we need any other details? And we also have the aerodynamic details which
you can refer from our previous portion.

So, now the important thing that we need to observe here is so, it has a frictional coefficient
the frictional coefficient between the tires of the aircraft and then of the UAV and then the
yeah, this bitumen runway is about 0.05 right. So, 0.05 and the details of propeller efficiency
is also given right. So, do remember? when the, so you know previous course, we have
discussed about what is the output from a reciprocating engine or a brushless motors.

So, the output here you have is shaft power PS right. So, this is a mechanical power that is
available from this brushless motor. So, now, you need to attach a propeller to it in order to
convert this available mechanical power to useful aerodynamic power or power useful for
aircraft to move forward. So, that we will call it as power available. So, the efficiency of the
propeller is given as output.

What is the output here? from the system is power available right. So, power available is the
output, output upon input, input is shaft power. So, output upon input is the efficiency of this
propeller which is power available upon shaft power right. So, what we need to identify is what
will be the corresponding shaft power that this particular brushless motor need to deliver?
Okay.

For this aircraft to take off from a runway right. So, now, the usual operation of this particular
UAV is from an altitude of 1 kilometre right. That means, what is going to affect us? is the
density of the air right, that we have to consider at that particular altitude. Now, let us look at
what is this takeoff scenario? right. So, let us say it is a wing alone configuration if you
remember properly.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:53)

321
This is my runway. So, let me draw the side view of this aircraft yeah. So, it is all movable
vertical tail and then you have the nose wheel and yeah, you have this strike right. Now, let us
assume a reference axis which is nothing but the chord line for this UAV right, it is a wing
alone configuration. So, when the aircraft is on ground roll right, when it is doing a ground roll
here that is moving on this runway.

So, your direction is parallel to this ground, right? So, the freestream velocity that you will
encounter will also be parallel to this ground and your aircraft orientation is constant is not it?
because of the tires right because of this undercarriage, though, the way you designed the
undercarriage. So, the orientation of this aircraft remained constant when you are running on
this runway during the ground roll.

And the velocity will be parallel to your flight path in general. So, the flight path here is nothing
but the direct parallel to runway right. So 0 right. So, this is your freestream velocity and this
is your reference axis that means you maintain a particular angle of attack, which is almost
constant during the ground run right. So, that means what you need to understand? The alpha
that you are maintaining during ground run is constant thereby forcing the CL has to remain
constant during this ground run okay.

So, in general, if you will just look at the dynamic equations, and then we will discuss further.
So, let us say this is the direction of the thrust, let us say in the direction of 𝑉∞ . So, let us say T
is acting in this direction, what you have is drag due to this right. And then you generate lift

322
perpendicular to flight velocity and the weight of the aircraft acting downward right, is not it?
So, the weight of aircraft of the UAV is acting vertically down.

So, again, L is acting perpendicular to 𝑉∞ and 𝑉∞ is parallel to the ground. So, L and W are
along the same axis, but in opposite direction right. And D is in the direction of 𝑉∞ during this
ground run, right. Apart from this what you have is? friction, which is retarding the motion that
is acting in the opposite direction of the motion, which is 𝜇(𝑊 − 𝐿). So, when the aircraft is
completely at rest, there is no drag and lift.

So, what you have is 𝜇𝑊 right, 𝜇 times the reaction. Reaction is nothing but the total weight
of the aircraft acting, but in the opposite direction right. So, coming back to this now, we know
for takeoff. So, the UAV has to accelerate from 0 to takeoff velocity right is not it? So, that is
what a typical acceleration that we look at within over a period of time right. So, now, if we
look at the dynamic equation, so, total acceleration is should be equals to T is in the direction.
So, the acceleration that we produce will be in the direction of motion right.

That is along the thrust here, 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝜇(𝑊 − 𝐿) right. So, let us say this is the acceleration
that I am looking at. So, should be equal to the total forward force minus the total retarding
force which is drag and frictional force here and then the lift has to be balanced by weight. So,
at takeoff this is a condition that you can achieve right, when you lift is balanced by the weight
you are now no more running on the ground right your airborne okay.

So, until we achieve that particular condition, we have to make our UAV run on the runway.
And then once you reach that particular velocity, which enables you to produce a lift which is
greater than the weight then you are airborne and the frictional force disappears at that
particular point. So, till that we need to produce power which will satisfy this frictional drag or
the friction that we encounter here.

So, now, how do you find out what is the power required during this particular face, is not it?
So, let us say this thrust that has to be generated by the engine here, is not it? So, the thrust that
I need to generate by this brushless motor is equals to mass times the acceleration that I need
to do to this aircraft for takeoff, right for takeoff, I need to produce acceleration.

323
And then apart from that there is frictional force right because I am running on the ground right
now. So, which is 𝜇(𝑊 − 𝐿). So, this is the power on the thrust I have to generate if I have to
achieve a takeoff velocity with this particular acceleration right. And then so, the power that I
need to deliver from this or the power required by the system is equals to which is the thrust
required times the velocity as we know very well.

So, the velocity here will consider this thrust required take off velocity right. So, why we are
doing this? it will be higher right, power required will be higher at higher take off velocity, we
want to know what is the maximum power required during this takeoff process, is not it? So,
that means, we need to look for if the engine can deliver that maximum power it always can
satisfy anything lesser than that right by just adjusting throttle of the engine.

So, now, I will be able to figure out what is the power required given? what is thrust required
during the takeoff from this particular runway? which has to satisfy again the acceleration that
you required to produce and then the drag as well as the frictional force okay. Let us now
proceed further to understand what is this takeoff velocity based? Yeah, what is this takeoff
velocity from aerodynamic point of view? right.

What should be the take of velocity? So, now, we have again this 𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ∗ 𝛼. In
general if you refer any of the standard textbooks in related to flight dynamics. So, the take-off
velocity is in general given as 1.2 𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 , assuming you. So, what is stall velocity? which is
given by. So, 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 which we discussed many times right. So, stall velocity corresponds to
𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

That means, if I make this 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 and what I assume is I am flying at 𝛼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 , but who is producing
that 𝛼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 ? The aircraft orientation is not it? but on ground when you come back to this again
this scenario again. So, on ground this 𝛼 is fixed, is not it? That is what we discussed earlier.
When it is running on the ground, it is 𝛼 is fixed. But for UAVs I do not think it is feasible.

For most of the UAVs small scale UAVs, I do not think it is feasible to have dedicated flaps to
produce that 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 , which is a case for a commercial aircraft, right. So, I do not think that is
possible. So, what we have to look at is a practical way of understanding the power requirement

324
during takeoff instead of adapting to this standard procedure of calculating what is the V stall
required based upon 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ?

And then the 1.2 times of 𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 , what we do is instead of stall angle of attack, what we will say
is 𝐶𝐿 ′ during take-off is equals to 𝐶𝐿𝛼 times 𝛼 during take-off. So, this is nothing but 𝛼 during
takeoff okay. So, because the orientation is fixed when the UAV is running on ground, hence,
the angle of attack has to be a constant value here right, this is 𝛼 takeoff.

So, for this particular 𝛼 takeoff, what will be the corresponding CL that I can achieve without
flap deflection and elevators are not effective to change the orientation when it is running on
the ground right and there is no point of doing that. So, the corresponding 𝑉′ during this take
off. I need to run or I need to take my aircraft to a velocity where it is able to produce the lift
which is equivalent to weight of this aircraft, which can lift the weight of the aircraft right.

So, there should be a force that can lift the weight or we should produce a force which is in the
opposite direction of weight. And for that you need to make your aircraft achieve a particular
velocity, which is takeoff velocity, what we will call it is? So, the 𝐶𝐿 ′ is now defined by this 𝛼
takeoff which depends upon the orientation of your aircraft during the ground roll right.

And then once you have this 𝐶𝐿 ′ you will be able to find out what is 𝑉′2 . So, once you have 𝑉 ′
then we will adapt to this 𝑉𝑇𝑂 = 1.2 ∗ 𝑉′ okay. So, that will consider that this is a factor of
safety right 1.2 ∗ 𝑉′. So, that when you substitute in this particular equation, you will be
satisfying lift is equals to weight definitely more than weight here, okay.

Because 𝑉𝑇𝑂 is higher than that 𝐶𝐿 ′ is not it? So, takeoff condition is higher compared to that
of the velocity that you need to maintain for 𝐶𝐿 ′. So, this will definitely ensure that you are off
the ground, you are airborne, this particular condition, okay? That is when you can change your
orientation, once you are airborne, then your control surface are effective and then you can
change the orientation of this aircraft okay.

So, now we will look at the procedure a bit more in detail. We will write down the steps how
to solve this. And moreover, you see this takeoff velocity depends upon density right. And all
of our calculations depend upon density because we are talking about aerodynamic forces. And

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is do not you think, is it not mandatory for us to come up with a sub routine that talks about
variation of density with altitude right. So when we are talking that what do we remember?
standard atmosphere right?.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:48)

So before solving this particular example problem, I would like to come up with a sub routine
that talks about yeah, density, like given an altitude of flight as an input, I will get density
pressure and the temperature as an output right.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:05)

So, what we are going to talk about sub routine for standard atmosphere. So, most of our flights
are limited to say about 13 kilometres right. So let us try to like come up with the sub routine
for the first 2 layers of standard atmosphere, we know this is the altitude and this is in

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kilometres right this is an x axis, we have temperature like or say the when the altitude is varied
what is the change in temperature?

That is what the standard atmosphere talks about. So, we have temperature in Kelvin, right on
the vertical axis we have altitude in km. So, at sea level say at 0 km to 11 km we know it is
𝑑𝑇
governed by gradient layer equations where there is a slope here right which is called 𝑑ℎ right,

please make a note of it, just for the visualization purpose and to make like plotting the altitude
on the vertical axis make more sense right is not it?

So, altitude on vertical axis make more sense the only reason why this is plotted in this manner,
but in general this data is acquired by means of varying the altitude and measuring the
corresponding temperature density and yeah sorry temperature and pressure at those altitudes
𝑑𝑇
okay. So, the lapse rate here is given us 𝑑ℎ which is Kelvin per km, for the first gradient layer

which is -6.5 K/km okay.

And then from 11 kilometres to 25 kilometres what we have is isothermal layer. So, the first
layer is this is gradient layer and what we have is isothermal layer. So, up to 25 kilometres
okay. So, the constant temperature region. So, 𝑇0 altitude is 288.16 Kelvin right at this
particular altitude of 11 kilometres is 216.66 Kelvin okay right. So, let us now come up with
the sub routine.

So, before this we will just recollect what our gradient layer equations? So, the gradient layer
𝑑𝑇 𝑇 −𝑇
which is characterised by the slope lapse rate what we call is 𝑑ℎ which is ℎ2−ℎ1 right. So, where
2 1

h is and then so T at a particular altitude

𝑇2 = 𝑇1 + 𝑎 ∗ ∆ℎ
okay. So, this is one equation that gives me the information about temperature at an altitude
right.

And then what I have is gradient layer equations which is P is equals to

𝑔0
𝑇2 −𝑎𝑅
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ( )
𝑇1
okay and then

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 𝑔0
𝑇2 −𝑎𝑅+1
𝜌2 = 𝜌1 ( )
𝑇1

right. So, I can find out for the gradient layer right given the altitude let us say in our case
which is 2 kilometers given the altitude what I can find?

I can definitely find out what is ∆ℎ = ℎ2 − ℎ1 and then multiplying it with the lapse rate what
I get is yeah with by plugging in the information of 𝑇1 and I will be knowing what is the
corresponding temperature at that particular altitude using the 𝑇2 and 𝑇1 and we know what is
the lapse rate and R is a universal gas constant is 287 joule per kg Kelvin right, and 𝑔0 of
course, we know is 9.81 meter per second square. So, plugging in this values what I will be
able to find out what is 𝑃2 ? and what is 𝜌2 ? Okay. So, similarly for so, isothermal is constant
temperature regime right, for constant temperature regimes
𝑔0
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 𝑒 −𝑅𝑇∆ℎ
Similarly,
𝑔0
𝜌2 = 𝜌1 𝑒 −𝑅𝑇∆ℎ
So, once I know what is T is nothing, but the temperature of respect to isothermal layer okay.
And then I do not think there are any other new variables that we need to discuss. So, using
these equations, let us now write a subroutine. So, for that I will take help of MATLAB.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:41)

So, I will try to first clear all the data from the memory. So, I am closing any other windows
that are open and I am clearing the screen what am clc helps you let us say there is something

328
here right, some let us assume there is something some details here. And then first I would like
to save this. This was our example 1 which we have solved in our previous lecture, I named it
as performance underscore level flight.

I wish you should also do that and then the second example is for this one we are talking about
density right. So, this is density okay. Now, I have to make it as a function that will finally
convert know, firstly, let us try to write it as a normal dot m file normal program. So, this will
help clear all close all will try to remove everything from its memory which is the workspace
here you can see it removes everything from the memory.

And it will clear the editor page here, clear the command window here right. So, from then you
start writing the code okay. So, first thing I would like to do is consider the input of z right,
what is the altitude here? let us say z is my altitude which is equals to let us say h that you are
considering, whereas h, h is my or z is my altitude that is considered right.

So, input I will consider this as an input into the altitude of flight in meters right. So, this will
be an input for this program okay. So, now, once I get the height then I should be knowing
what is the corresponding g acting at that altitude right which is g is equals to or say r the radius
of earth which is why we need is? we will try to convert this geometric altitude to geopotential
altitude by means of h is equals to
𝑟 ∗ ℎ𝑑
ℎ=
𝑟 + ℎ𝑑
you can refer our discussion regarding standard atmosphere, we have discussed a bit during the
introductory lectures of this course as well as during our previous course, right. In the previous
course we have derived in detail. So, z is nothing but the geometric altitude that you consider.

then we need the input of this radius of earth which is 6400 kilometres approximately that to
be precise with 6635676 is a radius of earth in meters. So, for a given geometric altitude you
know converted it to geopotential altitude right. So, for example, first we need to see whether
the input altitude whether it falls in isothermal layer or gradient layer.

Let us say if at all the z is greater than or equal to 0 right and is z is less than 11 kilometres
right, this is 11,000 meters is not it? So, less than or equal to 11,000 meters let us assume okay.
So, then this falls in gradient layer right. In that case

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 𝑔0
𝑇2 −𝑎𝑅
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ( )
𝑇1
So, for this particular gradient layer. So, what we are talking if this falls into this category then
what we are talking about is? the gradient layer 1 okay.

For this what is the value of 𝑎 = −6.5 ∗ 10−3 𝐾/𝑚, but we need to talk in terms of meters we
have to make sure that the units are consistent. So, lapse rate I would like to comment this as
lapse rate in right Kelvin per meter. So, before okay and then this is static pressure at the
required altitude okay. So, what you get here is in Pascal pa or Newton upon meter square.

So, that is output from this particular what you called equation okay. So, the scripted line
number 12 gives you the output of static pressure that the particular altitude and then say I need
to find out density. So, den let us assume den is at the corresponding density at that particular
altitude which is equals to den 0 right that is the density at sea level. Otherwise, instead of den
you can say
𝑔0
𝑇2 −𝑎𝑅+1
𝜌2 = 𝜌1 ( )
𝑇1
So, what do you get is a density at the required altitude in kg upon meter cube right. So, what
you get is a density at that particular altitude. Now, yeah this is done.

So, this is what we require right, is not it? but how can this equation be? let us say the line at
line number 12 how can this script be executed? Because we have quite a good number of
unknowns here is not it? So, here P0 is unknown, P is unknown for this gradient layer at that
particular altitude. 𝑎 is given for this particular layer a is known R is unknown. So, let us
initialize the input variables here say R is 287 joule per kg Kelvin right specific.

So, this is universal gas constant for air which is in joule per kg Kelvin and then what do you
require here is 𝑃0 at STP 𝑃0 is sorry at mean sea level 𝑃0 = 1.01325 ∗ 105 right. This is in
Pascal right. So, one atmosphere or atmospheric pressure at sea level in Pascal. And 𝜌0 =
1.225 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 right density at sea level in kg upon meter cube okay and we also know what is
temperature at sea level is 288.16 Kelvin temperature at sea level in Kelvin.

330
So, we have inputs now. So, the required inputs but 𝑇0 is known 𝑃0 is known in order to solve
this equation I need to know what are the variables on the right hand right? 𝑃0 is known as an
input 𝑃0 is known at sea level 𝑔0 = 9.81 meters per second square. So, acceleration due to
gravity at MSL okay.

So, 𝑔0 is known and then what we need is? R is known yes, so, the only unknown is T. So, we
know from the definition of a lapse rate right. So, we can now find out what is a T at that
particular altitude is
𝑇 = 𝑇0 + 𝑎 ∗ ∆ℎ
this is like temperature at the required altitude in Kelvin.

So, let it ∆ℎ. So, in order to execute this script at line 17 we need to know a is input right 𝑇0 is
input again, what is ∆ℎ? okay, where for the first layer the ℎ1 is 0, is not it? Do you accept that?

So, for this first layer, so, for this first isothermal gradient layer ℎ1 is 0 here. So, ℎ1 let us say
that will be the difference there. So, then ℎ1 = 0 here gradient layer 1 that means. So, this ℎ1 =
0, okay. So, this will get fetch me the data if not else, if this particular z. Let us say if we want
to find out at 13 kilometres altitude right.

Density and other parameters are 13 kilometres, if the flight is at 13 kilometers, so, 13
kilometers talks about isothermal layer which is yeah this it falls somewhere here. So, 13
kilometers, so, we need to talk about equations that corresponds to this particular isothermal
layer right. So, which means, we need to talk about these equations. So, instead of those which
we have used for gradient layer, we will just replace them by these 2 equations. So, that we
will complete the details or modeling of isothermal layer here.
(Refer Slide Time: 46:37)

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So, if z is less than or if z is greater than 11 kilometers right. So, z is greater than 11 kilometers
and less than or equal to 25 kilometers right. So, we know for this particular isothermal layer
we have constant temperature right, there characteristic constant temperature. So, what I will
say is this is isothermal layer 1 okay and then what is ℎ1 ? ℎ1 for this is 11 kilometers right
because it starts at 11 kilometers.

So, this is the starting of that ℎ1 talks about starting of that particular layer right. So, and then
T of this at this particular condition is the input temperature for this isothermal layer. For
example, for this isothermal layer 𝑃1 corresponds to this particular point at 11 kilometres 𝑃1
corresponds to 11 kilometers and 𝑃2 corresponds to any other point within this isothermal layer.

Similarly, 𝜌1 here corresponds to density at 11 kilometers for this isothermal layer and
similarly, yeah 𝑇1 corresponds to and 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 and it is equals to this particular value 216.66 K
right. So, what is 𝑃1 . So, what you can identify from here from the above program if you plug
in let us say if you plug in what is at 11 kilometres?

You can use those values and find out what is 𝑃1 which I already did it. So, what I will do is.
So, 𝑃1 at this particular altitude is equals to 22700 this is again in Pascal I am not giving the
details I say otherwise, this is static pressure at 11 kilometers at 11,000 meters okay and then
𝜌1 okay is equals to what is the density at 11 kilometers which is 0.3648 density at 11
kilometers 11000 meters.

332
So, I have the initial conditions for this particular yeah. So, for this particular isothermal layer
right and then I will be able to find out what is the corresponding pressure P. So, pressure P =
𝑃1 because we are talking about isothermal layer the initial conditions of isothermal layer we
considered as 𝑃1 here right is not it? So, for this is the 𝑃1 for this particular isothermal layer
and whereas, 𝑃1 for the gradient layer is nothing but 𝑃0 right.

When you talk about next isothermal layer then 𝑃0 may be different you know next gradient
layer let us say. So, for example, if you consider next gradient layer here then 𝑃1 should
correspond to the pressure at 25 kilometers altitude static pressure and density at 25 kilometers
altitude right, that you need to take them as an input okay. So, P is equals to at that particular
altitude in isothermal layer
𝑔0
𝑃1 = 𝑃0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑇∆ℎ
So, there is a small correction here we have considered ℎ1 as 11000 meters right. So, this is in
geometric altitude, we need to convert because z is in geopotential ℎ1 should also be in
geopotential altitude.

So, we need to convert this h1 the initial height of this isothermal layer to geopotential altitude
either know, we can use this particular equation again and replacing z with that ℎ1 here like
otherwise. So, let us see you can either do this as an input, for example, r into z. So, here ℎ1 is
11,000 where I need to first queue the details of r, r is let us say radius of Earth I execute this
program till this no okay.

So, I will enter the value of r here. So, this is like calculator. So, you can directly use this as
ℎ1 . ∆ℎ for this particular isothermal layer and the corresponding pressure and this particular
altitude static pressure at this required altitude, this is what this particular equation returns then.
𝑔0
𝜌1 = 𝜌0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑇∆ℎ
So, this is the density at that required altitude in kg per meter cube okay, that is it, we are more
or less done with the required outputs and end right. So, so, this ends the if loop here if the
entered input value is in this range like gradient layer range.

So, this particular block of the code will be executed and else if it falls in this isothermal range.
So, this particular code will be executed. So, after that we will end this program. So, what I

333
need as an output is? Let us say P pressure okay, let us say output, output = P T or say let us
say density and then pressure P and then T as an temperature. So, let us run this program.

So, enter the altitude of flight in meters let us say I wanted sea level, let us see what will what
it is going to return, So, and then so the ∆ℎ should the altitude input altitude or the query
altitude in geopotential altitude and then ℎ1 should be for the first gradient layer it should be 0
and for the second gradient layer again ℎ1 should be in geopotential altitude right.

So, which is 11 km, The isothermal layer starts at 11 kilometers, so we need to convert that to
geopotential altitude. Again ∆ℎ = ℎ − ℎ1 which is a query altitude and hℎ1 corresponds for this
particular look ℎ1 is yeah from this equation from the above equation. And this is like using
geopotential altitude you get 216.7835 right. So, if you run this program for 11 kilometers, you
will get this as an input right for this particular.

Yeah, else if condition. And then, yeah, we are more or less ready. So, what I will try to display
instead of output here I will say, I will simply display 𝜌 P pressure, temperature, right. So, let
us run this program, I need to enter the altitude, say at 0 km or 0 meters in meters right I need
to enter it in meters. So, 0 meters, that is at sea level it is 1.225, pressure is 1.01325 ∗ 105
Pascal, and temperature is 288.16, Kelvin right.

So, let us now run this for at say, 5 kilometers altitude, which is 5000 meters. So, these are the
corresponding value. So, now, you will get this value so this is in gradient layer, you can run
this program for, say, 13 kilometers. So, there is some small error and this isothermal layer
equation, multiplied by the variable e. So, this should be exponential right, exp, this exp. again
the same thing, exp exponential exp.

Okay, let us run this again. So, let us enter the query point query altitude, which is an isothermal
layer at 13,000 meters. So, now you get the corresponding density 𝜌, pressure and temperature.
So, yeah with this we can say this thing, this program works. So, I would like to make this as
a function as I told you, which means.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

334
So, the output that I expecting is first function is the syntax for this. So, function of. So, the
output that I would like to see from this function is the 𝜌, and pressure right. So, let us say 𝜌
and pressure is equals to, or similarly, whatever you can also take out the temperature. So, you
will get output as these 3 variables. So, I can use any one of the variable wherever I require.
So, 𝜌 P and T, and then given the name of the function should be same as name of your file
that you are going to save, right.

So, that is density, and then. So, what should be the input value? it should be z right. So, z is
the input from here which we initially took as an input directly right. So, I am not displaying
this. What I will do is return this function, after this okay. That is okay, you can leave it like
this. So, I have saved this as a function right. So, now I will close this function okay. So, now
you can see this has become a function.

So, this is m code and that is so I can group them by type, so you can see this so this has become
a function. For example, if I simply say, so density okay, density at what altitude, say at 1
kilometre okay. So, answer is 1, you will get only the first variable as an output here. Okay, let
me open this function. Okay, let us save this. Then run this program again. In the command
window when you do not assign any particular value right to this function, any variable to this
function.

So, it will directly give the first variable as an output here right. So, which is the density is the
first output from this function. So, instead, let us assume 𝑎 density. So, let us just check whether

335
this function is working or not. So, what the function is going to return, it is going to return
you density pressure and temperature. That means you have to find out these 3 variables right.

So, this is the way we need to call this function, whatever the variable that you want to call, so
let us say if you want the 3 variables as an output then you have to mention these 3 variables
here while calling this function. By default, if you just call this density function, let us say, at
this function density at say 1 km. So, it returns only the first variable which is density here, this
is the first variable right, first output from this function.

So, if you want all the 3, then you need to mention density, pressure, temperature. So, what
you get is density, pressure and temperature at this query point right. So, this function is
working fine okay. So, now I have saved this as a function. I will be using this function inside
whenever I would like to figure out what is the density at a given altitude okay.

So, that is the reason why I explicitly mentioned it as density, and if I do not inquire about this
P and T, it will just written density as an output here right, I you should also complete this
exercise okay. Now, let us get back to our initial problem, where. So we need to find out what
is the power required right that was the initial question consider the delta wing UAV presented
in example 1.

And find out the power required when the takeoff angle of attack is maintained as 5 degrees
here okay. So, let us now create a new script.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

336
So, let us say clear all, close all, clc, so just before that we will look at the steps that you are
going to follow, ok.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

So, this is steps we need to follow is first of all steps for power estimation, right during takeoff,
ok. So, first step is now what are we can constrain the input, right, alpha takeoff maintained is
input here. So, you can in fact vary this and see if you vary different angles of attack what is
the corresponding variation in takeoff distance, takeoff time? right and then what is a power
required and the thrust required?

So, once you have this using 𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ∗ 𝛼 𝑇𝑂 , find 𝐶𝐿 ′? right. So, now once you have 𝐶𝐿 ′
you need to find out 𝑉′ assuming this particular 𝐶𝐿 ′ when you make the aircraft to move at 𝑉′
you will be able to generate lift equal to weight of the aircraft, so that you can climb that your
airborne, right. So, 𝐶𝐿 ′ and consider takeoff velocity with a factor of safety which is 1.2 times
of 𝑉′ here, ok.

So, this 𝐶𝐿 ′ depends upon 𝛼 𝑇𝑂 , if you are able to produce 𝛼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 here then this will become
𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 , right, the corresponding 𝐶𝐿 ′ becomes 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 . But right now for this particular UAV the
takeoff angle of attack is given as 5 degrees, so this will not be 𝛼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 anymore then it will not
be 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 , right and 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 . So, we are making it a more general case, right and the fifth that you
have to look at is what should yeah but what is the corresponding takeoff velocity for this
configuration?

337
So, if you have to achieve this takeoff velocity what will be the acceleration? an acceleration
that you need to produce. So, assuming a uniform acceleration to achieve this takeoff velocity
𝑉𝑇𝑂
what we have is? , ok where initial velocity is 0 meter per second. So, if you have to achieve
𝑡

this acceleration, why because? why we have calculating this?

We need to find out what is the ultimate? let us say at a latest stage we will come up with T is
equals to this particular equation. So, the T is equals to
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑎
so we need input 𝑎 here, so how do we find out 𝑎 there. So, this is like
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝐷 + 𝜇(𝑊 − 𝐿)
this is what we require, is not it? So, D is a unknown, 𝑎 is unknown, so a we are finding out
from here, so we will see how do we find 𝑎?

So, if I want to find T, I need to know what is 𝑎, D and L, right. So, 𝜇 is given as an input, this
is an input, 𝜇 is an input and yeah we do not what is L here, right. So, but figured out what is
𝐿′ , right, so and this implies L is equals to yeah, ok. So, 𝐶𝐿 ′, right, so you know what is 𝑉′ and
similarly you can find out what is L, 𝐿′ ? Which is or L during the for that particular flight
1
condition which is 2 𝜌𝑉 2 . So, we are talking about, so thrust required during takeoff, right final.

So, you need to figure out this velocity.

(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

Let us make this as an explicit step here, so let us say there is another step which talks about

338
 1
𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉𝑇𝑂 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿 ′
2
So, 𝐶𝐿 ′ is what you are going to get maximum because you are not you will not able to change
the angle of attack when it is during the ground run rate, it is already fixed because of the way
it was designed the undercarriage was designed, right.

And so and the based upon the what you call? wing incidence angle. So, but we do not have a
wing incidence angle here, it is a wing alone configuration. So, what the maximum the 𝐶𝐿 that
1
you can get at the takeoff velocity is 2 𝜌𝑉𝑇𝑂 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿 ′, right. So, this will be definitely you know

benefit of the configuration, ok. So, if it achieves this particular condition.

So for a given velocity, ok or to be frank you can even neglect this lift, so that you will get to
know what is the maximum thrust required during takeoff. If you can neglect this particular
quantity assuming the lift is not so high, right, so you can get at so similar to the tough condition
when you just started the ground run, lift is 0. So, 𝜇𝑊 is a drag the resistance due to friction,
right, so at takeoff you have lift, right almost during the entire procedure which is (𝑊 − 𝐿),
ok.

So, now this will be another step where you will find out what is 𝐶𝐿 ′ and then similarly you
1 2
find out what is drag which is 2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆(𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿′ ), ok. So, this is a step before this let me say

this as step 7 you have steps of 8 here and step 6 should be like how do you decide this? We
1
know 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 , right, is not it, so from here since the initial velocity during this ground

run is 0 assuming a constant acceleration.

1
So, what you have is? 𝑠 = 2 𝑎𝑡 2 , so this implies once you substitute this the acceleration will
𝑉𝑇𝑂 ∗𝑡
be 𝑠 = , right, ok. So, now what you need to decide is what is the length of the runway,
2

correct, depending upon the length of the runway you will be able to what is the corresponding
time required to achieve this particular velocity, right.

Assuming a uniform acceleration and once you know what is the 𝑉𝑇𝑂 and V and the time you
know 𝑉𝑇𝑂 and once you figure out what is the time taken for this takeoff. So, you will be able
to find out the required acceleration, so this acceleration can further be used in this equation to

339
find out what is the takeoff thrust required. And then so there are many methods like this is the
one that I generally adopt.

And the power required to takeoff is equals to takeoff thrust required for takeoff times the
velocity. So, this will gives the maximum power, right, so I am not doing it for the entire
process, right. So, what is the power requirement variation from 0 to the maximum or the point
where you achieved 𝑉𝑇𝑂 . I am just talking about the final number 𝑉𝑇𝑂 what is the power
required at 𝑉𝑇𝑂 ?

So, that will be the maximum anyways, so I would like to see that you know what is the value
and it is variation with takeoff distance, how it is varying with takeoff distance? So, the input
variable here is takeoff distance, it is a variable input variable, so I keep varying the takeoff
distance I make it as a variable of this subroutine from there I will be able to figure out what is
the time taken to achieve that takeoff velocity, alright.

So, what is it? Time taken to achieve 𝑉𝑇𝑂 , ok, so once I know this particular time I will be able
𝑉𝑇𝑂
to find out acceleration which is step 5, acceleration for takeoff is required is . So, that
𝑡

means the length of the runway matters here, how much length of the runway it is available for
you. So, from there find out what is lift what are this factors? right.

So, 𝜇 is given as an input is a you can have acceleration as a input for equation 8, right or step
8. And drag from step 7 and as well as this 𝜇(𝑊 − 𝐿) from, so at takeoff to be frank this
particular value is 0. So, see this value keep decreasing as the velocity increasing because the
lift keep increasing, is not it. So, at 0 velocity you have the maximum which is 𝜇𝑊.

And at V = 0 and this is 0 at 𝑉𝑇𝑂 assuming so 𝑉𝑇𝑂 is equals to 0 at 𝑉𝑇𝑂 this is 0 why because?
W = L or in fact L is greater than W, so this becomes negative. So, let us keep it as it is for the
time being so for the initial program, so we are going to write another subroutine. So, now the
input this one if I just want to see the screen command window we can, ok press enter to process
the code.

So, now we are using the same aircraft, right, is in the same UAV. So, performance instead of
level flight I will say takeoff, ok. In fact not exactly the performance we are talking about

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power requirement, ok. So, and we were told that we can use the data from the previous aircraft,
so let me put plug in all this variables directly from this previous program. So, for takeoff
performance these are the input geometry parameters because since the UAV is same.

So, all these parameters remains same and then 𝛼𝑇𝑂 , right. So, this is like the second block, so
takeoff input conditions, so what are the takeoff input conditions? 𝛼 right let me see it is angle
of attack underscore to takeoff, right. That is which is fixed which is constrained due to the
design of undercarriage which we discussed here, is not it. So, it is constrained because of the
design of the undercarriage, so 𝛼𝑇𝑂 is fixed due to during takeoff.

Say when you cannot deploy flaps for that particular UAV, you cannot change or alter the 𝐶𝐿
value during the takeoff, right for this particular configuration. So, angle of attack during
𝜋
takeoff is 5 degrees that is what it was mentioned, so 5 ∗ 180 I am converting it to radians, so

this is in radian. So, takeoff angle of attack in radians, ok. So, also we require aerodynamic
parameters as an input, right.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

So we will just copy paste this values here and then 𝐶𝑚𝛼 is also given, ok and k. We may not
be requiring all these parameters but still I will try to copy them and then delete it whatever the
that and all required? So, 𝐶𝐷0 is 0.03, 𝐶𝑚0 is 0.01, 𝐶𝑚0 is not required, 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 is not required
and then 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 is not required for our current program, ok. So, these are the few aerodynamic
parameters that we need to give as an input apart from this takeoff conditions what we have is

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𝜇, right, 𝜇 or coefficient of friction say which is 0.05, right coefficient of friction, ok. So, and
then what you are require as an input nothing else I guess.

So, coming back to this, so 𝛼 𝑇𝑂 is an input from here and then yeah, so 𝐶𝐿0 is input, 𝐶𝐿𝛼 is input
which you already copied, the aerodynamic parameters are copied. Now let us find out what is
𝐶𝐿 ′ here? So, 𝐶𝐿 ′, so let us start programming, so that means this entire steps , so what I need
to find out is 𝐶𝐿 ′, right 𝐶𝐿1 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ∗ 𝛼. So, 𝐶𝐿𝛼 is in per radian and then 𝛼 is also in
radians, ok, so this with this 𝐶𝐿1 I will be able to find out what is 𝑉1,

2(𝑊⁄𝑆)
𝑉1 = √
𝜌𝐶𝐿1

So, this is your 𝑉1, so 𝑉𝑇𝑂 , TO is stands for takeoff, so 𝑉𝑇𝑂 = 1.2 ∗ 𝑉1, let us assume that, ok.
And then what I need to find? so the acceleration, so S is a variable here. So, depending upon
the value of S, I will be able to find out what is the corresponding time taken per takeoff.

So, now S is a variable here, right, is not it, so I will do is for S underscore takeoff ok, so S
underscore takeoff is varying from what? Say let us start with 10 meters or say let us start yes
10 meters when increase it by 10 meters every increment and it should be up to 200 meters let
us say, ok. So, if say this is my takeoff distance then every time 𝛼 is constant, 𝐶𝐿1 is constant,
so that is not a variable here.

So, 𝑉1 is also not a variable, so 𝑉𝑇𝑂 is not a variable here, so what is the variable is? time to
takeoff. Because it depends upon 𝑆𝑇𝑂 , right, so 𝑆𝑇𝑂 is a variable, so automatically t to takeoff
will also change. So, let us say this is i, 1 depends upon 𝑆𝑇𝑂 there, right. So, I will try to store
this 𝑆𝑇𝑂 also as a new variable, S underscore takeoff, right, capital takeoff is for storage
purpose.

So, as I storing this as what i, 1 is equals to S underscore takeoff, ok, distance per takeoff in
meters. So, 𝑉𝑇𝑂 anyways is not a variable, so it depend can you see that like can you appreciate
this a takeoff is constant and hence 𝐶𝐿1 is constant and 𝑉1 constant. Because we are not
changing the aircraft, right, and then at a given altitude this is constant. So, here density should
be an input, right, is not it.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

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So, what I can do is press enter process the code instead of this the input that I would like to
take is Z, correct. Let us say Z is equals to have you use Z anywhere here, no, so Z is equals to
is an input let us enter the altitude of flight. So, since I am asking for only one output, so it will
automatically returns density, right. So, means let me do that as well. So, density is equals to
so den, let us say den is equals to density of Z, right.

So, I require only one variable here, right which is density for this particular program. So, I am
calling only one output here which is den right, so den is equals to density of set returns only
first output which is density of, so it was considered here, ok, that I am trying to delete this
part. So, this now like user’s choice you can enter the density of altitude of flight, enter the
altitude of flight in meters, right.

So, now that comes in as an input here accordingly, ok, so 𝑆𝑇𝑂 is clear which is from here. And
then using the same 𝑆𝑇𝑂 I will be able to find out what is time to takeoff. So, for this program
we require some inputs to follow which is i, i is starting 0, right, so for storage purpose, so i =
i + 1, ok, right.

And then, so we need to find out what is the acceleration required which is 𝑉𝑇𝑂 upon t, ok. So,
this is an approximation acceleration for takeoff again it is a function of distance, right, that is
available. So, takeoff distance that is available, so which is again 𝑉𝑇𝑂 , so 𝑉𝑇𝑂 is constant upon
𝑡𝑇𝑂 , right which is a variable, i, 1. So, whatever the acceleration for takeoff depends upon that
particular 𝑡𝑇𝑂 , right.

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So, for that particular and which in fact depends upon that 𝑆𝑇𝑂 which is a variable of this
program, right, and then input variable in fact there. So, 𝑎 𝑇𝑂 is done, now I can find out what
is 𝐶𝐿 , so 𝜇 is also required, so 𝜇 is given, so what I required further is what is D and what is L,
right. Let us assume there is no L acting here, ok, so let us also neglect this, so that we have
adequate drag you know adequate what you call? Friction still at the takeoff time, right.

So, which is 𝜇𝑊, fine ok. Or you can say this prime is equals to when you run at this particular
velocity this will automatically disappear, is not it. If you plug in that this will automatically
disappear, so you can do that but in like what I will try to do is I will take some at least, so at
takeoff this is lift is definitely equal to weight, so this becomes 0. But still I would like to have
it just before takeoff I want to I have say about say 50% or say 10% of this you know 10% of
this particular 𝜇𝑊, right.

That I would like to consider still as a significant number during takeoff, right. So, let me use
that 90%, so 10% of that 𝜇𝑊 instead of (W – L), I would like to use thrust during takeoff is
equals to, so this is again a variable, right, is not it. So, thrust during takeoff times i, 1 is equals
to mass times mass of the aircraft times acceleration to takeoff i, 1, ok plus the drag that you
need to overcome.

And then plus the frictional force 𝜇 times (W – L), right. So, but I would like to omit this L,
ok, I would like to omit this yeah omit this L and then take 10% of this, right 0.1 times 10 %
of this 𝜇, this is at the takeoff condition, right. I am trying to take the frictional force as 10% at
static force, right during the static condition, ok. So, 𝜇𝑊, 𝜇 is as an input W is the weight of
the aircraft which we have, so small w is at a this one is small w.

So, let us change this small w, so this will automatically become an input from this geometric
parameters and mass of course is considered as an input. So, mass times the acceleration + drag
times 𝜇, right, so this is what the total thrust required. So, but for this equation to solve we need
to know what is drag here, right, is not it. So, drag again is a function, right, is not it, so drag
of i, 1, right.

So, it will not be a variable anyway, This will get you the details of drag, so I think we are more
or less done, so the power required for takeoff is i, 1 is equals to power required is thrust

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required during takeoff i, 1 times velocity during takeoff, ok. So, let us end this program here,
so you know the output here will be, so based upon the takeoff distance, so the variable here is
takeoff distance. And you will find out what is the time for the takeoff to happen.

And then acceleration that is required and then the thrust as well as the power required. So,
once you know what is the thrust and power required you will be able to understand the
requirement from your power plant, right. So, this has to be delivered by your power plant to
this particular UAV, ok. So, let us have a pictorial or say let us have a plot of this variables
with takeoff distance, right.

So, figure 1 subplot, so how many variables I can say 1, 2, 3, 4 right, 4 variables here. So, the
4 variables here are so let us have 4, 1, 1 is a subplot and we have plotting what takeoff with
respect to takeoff distance how this is varying, right. So, S underscore takeoff on the x axis and
then first thing that I would like know is what is the ok, so power variation during takeoff, y
label.

So, I can simply copy this, ok, y label is power to takeoff, ok, power underscore t underscore
o, power takeoff in watts, ok. I am not mentioning the unit but that is in watts, ok. So, this is in
Newtons and this is in watts, so subplot this is done I will try to paste. I will paste this and then
say, subplot 4 by 1 of 2, 3 and 4, the second one I would like to see what is the thrust required
for takeoff.

And then the third one I will talk about acceleration during this takeoff and it is variation with
takeoff distance and the time taken with the takeoff to have. And the time yeah required for
takeoff, so this is like thrust for required and then acceleration meter per second square time in
seconds, ok. So, this x label is takeoff S underscore T underscore O, right, it is takeoff distance
in meters.

So, I am not giving the units here, let us say you can still have watts, right, in the brackets V
mentioned units as watt. And then thrust for takeoff is Newtons and then this is in meter per
second square and which is in seconds, ok. So, just let us run this code, so from the question
yeah if you look at the question. So, we need to find this takeoff performance from a runway
which is at 1000 meters, right.

345
So, with a propeller efficiency of 0.95 yeah we forget to mention about this, so this is like
power required, right. So, power required during takeoff PR during takeoff let us say this is
power required during takeoff by the aircraft. And now the engine has to deliver a shaft power,
right, so ultimately, so the engine or the brushless motor here has to deliver the shaft power.

So, the shaft power that engine needs to deliver should be power available upon or power
available which is equals to power required by the system here, right. So, this is power required
by the system upon shaft power, so the shaft power that the engine has to deliver is power
required by the system upon efficiency of the propeller.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

So, let us say efficiency of the propeller here is input aerodynamic characteristics let us say 𝜂𝑃 ,
propeller efficiency, right. Otherwise 𝜂𝑃 is equals to efficiency of the propeller is 0.95 is given
from the data. So, the power that need to be delivered or PS is shaft power let us say. So, PS is
shaft power during takeoff is depends upon the power required by the system upon efficiency
of the propeller, ok, 𝜂𝑃 , fine. So, let me add one more plot here apart from the power required,
so it is say let us have 5 subplots here.

So, this is 5 by 5 of 2, 5 of 3 and 5 of 4, so 5 of let us say this is third one, this is fourth one,
this is fifth one, ok, this is second one. I want to add one more this is power required it becomes
PR and PR underscore takeoff, right. So, let us say this is power shaft power that need to be
delivered by the engine, so, ok. So, this is becomes the first plot here again this is in watts, ok.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

346
So, we will run this code. I think the earlier code is already, ok, I have break this code. Now I
will run this again. So, now it like it will ask us to given input enter the altitude of flight in
meter, so that is 1000 meters, right. So, ok there is some error here, we will just see, so this is
𝜇𝑊, right, so here 𝜇𝑊 it is where is, ok. So, we have corrected this and then again yeah.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

So, this is the takeoff distance in meters, right. So, this particular yeah you can see here at the
x axis is takeoff distance in meters. And time to take so the acceleration is like, so at shorter
distances as we know that you know you need higher acceleration. So, if you have a runway
which is 100 meters, so you hardly require an acceleration of 2 meters per second, right and
yeah you can see that the corresponding thrust required is about 14 Newtons which is 1.4 kgs
of thrust required in this case.

347
And then the power required for this is about 269 for takeoff is about 269, if you want to make
it takeoff within 90 meters distance, right. So, and then shaft power that we need to deliver is,
so this is about 269 watts 270 watts and shaft power that you need is bit more than that 283
watts, ok. So, this for a brushless motor this power need to be given from your battery, is not
it, it is a electric motor you need to supply this power from the battery.

So, you have the voltage, right, you know number of cells in the voltage of the battery times
the amount. So, this is from here you can figure out what should be the current drawn from the
battery is not it, so you know what is power required here, shaft power. So, once you know
what is shaft power required.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

So, I need to connect this say this brushless motor to a speed controller and a battery let us ok.
So, I need to connect this brushless motor to a speed controller unit let us say there is a speed
controller. So, this speed controller again now I need to give power supply to this speed
controller, right. So, this happens from right, so, ok, so that means this battery is having certain
voltage, right.

So, and there is a speed controller electronic controller ESC and you have your propeller
attached to this. So, what you are delivering is P S here, so there is the PS is output from the
motor, right, and the input is electrical power, right. Let us say 𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 , so the efficiency
𝑃
electrical efficiency, 𝜂𝑒 = 𝑃𝑒 , right.
𝑆

348
Now once you have this electrical efficiency say about 90% then you know what is 𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
power that you need to give. So, this 𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 is equals to voltage times current, right, so now
you can decide which cell which kind of based upon the like. So, in general this brushless motor
operate or wide range of potential difference. So, depending upon the requirement of this motor
you can now have an option to select the respective voltage.

So, and then if you want to have low power low current drawing system then you need to
choose for a high voltage yeah supply yeah high voltage supply, yeah. So, that means you need
to go for high cell LiPo batteries or lithium polymer or any other that you like to power it up
you know. That you like to use to power up the system, so that is our electrical power required
by the system, right. So, this is how you can decide what is the power required during takeoff
for this particular UAV, thank you.

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 UAV Design – Part II
Prof. Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

Lecture No -22
Subroutine for Climb Performance (Powerplant Selection)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:18)

Dear friends, welcome back. So in our previous lecture we have solved the takeoff performance
of a delta wing UAV. So we have, what we did is we developed a sub routine that estimates the
power requirement by this UAV to take off from a location or a runway which is located at about
1 kilometer with respect to mean sea level. Now we know what is the power requirement during
takeoff, right? And we earlier we have also solved the problem for power requirement during
cruise.

Now we will try to solve for the power requirement during climb condition so that we will
understand what is the typical power requirement for this aircraft to perform a particular mission?
Apart from this cruise if you say, if you want to loiter for some time, so what will be the apart from
flying at a particular velocity for the given endurance what will be the corresponding power
required will see, aspect will solve as we progress.

So for the time being we are going to solve this climb performance, what is the power requirement

350
so that the details about this power requirement will help us to understand. So with these details
we will be able to understand the corresponding specifications or the kind of power plan that we
need to select. So now let us take up a problem, same problem almost.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:38)

So instead of, so example; consider the UAV in the above example or say in our previous example
and estimate the power required by the system. Note by the UAV to perform climb at a climb rate
of say 5 meters per second. So for us this data is inadequate, is not it? So just before proceeding
this to this particular subroutine development, we will have a quick look at the dynamics that we
have discussed earlier for climb performance.

Let us say this aircraft is moving at a forward velocity 𝑉∞ , right, is said to be inclined with a climb
angle 𝛾. So let us assume a steady climb in this case. So where the thrust is acting in the direction
of flight and drag is acting opposite to the direction of flight and there is lift perpendicular to flight
velocity and the weight of the aircraft is acting vertically downward here. So the dynamic
conditions here are 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾 = 0.
Since we are considering a steady climb here, so 𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾 = 0. So that means the load factor
n,
𝐿
𝑛= = cos 𝛾
𝑊
So during climbing flight, I require less lift compared to that of level flight I require to generate a
lift which is adequate to overcome a component of weight, which is 𝑊 cos 𝛾. So, 𝑊 cos 𝛾 will be

351
balanced by this lift. So 𝑊 cos 𝛾; so 𝑊 sin 𝛾 is balanced by the engine here.

So we are loading engine more in case of climb. So, 𝑊 sin 𝛾 will be acting opposite to the direction
of flight, so which we need to satisfy. That means the thrust required by the system is drag. Apart
from drag you also have a component of weight which is 𝑊 sin 𝛾. Higher the value of 𝛾 greater is
this particular component 𝑊 sin 𝛾. So now if this condition has to be satisfied by the engine here
that means we should make this thrust available to the system to overcome the drag as well as to
carry the weight, a component of weight in the direction of flight.

So now the power required by this system is thrust required times 𝑉∞ . So the thrust required here
for climb, I will say the bracket c talks about climb because we also discuss TR for level flight as
well. So the thrust required during climb should be
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐷 + 𝑊 sin 𝛾
And power is equals to
𝑃𝑅 = 𝐷𝑉∞ + 𝑉∞ 𝑊 sin 𝛾
So I need to know this particular value. If I have to solve this above example, I need to know what
is the power required or say this is the power required by the system what should be the power
available by the system. This shaft power that need to be generated through this engine, so which
we discussed earlier, is not it? The shaft power here that we need to generate, sorry. So this is for
electrical efficiency.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:41)

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So the shaft, otherwise the efficiency propulsive efficiency, 𝜂𝑃 is equals to power available upon
shaft power. So with the help of this propeller we are converting the available shaft power from
the brushless motor of the engine to the available power that helps the aircraft to move forward.
So this is power available, the output from this propeller and brushless motor combination. So the
output is power available upon shaft power is the propulsive efficiency.

So if I want to know what should be the shaft power ultimately the engine delivers shaft power.
So if I need to know what is this shaft power that the engine has to deliver is equals to power
available upon propulsive efficiency. Now this is what we need to ultimately figure it out. So here
the shaft power that I need to generate is equals to, so this should be the power available to move
at this particular flight velocity as well as at this particular 𝛾.

So if you can notice here, so this power drag times velocity is nothing but power required in level
flight is not it? Power required in level flight, so in level flight we just require our engine to deliver
this particular power required to fly at this particular velocity. But in case of climbing flight we
apart from this power required what we need is additional power that carries a component of weight
at a desired climb velocity or forward velocity that helps you to climb.

So now the shaft power Psh is that the engine has to deliver or make available for the propeller or
the aircraft is power available or the power required by the system upon shaft propeller efficiency.

353
So from the above step let us say if you consider so this as, so this is like second step and this is
like, so because from step 3, we will be able to find out what is power required or the power
available that need to be made available by the propeller power plant for the aircraft to fly at this
particular velocity 𝑉∞ .

Now in this particular question, we were given the data about rate of climb. The R/C stands for
rate of climb or you can also say RoC rate of climb. So I would like to use both the nomenclatures.
So both of these as the nomenclature to represent rate of climb which is given as 5 meters per
second. That means the vertical component of velocity, is equals to 𝑉∞ sin 𝛾 here. This vertical
component of velocity is 𝑉∞ sin 𝛾 and the horizontal component of velocity is 𝑉∞ cos 𝛾.

For example, so at time t is equals to 0, this say this is like t1 the time at which the climb is initiated
and then after a time t2 say t is equal to t2, so it has climbed to an altitude hf, right let us let it be h2
and h1 be the initial altitude at which the climb is initiated. It can be 0. So the total change in the
vertical distance is h2 - h1 upon t2 - t1, that is a vertical component of velocity when you are
climbing at particular 𝛾.

You also cover a horizontal distance, which is like a t is equals to t1 you are at x1 and at t is equal
to t2 you are on the ground you are at x2. So this h and x are with respect to a frame that is fixed
on the ground, we call it as initial frame here. So this is nothing but x2 - x1 upon t2 - t1. So this is
equals to 𝑉∞ cos 𝛾. Now say you are given the information about rate of climb, R/C.

So can we directly use that rate of climb to find out what is the power required? So, one way to do
that is, so from this equation from the above equation, so this is power required for climb PRC here.
So now this PR stands for power required for level flight. Let us keep the same flavor of this PR
that is that we use it for level flight condition. So the power available from this equation, which
was present in step 3, power available minus power required will helps you to like the difference
between that power available minus power required.

Which is power required is drag into velocity which is a level flight power requirement, is will
help you to propel this aircraft forward by taking a component of weight at a velocity 𝑉∞ . So this

354
𝑉∞ sin 𝛾 from here is power available minus power required upon W called the difference between
PA and PR is the excess power and when divided by W we call it as specific excess power.

So this rate of climb,

𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝑅
𝑅𝑜𝐶 =
𝑊
So the power that need to be made available is depends upon RoC times W plus power required,
that is not it? Power required is drag into velocity. Given RoC here and you know the weight of
the aircraft. If you know the drag, the PR will be able to find out what is PA. So this PR is nothing
but drag into velocity again.

So here D is again a function of CL here, now is not it? So D is again a function of CL and CL
depends upon 𝛾. To find out CL you need to know what is 𝛾. That means it is not a straight forward
approach, you need to consider different values of 𝛾 and see for the same rate of climb how the
power requirement is varying. Now say you can also have a iterative approach in terms of, like
instead of fixing this rate of climb 5 meters per second.

You can also iterate rate of climb for different at each and every rate of climb you can vary the
value of 𝛾 and see what is the corresponding power required by the system. And also what will be
the forward velocity that results in. So we will try to figure out all this aspects.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:05)

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So let us follow the step by step approach. So first consider a rate of climb R/C or RoC. For this
rate of climb and vary 𝛾. So for a particular rate of climb vary 𝛾. From here for each and every 𝛾;
for each R/C and 𝛾 find 𝑉∞ which is forward velocity. That is what we just discussed. So this is
the forward velocity that we are talking here. So find this forward velocity with the input of rate
of climb RoC, rate of climb, you can say.

So the input of rate of climb and 𝛾 find out what is 𝑉∞ forward flight velocity here, the climb. And
then so you know 𝛾 and you know 𝑉∞ for this particular case that means so the approach that we
are adopting stands for a particular R/C, the single value of R/C and you can iterate the entire
procedure. You can repeat the entire exercise for different rate of climb.

So R/C and 𝛾 find 𝑉∞ and now find CL for given 𝑉∞ and 𝛾. So this corresponds to again for this
particular rate of climb. So once you have this CL you find out what is, so find or say calculate CD,
which is 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿 2 using drag polar. Once you know CD so find the thrust required during
climb,
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐷 + 𝑊 sin 𝛾
So now you can find out once you have that find power required during climb. So the power
required is equals to during climb should be equal to thrust required during climb times 𝑉∞
corresponding forward velocity of flight during the climb. So this you have estimated from step 5,
so which is nothing but power required for climb
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑇𝑅 𝑉∞
𝑃𝑅 = 𝐷𝑉∞ + 𝑉∞ 𝑊 sin 𝛾
So this any way you will get it from this step 5. So now you can also find out what is the time.
You know what is the climb angle and you know what is this you can find out what is the say how
much time to take time taken to climb a particular altitude. Otherwise within a specified time what
is the distance it can travel because it is a steady climb we are talking about. You know, h1 and h2
ℎ2 −ℎ1
and you know rate of climb and you know what is .
∆𝑡

So this constant velocity of climb; so which is nothing but 𝑉∞ sin 𝛾. You know what is 𝑉∞ and 𝛾.
So from here you will be able to find out with a, so within a particular time interval, you will be

356
able to find out what is the height this aircraft achieved. How much within say or say to climb a
particular altitude what should be the corresponding height what you call time required.

So that means ℎ2 − ℎ1 is given, you will be able to find out what is the corresponding time. Let us
consider, let us add some more to this question time of rate of climb to climb an altitude of say. So
this is pretty much right forward now. There is not much exciting thing involved with this. So 1000
meters. So which is like; how much time it takes to climb this particular altitude. That is 𝑉∞ sin 𝛾,
so we, so the time taken ∆𝑡 is equals to so ∆ℎ*RoC, let us say if you are climbing from sea level
to 1000 kilometers.

So 1000 meters or the problem is already delta h to be 1000 say. It is already starting from thousand
MSL, so let us make it 2000 MSL here. 2000 MSL, so another important aspect that we need to
1
consider is the drag here, is not it? So the drag you are calculating it from 2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐷 . So as the

altitude changes here, your density also changing, is not it? So assuming you are flying at a
constant velocity throughout, you have to consider the change in density as well.

So earlier we have come up with a sub routine where with the input of altitude you will be able to
find out what is the corresponding density. So we will use that subroutine in this to find out drag
at each and every altitude when you are flying at a particular velocity and at forward velocity and
at particular climb angle. Similarly you can find out, so what will be the horizontal distance that
you can travel.

So since, see ideally it has to be a numerical integration but we are considering a constant velocity
of flight, so we can like use a direct, you can use ∆𝑡 directly to figure out what is the corresponding
distance travelled. So corresponding distance travel, horizontal distance travel in this time is
𝑉∞ cos 𝛾 ∗ 𝑡. So ∆𝑡 you get it from previous step, step number 7 and with step 8 you will be able
to find out what is the corresponding horizontal distance travelled. So these are the parameters that
we are going to plot right for various climb angles. So we have to make a subroutine.
So this was our previous question, performance, takeoff performance subroutine. So I would like
to take a new code here. I am clearing the memory of this MATLAB compiler and then I am
closing say if there are any figures or some windows which were open because of the previous

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code, they all will be closed and then clc stands for clearing the screen of the command window.
For example if I write something here then say clc will actually clean this command window.

Clear screen right? So now since we are talking about the same UAV earlier, so I would like to
input the geometric as well as aerodynamic data from my previous code here, right? So I have just
copied the input geometric data where the mass of the UAV is 3.5 kg. So the weight is now
obtained by multiplying the mass with g which is considered as 10 meter per second square and
the span must give as 1.5 meters with root chord of 0.9 meters and tip chord of 0.15 meters.

So we end up having a taper ratio of about say 0.167 and the area of this plan form as per the
geometry based upon this root chord, span and the tip chord with the taper ratio. We will be able
to figure out what is the area which is which turned out to be 0.787 meter square and the aspect
𝑏2
ratio here is . So which is about 2.86 and Oswald’s efficiency is given as an input 0.89 and W/S,
𝑆

wing loading is estimated here.

So apart from the just explaining what are all involved here. So now apart from that we also
considered the aerodynamic data which with 𝐶𝐿0 as 0.06 and 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of this delta wing 2.9 to close to
3 per radian here again. Better to mention its radian. So 𝐶𝐷0 is 0.03 and induced drag correction
factor can be calculated using this expression and we also have propeller efficiency which is 0.95.
We require a propeller efficiency, is not it? So in order to find out what is shaft power the need to
deliver, so we need to talk we need this popular efficiency as an input here.
So now what we need to do is to consider the climb parameters. So what we want to vary here? So
rate of climb I would like to vary. Let us say rate of climb R underscore C here I would like to
vary initially the rate of climb. So that is our first step, rate of climb is equals to so varying from
say I would like to vary it from 1 meter per second to with an interval of 1 meter per second again
to say what to 7 meters per second, let us say rate of climb.
So we were asked to find out at, the question was to figure out rate of climb, no not rate of climb.
What is the power required when you are climbing it 5 meters per second, like with a vertical
velocity of 5 meters per second. But here we are not just limiting our approach for 5 meters per
second, vertical velocity of 5 meters per second.

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Instead we are now iterating from 1 meter per second of vertical velocity to 7 meters per second.
You can increase this. I just thought like this will be useful for you when you are, when you want
to change this parameters. So that is the reason why I am including it here. So let us say j is the
variable of this particular iteration for rate of climb. And I would like to consider another variable
i for this as a variable in this integration.

So not integration, I am sorry, variable for this iterations here. So j is now increasing whenever
there is an increment in the rate of climb. So initially it takes value of 1. So I would like to store
this RoC, rate of climb as j comma 1. So it is a vector column, vector here. So rate of climb is
equal to R underscore C. Now so let us say for the first iteration it takes a single value of RoC that
is 1 here. Now once I consider rate of climb.
So according to our approach we need to vary gamma, is not it? That is what it is here, so we have
to vary 𝛾 here. So this value has to be varied here.
So now to do that what I am considering is another for loop because I need to vary it, I need a loop
here to vary that parameter. So 𝛾 is now varied from say 1 degree. So otherwise FP, I will say, I
will write it as flight path, FP is varied from 1 degree to, so it is in degrees, I will convert into
radians. So, 1 degree with an increment of otherwise say 2 degree flight path angle with an
increment of 2 degrees.

Every time it takes an increment of 2, say if starts with 2 degrees of 𝛾, then it will in the next
iteration it will take 4 and 6 and so on till say 20 degrees of 𝛾. So we will have almost 9 data points
here, including 2 it is like 20 I guess, including 2 it is 10 data points will have. So this flight path
is varying. So, again as I mentioned, i is the variable of this iterative approach for 𝛾 where j is a
variable for RoC, rate of climb, i is for 𝛾 here.

And then I would like to convert gamma which was there to radians because MATLAB
understands radians. So the flight path angle which is in degrees is converted to radians by
𝜋
multiplying it by 180. And now I would like to store these values of 𝛾 as well during the iterative

process. So it is like i, j. So, it anyways going to be constant. So but still I would like to store this
for every k.

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So this will be like what is the size of FP? Size of FP cross size of RC. So that will be that will
have the matrix of 𝛾 will be, size of FP cross size of RC. So i, j so; each and every column
corresponds to a particular rate of climb here. So that is what it is, j talks about rate of climb. So j
here, x, y in the sense here i, j. j stands for each and each value of, particular value of rate of climb
you can say.

So this is equals to gamma. So ideally all the columns has to be same. Of course, it is nothing but
know we have fixed our steps of increment from 2 to 20 with the interval of 2. So ideally all the
columns of this 𝛾, capital Gamma; so it has to be same identical. It will be anyways.

So once you have 𝛾, find with for each R/C and 𝛾 find 𝑉∞ .

What will be the forward velocity of flight? We have vertical velocity of flight which is rate of
climb. Now what will be the forward velocity of flight for this particular rate of climb? So this
equals to i, j. So i stands for different gamma what at for a particular, so V of i, j stands for different
gamma that means i is varying inside this loop, the second for loop. It is varying for the second for
loop. So let me close this.

So this will end the second for loop and we have the second for loop inside the first for loop. So
now it makes sense. So this particular sub loop which is inside this main for loop. So we will iterate
for 𝛾. So select, once we select particular rate of climb, so this second loop iterates for 𝛾 here. So
that is what it is. For a particular j value, j value will not vary until you break this loop, until you
break this for loop here.

The 𝛾, until the 𝛾 varies from 2 to 20 with the step of 2, this j value remains constant. Once it is
done for the first time, it will break this particular loop, it will come out of this inner loop and it
will like again check for the condition for the outer loop here. Once the reason increment in the
rate of climb here the j value increases and hence the new again the 𝛾 is again varied from 0 to, 2
to 20 with an interval of 2.

Now that those values will be stored in second column there. So I guess you might have already

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got used to this environment and then started using MATLAB as well. So with that what you call
𝑅𝑜𝐶
assumption I am proceeding to solve this. So V of i, j is equals to, we have . So gamma is
sin 𝛾

already in radian.

So rate of climb is constant for a particular but gamma is continuously changing inside the loop
and this is constant for this inner loop to be frank. So for when it comes to the outer loop R/C again
changes when it, once it, once the inner loop starts from here, it will remain a, it will remain
constant for that particular loop whereas 𝛾 will be the variable of this loop here. So we have
velocity of climb and then thrust required if I am not wrong.

So calculate what is the CL for the given V and 𝛾. How can I do that? We have lift is equals to
𝑊 cos 𝛾, this is what I need to produce. So, CL is equals to
2(𝑊⁄𝑆) cos 𝛾
𝐶𝐿 =
𝜌 𝑉∞ 2
So, we have 𝑉∞ and 𝛾 and these details are given, geometric details and density I need to find out
at each and every altitude.

So when I have to find the density, that means I need to know what is the corresponding altitude
of flight here? So I need to give, for the time being let us say we get it from here. We will try to
arrange that. So density is also given as an input. For the time being let us assumes that. So
otherwise we need to solve this entire procedure in time domain. So let us not do that for the time
being. We will consider density as an input that is the density of the density from which the climb
is initiated.

So from the density of the altitude from the climb is initiated. So we have that function. So we
have density function which was used earlier here, no. Takeoff was not, input density we have
already used this function. So we consider the initial altitude of cruise. So density, so we are
confining this to the initial altitude which can be solved in the time domain. I wish you should take
it as an assignment, but just modifying the variables of the integration.

So z, let us take z as an input here which is enter the altitude of flight, initial altitude of flight or

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altitude enter the altitude at which cruises initiated. At which, sorry, climb is initiated, climb is in
meters. So this I am talking about performance, not takeoff. So I will type climb and of course all
these are meant for power plan selection. This entire exercise helps you to figure out what should
be the power plant here.

So you have V, rate of climbs and 𝛾 and then you can find out what is the CL value here. So from
here I will be able to find out what is CL. The corresponding CD of this flight,
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2
using drag polar we can find out what is, 𝐶𝐷0 is given, k we have calculated. So 𝐶𝐷0 plus k these
are constant times. CL is a variable again here depends upon flight velocity and 𝛾. And 𝛾 is a
variable and hence the flight velocity as well here because rate of climb is again a variable in this.

𝐶𝐷 is done. Now, I will find out what is the drag. That is good to find out what is the lift as well,
that is nothing but 𝑊 cos 𝛾, that is okay. So instead of drag, I will say directly the power required
instead of drags or say thrust required.

1
S is given, 2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐷 of i, j corresponds to the particular velocity and CL that CL of course which
1
depends upon V and 𝛾 there. 2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐷 + 𝑊 sin 𝛾. This is a thrust required 𝑊 sin 𝛾. So the power

required or should be made available for this climb performance from a j should be equal to thrust
required for this climb performance multiplied by the corresponding velocity of the flight, forward
velocity of flight.

So this is done. So if it has to reach an altitude of say or say wherever it is going to take off it has
to reach an altitude of or say the cruise altitude and the takeoff altitude the difference between
them should be 1 kilometer, let us assume that. Then the time taken to reach that altitude t of i, j
which depends upon again gamma and flight path angle here, so is equals to so let us say that
difference should be 1000, we are fixing it here 1000 meters, multiplied upon velocity, so V of i,
j. So, here the time of flight.

Here rate of climb is fixed, is not it? And we have that vertical distance, this vertical distance is

362
fixed and rate of climb is fixed. That means this will not be a variable inside the second loop. There
should be the variable in the first loop itself.

So that means so here the time to climb for a particular rate of climb, with a particular rate of climb
what will be the time that is required to the depends upon ∆ℎ, ∆ℎ is the difference in the altitudes
or say the final climb altitude and the altitude initial climb altitude, the altitude at which the climb
is initiated, the ∆ℎ upon rate of climb here R underscore C. So this, so it returns time here time for
this delta t to climb to that particular altitude.

So this ∆𝑡, within this delta t what is the corresponding horizontal distance travel? So that depends
upon gamma. So that is x here, which we have discussed. So x is equals to, again this is a variable
because it depends upon 𝛾. x, i, j is equals to 𝑉∞ cos 𝛾, that is V i, j times also 𝛾 times ∆𝑡 times or
t of j, 1. So when you fix the difference in the altitude the time required to climb that altitude and
the rate of climb.

So that means for each and every iteration rate of climb is fixed for the outer loop. So and then ∆ℎ
is already fixed we want it to be the altitude. It has to climb should be about 1000 meters. So let
me put it down here. So ∆ℎ is 1000 meters, ℎ2 − ℎ1 should be 1000 meters. So for each and every
because ∆ℎ is fixed that is from the machine requirements and then with different rate of climb
you will have different time taken to climb that to climb to that particular altitude.

So within this time the horizontal distance covered is 𝑉∞ cos 𝛾 ∗ 𝑡, the respective t within that and
say if you want to find out the distance travelled along the flight path.

So say if you want if you want to find out the distance travelled along the flight path within that
so along this direction, within that ∆𝑡 you, have 𝑉∞ times. So that is the velocity of flight and we
assume steady flight condition. So it is pretty straight forward.

So 𝑉∞ times the corresponding time. So I think there is not much here. So we can end this. Almost
completed all the required. So we have computed all the required variables here. So now let us plot
here. So what are we going to plot in the first figure? So let me subplot first major focuses on what

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should be the power required here. So power required and as well as thrust required and of velocity
also let us see in the horizontal distance.

Fine, we will plot all this 4 variables here. So let me take it 4 by 1 by 1 which talks about it say.
So in the figure you will have 4 columns 4 rows that is 4 horizontal plots and 1 vertical plot.
There is only 1 column. The if you have 4 by 2 that means you will have 8 different plots. Now 4
by 1 you have only 4 plots. So when you say 4 by 2, so in the first row you will have 4 rows like,
sorry, in the first column you have 4 rows, in the second column you have 4 rows. So sub plot 4
1, 1.

This 1 talks about the first plot. You are trying, now you are trying to plot it in the first plot. 4, 1,
2 talks about like, 4, 1, 2 talks about even your plotting in the second plot, second sub plot of the
figure. What I need to plot is the following. So I need to plot variation of 𝛾, is not it? So 𝛾, so is a
any at each and every rate of climb it is 1 in the same because the variation is to 2 to 20.

So I can plot any one of the column that should be good enough, all the column variables. So if I
say 1, it stands for a particular rate of climb. So first column, when R by, when j is 1 here, j is 1
column here represents all the rows here, all the rows and first column that means 𝛾 matrix. For
example I will show that there is only let me just. So let I will just commented this. I will run this
program and show you how the 𝛾 matrix is. So climb, enter the altitude at which climb is initiated
in meters.

So I need to, so let us say from the data as soon as the aircraft takes off it has to climb, that is what
we have started this program, is not it? So in the question it is given located. The runway is located
at an altitude of 1 kilometer with respect to mean sea level.

So I need to consider density at that particular altitude for this particular problem or in general
when you talk about solving this in time domain, you can also have density variation with altitude
as well. So this particular function returns you that particular value of density at altitude, which is
considered here as the altitude at which the runway is located, that is nothing but the altitude at
which climb is also initiated, let us say 1000 meters.

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W should be small letter I guess, is not it? So here W is in small case. So now, so when it has
executed till this point that means there are only 2 more lines that are to execute. So can I assume
the code is fine till that point? So it is done. So if I take this out here aspect ratio 2.8571 that we
have talked earlier 2.86 close to. So and then CD again know, it is varying inside the loop it is like
70 cross 7, is not it?

Because there are 𝛾, span values of 𝛾. First let me show you what this 𝛾 here. So the 𝛾 here, so 𝛾
here is. See, there is some issue. Every time i is not getting 0 here, i is increasing every time. Let
me just correct that. So I will just try to correct it. So here after i + 1 again once it comes here, so
after 10 it will start 11. So instead of initializing this i is equals to 0 here, so let me initialize here.

So for inner loop, for outer loop it has no effect whenever the program completes this inner loop
once it starts for the next variable in the outer loop, once it assigns the next rate of climb, so this
will also make the variable of that inner loop to 0. That way it will help us to find out know, have
the same columns of like the same size. So this is 1000 meters. So for example, now you can see
so the first column corresponds to when rate of climb is 1.

The second column is 2, when third column corresponds to rate of climb 3, fourth column
corresponds to rate of climb 4 and the rate of climb is 4 meter per second. So first let us look at
gamma here. So gamma see here. As I told you it will be same for all the columns because we are
varying effectively fixing this variation, is not it, through that for loop command or this syntax that
we have assigned in for loop.

So we are actually, we have already fixed the initial and the final value as well as step size. So this
is in radians, no, if you can just multiply this with 180 by pi you will get to know the degrees
180
respect to degrees or say. So I can, what I can do is 𝛾 ∗ . So this will help me see - 2 degrees, 4
𝜋

degrees, 6 degrees, 8 till 20 with a step size of 2 degrees. So this is constant and it is same.

So for each and every rate of climb it starts again with 2 degrees, 4 degrees to 20 degrees. So this,
so the 𝛾 here, I can plot, I can now plot so the so now you will be more comfortable to appreciate

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this. So considering any one of the 𝛾, any one of the column in the 𝛾 is good enough for me to like
plot the variation of any other variable with respect to 𝛾. So now, so each and every column
corresponds to a particular rate of climb and if you can see, you see here rate of climb is just
varying from 1 to 7.

So if I just either I can look it from the workspace or I can just write it down here. Rate of climb
is varying from 1 to 7. So I wish I may not, I will plot for only 1 figure. So you try to plot it for
the rest. So let me take sup plot 4, 1, 1, 𝛾 and then what is what am I plotting it for you can use
either for loop, I am making it explicit here. So 𝛾 and then rate of, so 𝛾 I need to plot for power
required for climb here.

PR for climb, power required for climb, which is colon comma 1, the first column. Power required
and then I have colon k star. k stands for black color, star stands for the corresponding marker at
the particular gamma i, j, power required i, j. So that particular point is now represented by this
marker star k stands for color code, which is black I am using and this column stands for the line
type, know line type what which you can mention explicitly for each and every variable. I would
like to use the shortcut here.

So in the same plot I want to, I want to plot for the rest of rate of climb as well. So say plot for
gamma 1 comma because whether you take first column or second column in gamma it is 1 and
the same. So I am not varying it. So, I have taken the second variable and instead of green k, I
have taken red here, red. So the second talks about rate of climb 2, is not it? The second value here
or say the second column it talks about rate of climb when the rate of climb is 2 meters per second.

So I will hold on, hold on this plot so that I can superimpose this. So the third column when rate
of climb is 3, so say instead of I say green so, hold on. So I will say instead of now I am plotting
it for rate of climb 4 which corresponds to column 4 here, the data here. So instead of blue, I will
take blue and star and then control v. So instead of now I am plotting it for when rate of climb is
5 meters per second and m stand for magenta here, you can so rate of climb 6.

So this will, so and all the like plots, I am no more holding it on this particular. I will say or say

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after y label and x label just copying it, just to save few seconds. So power required that is what
we are talking about, power required 𝐶𝐿𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 . So this is the power required directly by the system
is not it? So can we also divide this by or say this is power required by the system, so what should
be the shaft power available?

PS for climb performance. PS underscore 𝐶𝐿 let us say for climb should be what? i, j should be
power required for climb upon efficiency, efficiency of propeller which is given here eff
underscore p. So now this is like in watts, yes, of course in watts power required during climb. So
instead of this, you can repeat this for, so I will just plot any of the 2 variables.

So I will just plot what is the forward velocity as well as, sorry. So I will just plot 2 sub plots. You
can repeat this exercise. So in the second one instead of PS, what I like to plot is the velocity, what
will be the corresponding forward velocity of flight. So, that sounds help me to identify that it has
completed the replacement of that variables from the point where I have selected till the end of the
code.

It will again go to the top of the code and start searching for the variables. So this is in velocity,
which is in forward flight velocity? It is experiment 𝑉∞ . Let us see meters per second. I am just
plotting for these 2 and let us see the result. So here it is not i, 1, it is i, j. So let us run this code
again that. So the altitude at which we are initiating this climb is 1 kilometer with respect to mean
sea level and we want this to climb to an altitude of 1 kilometer from there.

So I can notice so infty, a backslash infty stands for V infty here. So x label here. 𝛾 in degrees, so
I am plotting here in radians. I will convert this in degrees. So replace 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. So done I will
run this again and see let us hope proper output. So this, there is something here. The symbol did
not appear.

I will just check it. So the power required during, shaft power required during climb is in watts
here. So when it is 2 degrees, so to have the same what you call rate of climb, so we have we need
to have the label here. So legend we can insert legend. Legend has come. So, the black one
corresponds to rate of climb 1. So red plot corresponds to rate of climb 2, red and then this is

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seventh one corresponds to rate of climb 7 at 7 meters per second.

So here you can notice know, as the rate of climb increases with a lesser climb angle you need to
because the distance is fixed and the rate of climb is fixed, you need to fly at a very high speed.
That is why the overall power requirement during this is about say, 1000. No it is 10000 watts
which is like 10 kilowatts kind of. So similarly what will the corresponding flight velocity is 200
meters per second.

If you want to achieve the rate of climb as seven with the 2 degrees of climb angle and it drastically
decreases you can see, when rate of climb is 7 so it has to be just 20 meters per second. The forward
velocity and the power required, so maybe the scale is quite big. Here it is 104 it is approximately.
So you require about 392 watts. That means if you take a 12 cell or a 6 cell battery, 6 cell battery
what is the power 6 times 3.2

Each lipo battery can is of approximately 3.7 Volts into 6 is like 22 volts. So when you want to
supply this much power of say about 392 or 393 is the power upon 22 volts, let us say you need to
supply an amperes of about, it takes about 18 amperes. So the motor draws 18 amperes. Again you
have to divide it by efficiency factor so that you will get to know what should be the battery
capacity. From there how much time you require, you know, what is delta t.

So multiplying that with delta t you know, what is the battery weight required for the particular
flight envelope. So hope you will extend this program with the other variables as well like how the
drag is varying and the CL is varying with 𝛾 and for different climb rates here.

So okay, thank you and in the next lecture we will be talking about, in the next lecture we will be
talking about weight estimation subroutine. So once we are done with the weight estimation
subroutine we will proceed to find out how to like planform geometry selection as well as profile
selection, wing selection ideally, so wing design subroutine. Thank you.

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 UAV Design – Part II
Prof. Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

Lecture No -23
Subroutine for Weight Estimation

Dear friends, welcome back. So let us now proceed to solve weight estimation subroutine where
we will take up again an example problem with some data like, we will not get into that how you
are going to get the historical data here but we will consider that as an input for this example. And
then we will try to develop a subroutine which helps us to figure out what should be the weight of
the UAV without not exactly going into the aerodynamic details of the configuration.

So once you have the weight of the UAV then you can think of designing a wing and selecting an
aerofoil so that follows this weight estimation. So to start with we need to know how to estimate
the weight, so this weight estimation actually requires power requirement; like as an input what
should be the power typical power requirement by the system which we have already solved for
cruise, takeoff as well as climb performance right.

So that was the reason why we have initially handled those two those three examples or developed
those three subroutines. So let us now proceed to solve this weight estimation problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:19)

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So the example here is, estimate the weight of a UAV which has to carry out the surveillance
mission for 2 hours carrying or with a EO IR payload that weighs about 1 kg. So, at a flight velocity
of 30 meters per second, the UAV is powered with an electric brushless motor and propeller
combination with a propulsive efficiency 0.92, motor efficiency 0.95. Let us change this 0.92 0.95
of propeller efficiency and motor efficiency of 0.9 and electrical efficiency of 0.98.

Assume the lift to drag ratio during the flight is 15. So consider the following data of a baseline
UAV to estimate the weight of the current UAV. So given propulsive efficiency, so what we have
is structural weight ratio. So this is W. W structure upon total weight of the aircraft is given as 0.4
from the baseline aircraft. Weight of propulsion unit or brushless motor upon weight of the total
weight of the UAV was given as 0.15.

And electrical efficiency is 0.98 and motor efficiency 0.9 and then propeller efficiency or
propulsive efficiency is 0.95. So what exactly is mean and again let us put down all the data that
was given. So we need to carry out a mission requirement, so from the question we need to estimate
the weight of a UAV which has to carry out a mission of surveillance mission for 2 hours that
means it has to the time of flight has to be minimum of 2 hours.

Let us assume, let us now estimate the weight of the UAV only for this 2 hours plus for takeoff
and then returning into the base. So, that we are not accounting here. What we will do is what
should be the minimum weight of the UAV in order to carry out this 2 hours mission, 2 hours
surveillance mission. So the time required is to see here. And also, the SED; specific energy density
that we have to consider for a battery is 100 watt hour per kg.

So this is the specific energy density that is considered. So the time of light is 2 hours and the
velocity of flight should be 30 meters per second and L/D during flight is given as 15. So instead
of just fixing this 15 again, let us try to iterate this from say from 10 with a step of 1 up to 15. So
this is what we are going to do or say 17 as well, that is up to you. So we can iterate this we can
make this as a variable as well as, so this is from the mission requirement.

So we cannot change this much. So 2 hours of flight is also mission requirement here and another

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data that we have from here is payload weight. So, payload weight is given directly, so it is given
as 1 kg. So this is what the data we have from the giving question. Now, let us look at the typical
architecture of this brushless motor propulsion. So what we have is similar to that of IC engine we
have shaft power as an output from a brushless motor.

Let us assume this is my brushless motor. So the output from this brushless motor is shaft power
𝑃𝑆 , when I connect a propeller to this shaft. So what I can what I achieve is power available or the
useful power for the UAV to help the like this power available will help the UAV to move forward.
Let us see what exactly the shaft is connected to. This shaft inside is connected to an armature
which is positioned between permanent magnets.

You can say multiple permanent magnets in most of the cases. So say there will be a bearing here.
Through which the shaft will be out right and then the end of the shaft again is connected to the
other like opposite end of this motor. So say this is another bearing through which this shaft is
mounted. So it is like a simply supported setup here. It is grounded to two ends to ends of it and
then this armature rotates inside this particular motor which is having what you call coaxial
permanent magnets.

So now, so the reason for me to consider this is, like the input for this motor is electric electricity
electric, am I correct or not? 𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 . So the input for the motor is 𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 and the output from
this motor is shaft power. So the electrical efficiency or say the motor efficiency motor efficiency
𝑃𝑆
here and mot is equals to so output from this motor is 𝑃 . So this is the output from this motor.
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐

And then this motor again is connected to a speed controller here what we call it as electric speed
controller. So this is ESC, and then. It is again connected to, finally to the power source. So the
power source that we carry is a battery here lithium LiPo battery. So say this is your LiPo battery.
So, and from here; so this is the power from the battery, so the power from the battery 𝑃𝐵 . So the
𝑃𝐵 is the input for these electrical connections that includes ESC and all other wiring here.

So when there is a power supply through this electrical equipment, there is resistance, of course,
we cannot avoid resistance, so there are certain losses here. So that electrical efficiency is given as

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so the input for this electrical efficiency is power from the battery otherwise you can consider this
power from the battery and the output is power electrical to the motor which is input to the motor
here.

𝑃
So 𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 is the electrical efficiency and it is given as 0.98 and motor efficiency is given as 0.9
𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦

and we have like the useful aerodynamic power here or the power that is useful for the UAV to
move forward is 𝑃𝐴 . So that is the output from the shaft power, so from the propeller. So the
propulsive efficiency is the output upon input. So output is power available upon shaft power 𝑃𝑆𝐻
or 𝑃𝑆 .

So now if I have to talk about what is the overall power available if I have to relate this power
available and power battery power what I need to do is to power at the battery that are required is
equals to power electric upon propulsive efficiency 𝜂𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 , so this is equals to so what is
𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 ? so whatever the power available from the system should be equal to the power
requirement at that particular flight velocity is not it? That is what this power available should do?
If I should set the throttle of the motor in such a way that the combination of this motor with the
propeller should deliver the required power by the system to perform the particular mission; which
is surveillance mission here.

At a particular velocity and L/D. So if this power, so the power required for that particular fight
flight condition when it is satisfied with this power available from the motor then it will be able to
fly at the constant velocity of 30 meters per second. So finally if I have to see understand what
should be the weight of the battery. I need to first understand what should what should be a power
requirement of this entire system or the power that has to be supplied from the battery. So how
long they should supply this power? So it is mentioned that 2 hours here, let us say.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:05)

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So this power from the battery, so energy at the battery otherwise so we cannot talk in terms of
power there right so energy or E, energy required at battery is equals to power required or power
at the battery, power that need to be delivered by the battery times the total duration of flight or
∆𝑡. So this is what will help us to know what is the energy required by the battery. Now once you
know, what is energy required by the battery by using the definition of specific energy density.

So what is specific energy density? Specific energy density is an amount of energy stored in a
battery per kg, So that is watt hour per kg. Weight of the battery, why we are calculating this that
that will be the only variable here, is not it? I will show you that so weight of the battery is; specific
energy required by the battery or energy required from the battery. Upon to carry out that particular
mission upon specific energy density.

So if you have energy in watt hour, then you divide it by watt hour per kg, what you have is a
weight of the battery in kg. So, that is what WB this is equals to W battery. So what is the total
weight of the aircraft? Weight of the aircraft is, this we have already derived in our previous course
please refer to that video the video link will be given below, so please refer to that. So the weight
of the aircraft is structural weight plus propulsive weight, weight of the propulsion system plus
weight of the battery plus assuming all other accessories weight of all other accessories.

That is for a particular system is already included in this. So, structure plus propulsion plus battery

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plus payload for a UAV. So payload weight is given directly in kg so we do not have a structural
weight as such so what we need to do is this is given as the ratio Wstr upon W is given, this structural
weight ratio is given times the total weight plus propulsion weight upon total weight is a propulsion
weight ratio times the total weight of the aircraft plus weight of the battery is not given which is
unknown that we need to find out.

So it varies from mission to mission is not it that is very clear here. If it is ∆𝑡 changes the battery
per weight changes here because battery weight again this battery weight is equals to PBat times
power that is need to be delivered from the battery times ∆𝑡 upon SED specific energy density, so
this power at the battery depends upon this power available. So it depends upon the flight
conditions as well.

So from one mission to the other mission the overall power requirement changes, so if you are
flying at different velocity this power available that the power that need to be made available from
the power plant to the system changes. So at the same time when you are flying at a different L/D
you have different power requirement altogether. So the current approach that we are going to
adopt is not a generic approach.

So this is what I generally use and found to be very useful in in designing a UAV, so there can be
many other approaches. I am not a generalizing and stating that this is only approach that is
available. So the steps that we need to follow here is;
(Refer Slide Time: 18:59)

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Approach 1: what will be doing? So, consider the weight and ratios of baseline UAV. Now, so
what are we doing here? So this battery weight, so payload weight is fixed payload this is fixed.
So this is what is changing is not it? That the battery weight has to change and it depends upon the
initial weight as well initial weight of the aircraft as well. So with the initial weight; for a different
mission requirement.

So the initial weight was given from the baseline aircraft right, is not it? Here it is from the baseline
aircraft. So considering that weight and estimating it for a different altogether different mission
will also affect the initial weight itself at the end of this mission because the battery weight may
not be same as the battery weight of the previous UAV, which was considered as 4 kgs, right?

That was the baseline UAV that we considered that may not be the battery weight that this
particular mission may not stay within that limit So in that 4 kg maybe say about 1.5 kg is the
battery weight for to carry out a mission that was like that UAV was designed for. But the current
UAV has to perform a different mission altogether which is a 2 hours surveillance. So for the case
that 1.5 kg of battery, which you have considered earlier;

For that case, the 1.5 kg battery that was assumed for the total weight of the aircraft which is about
4 kg may not be suitable for this particular mission requirement, that is a reason why we are trying
to estimate with that initial weight assuming that is the initial weight what is the overall weight of

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the battery that we need to carry here? Now with that battery we will try to update it this W.

So that iteration continues until we achieve convergence between two consecutive iterations. So
let us say so i+1. So the error between them is if it is less than 10 power say some value. So then
we will say that okay what we have achieved is a kind of convergence. So weight estimation is
more or less a decent value. It gives us a decent value here. So further, what we have to do is, so
first consider the initial weights and then try to iterate for the convergence.

Because the battery weight changes that means the overall weight changes. So, with that over all
weight figures out what is the power requirement. So initial guess weight so or say initial historic,
from initial weight from historical database. So this is from historical database. So with this initial
weight and for that particular mission requirement right for mission requirement estimate what
should be the battery weight, thereby estimate what should be the weight of UAV.

So let us say WN is the new weight of the Wi is an initial weight that is considered so if this initial
new weight in the initial weight if they are same one and the same that means whatever you guessed
as the initial weight earlier or whatever you have considered the initial weight will also is good
enough to satisfy this particular mission requirement which means this new weight again is a
structural weight right of the new UAV times the propulsive weight of the new UAV.

And then the battery weight of the new UAV plus the payload. So here these weights are updated
based upon this new weight here. So if this new weight and the previous weight if they turn out to
be same in the previous iteration, if they, let us say if there is an error then this iteration continues
like the power requirement for this with the updated weight, so the new weight will become the
what you call input of this iteration.

Let us say if I iterate within this loop then the new weight will now become the initial weight and
then, we will try to estimate what is the power requirement with this new weight right to carry out
that particular mission thereby estimating the battery weight and then from the battery weight again
will find out what is the total weight of the UAV. So within the loop we will not update this
structural weight and propulsion weight.

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So they are defined outside the loop itself, so within the loop we are not doing that. So once we
achieve this, then we will try to update structural weight and propulsion weight and then again
repeat because when you update them again, the total weight changes and the repeat this exercise
so that we are more or less close to this particular weight estimation of a new UAV. So it will be
easy as we start writing the code, let us start the new subroutine.

As usual I am clearing the database, clearing the memory and closing all the windows say if they
are open say I would like to consider the velocity of flight as an input here so input, enter the flight
velocity. So, velocity in meters per second, so at the same time I would also like to have total time
of flight as an input. So enter the total time of flight in hours. So after considering these two as a
inputs.

So, from the given data, so the baseline aircraft. So the weight of the baseline aircraft is also given
here, so which I forgot to mention which given as 4 kg. This was the weight of the baseline aircraft.
So this 4 kg includes everything that was an earlier aircraft we were asked to consider to start like
estimating the weight of the current UAV. This may not be for 2 hours mission requirement, like
surveillance.

And L/D is 15 and then velocity at 30 meters per second, so that may not be exactly same. So but
we will consider that those details here, so the whatever it was given is so baseline aircraft we it is
given as 4kg. So and structural weight ratio the value Wst underscores W, that is a structural weight
ratio, which is given as 0.4. This is structural weight ratio which is Wst underscore W, W structural
upon total weight of the aircraft.

So and then the propulsion weight ratio is given as Wpro underscore W is 0.15. So propulsion
weight ratio and then so the L/D of flight we are going to vary. So for what are we doing? L
underscore D. Let us say that as L/D of flight is varying from say 10 with an increment of 1 till 15
or say 16 otherwise. So you can control this with limits of this for loop. So while varying this what
we need to do is, so for each and every time you need to start with 4 whether it is L/D 11 or L/D
12 or L/D 13 or L/D 15.

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So the baseline aircraft details are same one and the same right is not it? So further what I will try
to do here is the structural weight ratio before entering into this loop. I would like to give them as
an input here. So that is structural weight ratio W underscore STR is a structural weight itself,
which is WSTR underscore W that is structural weight ratio times W here. So this is in kg, so we
are dealing in kg right now.

So and then propulsion weight ratio so this is weight of the propulsion system weight to the weight
of the UAV, so the propulsion weight is total weight is equal to propulsion weight ratio pro
underscore W times the total weight. So this gives me what is the structural weight and the
propulsion weight here. So that is outside the iterations and then so I would like to use some
variables for this iterate iteration again just to know as well as save the data. So I is equals to 0.

Let us say i is equals to 0 here, k is equals to +1 so this will talk about L/D. So k corresponds to
the variable of iterations in for L/D here. I just want to save this L/D or say let us write this
variations a small l/d here I am storing it as capital L/D of k, 1. It stores in a vector column vector
is equals to l underscore d, l by d. I say capital L by D. So now the initial weight of the UAV I
would like to assign this wi the initial weight for this iterations as the weight of the base line aircraft
w, so that is the weight of the UAV and then I would like to have another variable which is w.

So w, which is 0; I am just assigning it just to start like as I told you I want to compare this. Let us
say ww is the final weight after the iteration each iteration, so wi – ww, I would like to compare this
should be less than or otherwise a should be greater than 10−10. If it is greater than 10−10 this loop
runs, so the error so this loop will break as soon as the error with the initial weight of the iteration
in the final weight after that iteration if it is if the error is less than 10−10 so it will break otherwise
it will keep running.

So what I am trying to do here, so wi is considered as w every time inside the even inside the
iteration, so wi is equals to w because I need to upgrade this wi is not it, so the initial weight I am
considering is a base line aircraft but inside that loop every after each and every loop this w i has
to be upgraded here. So this you will understand once we complete this program. So i is again, so

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wi is not related with this i, do not get confused.

So I am i+1 talks about the iterations progress here and then the wi is w and what I have to calculate
is power required right so that was the whole area there.
If you look at here I need to calculate the power required and I need to make sure that is available
power available here, is not it. So apart from this, there are efficiency prop so an input data related
to propeller efficiency, motor efficiency and electrical efficiency.

So efficiency underscore pro, propeller efficiency is equals to 0.95, so efficiency underscore

battery is equal to efficiency underscore propulsion battery, and then what you have electrical
efficiency let us say this is also pro. And I am sorry this should be motor efficiency, which is 0.9
and electrical efficiency 0.98. So the whole idea is since we have this as an input here once I know
what is the power that I need to deliver from the battery for this particular mission requirement?

And it is very clear that if I know that battery power required I will know what is the battery
weight? So I can update this battery weight and get the new weight here is not it that is what I am
trying to do here. So because efficiencies are given as an input here. So what I need to know is
power available, which should be power required to perform that particular mission. So that is
what I am trying to do power required by the system, which is nothing but the power available in
our case.

So power required each and every time is equals to weight of the aircraft wi times, see this is in
kg. I am just converting it to Newton. So L upon what is the power required here for a level flight
condition? So this is like surveillance machine at a L/D constant L/D right? So that means more
or less a level flight here. So L is equal to W right and T is equals to D, are the governing equation.

So the power required for us from these two equations is like rest required times velocity of light,
is not it? So that is nothing but drag times 𝑉∞ or say if you divide these 2 equations. If you divide
otherwise power required is thrust required times velocity of flight. So divide these two equations
what you have is thrust required upon the W, T/W is equal to D/L or say thrust required is

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 𝑊
𝑇𝑅 =
𝐿⁄
𝐷

So we are not exactly going into the details aerodynamic details of this. Instead, we are
considering this L/D is available. So for if you want to have this much of weight for your UAV
then you need to make sure that you fly at that particular L/D. So you have to design your wing to
deliver the particular L/D. So L/D from here will be used as an input for your wing design.

So L/D, W times 𝑉∞ is from the mission requirements upon L/D is your power required here. So
I am not explicitly calculating each and every variable here take thrust required and then power
required the way we performed earlier instead, I will just use this. So this is like w times g which
is like in weight in Newton and then what I have is velocity of light, which is input from here. So,
𝑉
that is 𝐿/𝐷 right? So L/D is what this is my L/D.

So now I got power required. So, can I calculate what is the battery weight? Or power required at
the battery. So power required at the battery is 1 upon electrical efficiency, 1 upon motor
efficiency, 1 upon propulsion efficiency times this power required here. So you now got to know
power at the battery power required at the battery. So, can I say what is battery weight? W B So
inside the iterations let us W underscore battery is equals to power underscore battery times the
time of flight, velocity of flight t. t is the time of flight in our straight. So divided by specific energy
density.

So we need to give SED also as an input in watt hour per kg say SED specific energy density enter
the total into the specific energy of the battery in watt hour per kg. So now you got weight of the
battery. So with this weight so we it without actually using this no we consider them the structural
weight and propulsion weight as a constant inside otherwise we will not be able to achieve a closed
form solution here.

So the W of the total aircraft now the new weight of the aircraft is now W assuming the structure
still remains same structural weight plus W underscore propulsion system weight because of that
propulsion system can deliver a variety of power it is not, considered only for single power so

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assuming this power requirement is still satisfied by this and the structural changes because of just
increase in the battery weight is not much.

So and then what we have is the new battery weight that is battery here, this is the new battery
weight. So now actually W is getting updated with this new battery weight plus payload is already
given so they or payload was not considered here, but it was given as an input so let us write
Wpayload so W underscore PL, let us say is a payload weight, which is equals to 1 kg right so Wpayload
is so payload of EO/IR sensor in kg, directly the payload was given.

So PL talks about payload, so what you are going to achieve is W is in kgs just because everything
else is kgs here, so for calculating power we need to convert that weight from kgs to Newtons
because we are expecting power in Newtons, velocities in meter per second and so we need to
convert that again. So for calculating power required we need to convert this weight to newtons
instead of kgs because we are expecting power required in watts.

So now we got the weight W, now what I want to do is so this W – Wi, Wi is the initial weight that
I have considered, so what I am trying to do is I am assigning this Ww as W, after the otherwise
you can say Wf you can consider this as Wf for this loop Wf and then say Wa. Wa is the final I read
that is estimated after this particular iteration each and every iteration which is equals to W here,
that is a final weight.

Now difference of this initial weight that I have considered in the final weight let us say, if there
are if it is very, very less if it is 10−10 let us say so then this will this loop will break saying that
whatever the battery weight that you have estimated for this particular endurance is already
satisfied for that 4 kg, otherwise this will keep iterating this is one converging convergence
approach that we have used.

So this will end this first while loop and now since the weight is the structure weight as well as
propulsion weight need to be upgraded a little these structural weight and propulsion weight since
the battery weight is increased the total weight also increased. So but these two at line 22 and 23,
the structural weight and propulsion weight we considered is from the weight of the baseline UAV,

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not the current upgraded UAV.

So once this iteration completes then we will try to upgrade this and then all again repeat the same
procedure to find out what is the total increase of the change in the weight of the battery thereby
finding out the overall weight of the UAV. So now again, let us say this has to be for the same
L/D. So what I will do is I will just copy paste these things here again same including the entire
you can either make it as a function that will make more sense but just want to copy paste this
again.

So the second iteration here is the structural weight is now the same structural weight ratio we still
have the same structural ratio, but the new W so the new W is this one after this initial iterations.
So initially in this particular loop what we have upgraded is just the battery weight, So that means
the total weight of the aircraft is upgraded from in terms of battery. Now what we are doing is with
that battery weight we are upgrading structural weight and propulsion weight system.

So; that these are the two weights that we are upgrading for the new UAV for the new mission
requirements. And once we complete this task then again the when there is an increase in structural
weight and propulsion weight there should be an increase in the power requirement to perform that
that means again the battery weight has to be changed. So that means again in the second iteration
so this battery weight will be changed.

So while considering this upgradation you can take a factor of safety so that this particular battery
weight no will be satisfied within the limit. The increase in the weight will not affect the propulsion
weight increment as well as structural weight increment. So we end this after two iterations here.
In general, what I observed is like after this two iterations, the weights are more or less within the
estimates, you know limits of the estimates.

So I will end this program finally the weight that I am going to get here is end up this particular so
for each loop each for loop for each L/D it ends after this 2 while loops. So that means the final
weight of the battery or the final weight of the UAV, W of otherwise what should say V underscore
final for the particular L/D, that means I which is k, 1. So which is k, 1 here is equals to W that I

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am going to get here.

Now WF whatever it is, that is stored in them weight of the batteries also stored. Weight of the
battery after this 2 while loops is k, 1 is also stored for each and every L/D this keeps varying. So
this weight of the battery is here W underscore Battery you want to get here and then weight of
the battery propulsion system. What will be the weight of the propulsion system? So once you
know power requirement for each and every flight envelope you can select a power plant and you
can get the precise power requirement.

So this is an initial estimate to start the design process. So once you have precise weights, once
you select the power plant based upon the power requirement, you will get to know you can again
come back to this loop and then iterate this and finalize the battery because in that case more or
less you have another fixed variable here, is not it? So the same motor which can deliver 23 k say
jet engine or a small brushless motor which can generate 10 kgs of thrust can also generate 5 kgs
of thrust right the same motor.

So, with that understanding we are now we are not upgrading these structural weight propulsion
weight inside the loop itself. So this is the battery weight that we are solving and then the
propulsion weight is for WPRO. So propulsion weight battery weight and then payload is given. So
the total weight is also given, apart from this; what do we require? We do not require anything. So
with L/D how this proper W finally changing as well as battery is changing propulsion. So if we
want to plot you can plot a figure. So figure 1, I can have subplot L/D, L underscore D.

So, each and every time let us say this is wb is the baseline w underscore b so this will become w
underscore b otherwise it will be an issue. So from here, once you get w. So that will automatically
be changed here. So let us assume for the initial iteration it will be always for different L/D, you
have to start with the same baseline aircraft. So let it be W underscore b otherwise it will be
upgraded now with the new weight every time L/D.

And, There is the L/D here it is a column vector L/D how this w underscore final weight is
changing y label syntax. It is W, let me just put w underscore total weight. So, maybe it is worth

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mentioning kg okay total weight in kg, L/D varying with w or the battery weight, total let us not
write the entire total. So we are also plotting the propulsion weight variation with battery weight.

So, x label is L/D, so let us see this work. So we have not saved this set. So weight estimation, so
we are estimating the weight of the UAV only for say that particular mission only for the cruise
we are not estimating for say if there is any extra or with a factor of safety as well as we are not
considering the take off and climbing flight as well as landing flight. So here in the first value so
since we have updated this as w base is b weight w underscore b instead of w.

If there is no for loop then it will not be an issue but since we are iterating for L/D here. So for
different L/D how this weight of the changing? So what I did is I used an if loop here. So if i is 1
like this variable of this loop is 1 then, that is at the initial iterations. So this wi is nothing but wb.
So else if or any other thing so this wi will take w weight of the new weight that we have estimated
right.

So and then it will find out what is the error between them and if the if the error is less than that it
will break and it will continue with the next iterations next while loop here with the upgraded
structural weight and propulsion weight. So here it will not be a problem because what we want is
the new estimated weight should be the input to this particular while loop, which is happening
here.

So the only difference that makes this if loop with that too because we have a for loop here. We
are iterating it for L/D. So another a upgrade is that I would also like to plot this structural weight
how it is varying with L/D. And then I have made it as a subplot of 4 by 1. So therefore rows would
talk about this 4 sub plots with final weight, battery weight, propulsion weight and structure weight
varying with L/D here.

So let us figure out. So the flight velocity is 30 meters per second and then duration of flight is 2
hours from the data and the structural SED says specific energy density of the battery or energy
density of the battery. It should be specific energy density, I missed it. Please I will make a

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correction. So if this is okay, so we have a plot here. So see the structural weight in kg is so has to
be 13 when L/D is 11 and then it can be as low as 2 point 2.3 when you have L/D 16 here.

So, see the propulsion weight ratio is almost close to 850 grams you have so with that propulsion
and the battery weight is close to. Say 3.2 kg when you have L/D 16 for the same flight conditions
when L/D is varying overall weight turns out to be 7.3 kg. So when it is when the L/D is say 11.
See the structure weight increases to 3.5 kg and then the propulsion weight you need to will be
carrying is about 1.3 kg.

So the battery weight and is as high as 10 kg no, you need to carry a battery which weighs about
10 kg here just to perform that mission and then the overall take total weight of the aircraft turns
out to be about 16 kgs here. So this this helps us to like help us to understand the significance of
L/D in the flight. So as a performance increases with the L/D you require less battery weight, less
structural weight and overall weight will also turn out to be compared to the less here.

So this is just a an attempt to start with the weight estimation you can say preliminary weight
estimation that you can start with this code and then once you have the detail weights you can
further complicate this algorithm. I wish you should extend this program for even take off and
based upon the mission requirement, whether it is a hand launch UAV or say it has a typical take-
off and landing capability.

So then based upon that you need to and then the climb, so what is the climb that you are expecting,
what is the altitude of cruise? So, based upon those parameters. I wish you should upgrade this
code to estimate the overall weight of the battery as well as the UAV depending upon a baseline
aircraft. So this baseline aircraft we do not have much time to discuss. So that is from the historical
database.

I leave it to you to figure out to study, at least study various textbooks and figure out what are the
baseline like how do how do we extract this historical database from the previous UAVs.

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So in the next lecture we will talk about wing sizing based upon this weight estimation and the
L/D that we have considered what should be various combinations of like say or what should be
the wing planform geometries as well as the cross sectional profile geometries or say parameters.
Okay then, see you thank you.

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 UAV Design – Part II
Prof. Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

Lecture No -24
Subroutine for Planform Geometry Selection

Dear friends, welcome back. So, in our previous lecture we have solved for a weight estimation
problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:18)

Where the; UAV that we have considered has to perform a surveillance mission for 2 hours with
carrying a payload of which is electro optical and IR sensor which weighs about 1 kg with the
flight velocity of 30 meter per second. What we are asked to do is, what will be the total takeoff
weight of the system if the flight happens at 15 L/D. If the corresponding cruise flight happens at
15 L/D and then we were also given the data about efficiency. So, we have solved this by means
of this subroutine.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:01)

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Where we have considered the weight and the ratios and the like weight ratios from the baseline
UAV.

Which was given from the data like in the question itself and then what we did is after considering
the efficiency of the propeller, various efficiency factors here then we proceeded to figure out what
is the battery weight for the initial iterations we consider the baseline weight to start with. And
then for this particular mission requirement what will be the weight of the battery required.

Thereby updating the total weight of the aircraft and using it to compare or using and finding out
the error with respect to the previous weight which the baseline aircraft for the first iteration. So,
the previous weight will be the baseline aircraft weight for the first iteration here. And then we
compare the error and we checked if it is less than 10−10 . Then it will stop, the code will stop.

So, that means so from the first iterations where the, so during this first iterations first while loop
here. During this first while loop what we did is like we updated battery weight, and the overall
weight. But this weight structural weight and propulsion weight are estimated using weight
fractions yes of course we will keep the weight fraction same for throughout this process but based
upon the initial baseline aircraft weight.

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Now the need is to upgrade them to the current aircraft weight. So, what we did is after this first
while loop, so again the structural weight is updated by means of the current weight of the aircraft.
Which was obtained from the above loop, where the battery weight has been updated based upon
the current mission requirements. So, from there the weight of the propulsion system is also
upgraded.

Now this structural weight and the propulsion weight correspond to the current UAV for the
current mission requirements. So, this weight that was output from this earlier while loop will now
become the input for the second while loop. Which will again because of the change in the weights
of the structural and propulsion systems. So the battery weight or the power requirement will also
changes the overall weight has to change.

So, the battery weight has to change, so and hence we have iterated it again to figure out what is
the updated weight of the aircraft. So, the final weight of the aircraft we obtained after this second
while loop for a particular L/D. So, this for loop iterates for different L/D starting from 11 to 16
with the increment of 1. So, for each and every L/D we are trying to find out what is the total take
off or total weight of the aircraft. We are estimating total weight of the aircraft.

During the process we also figured out what should be the total battery weight for that particular
L/D what should be the structural weight as well as propulsion weight. And we have plotted that.
So, from the plot we notice that from the question we so in the question we were asked like what
will be the total take takeoff weight when we are flying at L/D 15. So, it will be about 8.1 kg.

Now let us consider this as an input and the L/D as an input as well as the flight velocity as an
input to figure out what should be the typical planform geometry or planform parameters or what
should be the typical being planform geometry that helps us to fly this aircraft at the desired
velocities as per the mission requirements,. So that means we are going to get the planform
geometry with the method that we are going to use, now or the subroutine that we are going to
develop.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:30)

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So, what we are going to do here let us write down the example. So, this is another example or
subroutine for planform geometry selection. So, estimate with the planform geometry of the UAV
considered in the previous example to perform the same surveillance mission. The surveillance
mission is for 2 hours,. So, that means so we will consider the same mission requirements here.
So, where the velocity has to be 20 meter per second sorry, 30 meter per second it should be. So,
the velocity is 30 meters per second and then the flight time is about 2 hours. These are the typical
mission requirements that we have considered earlier along with this parameters.

So, but what do we require, now is the following we just need because with all other parameters
including structural weight ratio and propulsion weight ratio as well as payload and propulsion
weight sorry efficiency factor and then electrical efficiency factor and motor efficiency factor. So,
including all this we have figured out that the aircraft when flying at L/D of you 15 it has to weigh
about 8.1 kg.

So, this is what is required for us to go ahead with the planform geometry selection. So, what
exactly the planform has to do here, let us say so I am trying to erase this part. So, the apart from
30 meter per second what we have is L/D of 15 and the total weight of the aircraft is 8.1 kg. These
are the things that we are going to take it as an input. So, now as we know the UAV and performing
this mission.

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So, the first and foremost thing that we expect is at this particular flight velocity. What is the
corresponding 𝐶𝐿 that I need to generate? So, that I can like satisfy that lift is equal to weight
condition. So, I can lift this total otherwise I can generate a force which can sustain the total weight
1
of the aircraft. So, which is 2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝑊. So, I am flying at a particular velocity.

Which means the 𝐶𝐿 which is designed is not it. So, we are going to design the aircraft to fly at
that particular flight condition. So, the design 𝐶𝐿 depends upon twice the wing loading upon 𝜌𝑉 2 .
So, v design is here almost 30 meter pe second. That is what we have to design it for about. So, 𝐶𝐿
design is
2(𝑊/𝑆)
𝐶𝐿𝑑 =
𝜌𝑉𝑑 2
Now so assuming this particular plan form so the planform here the planform parameter that comes
into this L= W is area of the way is not it area of the planform. So, that is the only thing that I
require to design in the first place. And then we will see how to we using that planform how can I
achieve that particular 𝐶𝐿 design. That we look into like look then we have to look into the cross
sectional properties of that, is not it?

So, the wing here for example if you take the top view of this, of this UAV. So, if you consider
the top view of this UAV. So, the wing that you are going to design here so the planform here ok.
So, this plan form here is responsible for generating the lift,. This particular, when moving at this
particular velocity will generate the lift combined with some 𝐶𝐿 value here non dimensional. So,
the 𝐶𝐿 here talks about the cross sectional property at e.

So, these talks about like you need to talk about the cross section of the wing there. That means
you need to talk in terms of 𝐶𝐿𝛼 , 𝐶𝐿0 alpha design and alpha at which 𝐶𝐿 is equals to zero. So, this
will handle for the time being we assume that 𝐶𝐿 is provided. This 𝐶𝐿 design is provided given I
have certain W/S. So, how to achieve that. So, that means I need to know what should be the S?

When I say S, I need to talk about what? The span of the UAV is not it, span of the wings or say
root chord of the wing 𝑐𝑟 here. So, this say, this is my 𝑐𝑟 and 𝑐𝑡 . Am I correct or not 𝑐𝑟 , 𝑐𝑡 , 𝑏. So,
based upon this I can talk about wing planform area. Am I correct? So but it is always better to

391
deal in terms of non-dimensional parameters before actually talking in terms of this dimensional
variables like 𝑐𝑟 , 𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 here.

𝑏2
So, the non-dimensional parameters for wing plan form are aspect ratio which is , and taper ratio
𝑆
𝑐𝑡
λ is . Now if I consider so now the question is if I know S. And AR, I will be able to find out
𝑐𝑟

what is the span of the UAV for that particular S and aspect ratio. Am I correct? So, now once I
know what is S.
𝑏
𝑆= ∗ 𝑐 ∗ (1 + λ)
2 𝑟
If I know λ or say I can make it a variable as well,. If the λ is known I can find out what is 𝑐𝑟 is
2𝑆
𝑐𝑟 =
𝑏(1 + λ)
for a straight tapered wing. So, when there is sweep and all, then you consider the cause of leading
edge sweep or in your any of the leading edge sweep. So, that I am not going to talk about here.

So, I am talking about a straight tapered wing and then 𝑐𝑟 and what about. So, I know b I know 𝑐𝑟 ,
once λ is known I can also find out 𝑐𝑡 . 𝑐𝑡 = 𝑐𝑟 ∗ λ. So, that means I know what is 𝑐𝑡 what is 𝑐𝑟
what is b. These are good enough parameters to talk about planform area,. So, this is what we are
going to find out. So, what we are going to take as an input is the weight of the UAV that we have
estimated.

And the L/D which we are flying is not it? So and what is the velocity of flight. So, these 3 are the
parameters that we are going to take it in for this particular algorithm. So, what am I doing, right
now?

So, let us write a new script. So, I am not going to write down the detail like steps there it is I do
not think that is necessary so and then altitude. So, you need to know what is the altitude of flight
as well. Let us assume it is at 3 kilometers surveillance mission at. So, what was the earlier question
surveillance mission is at. So, it was not mentioned there so let us consider this this is happening
at surveillance at 2 kilometers altitude, 2000 meters.

392
So that means we have to use the density function that we have developed earlier,. So, what I am
going to have here is just enter the altitude is not it? Input; I am taking the inputs in the first place
enter the altitude of flight in meters and then v is so cruise input enter the cruise velocity or design
velocity. Enter the design velocity or desired velocity of flight from the mission requirements,
velocity of flight see we may not be able to generalize the design process.

So, this based upon the mission requirements you have to figure out which kind of subroutine you
have to develop, with the respective variables. Since we have velocity as an input here so I am
considering it as a desired velocity here. So, the surveillance has to happen at a particular velocity.
So, w from the weight estimation algorithm. So, let us say this w; I am considering it has an input.

Enter the weight of the estimated weight of the aircraft, estimated weight of the UAV otherwise in
kg. So, this is multiplied by g will give me 9.81 will help me to find out weight in newton's.
Otherwise W is like w times 9.81 meter per second square. So, I have z v w and W,. Now so what
is design CL so for me to find out so L/D is also an input. But it is rarely used here other than
finding 𝐶𝐷0 and k.

We will use them we will use those parameters anyways so I need to find out what is 𝐶𝐿𝑑 . So, I
need to find out the den equals density of z. So, this will help me to find out what is the density at
that particular altitude. So, z is the altitude that we are considering altitude of flight that we are
considering so DENSITY is the function name so I am calling that function.

So, this is like

2(𝑊/𝑆)
𝐶𝐿𝑑 =
𝜌𝑉 2
So that means we understood that ok for a given flight velocity at an given altitude so if the wing
load is very varies the 𝐶𝐿𝑑 varies,. That means so wing loading we considered it as a variable of
this iteration,. So, it varies 𝐶𝐿𝑑 of i, j that means so i stands for the current iteration.

Which means wing loading w underscore s for w underscore s varying from say wing loading is
varying from 4 to 10, let us say ok with an interval of 1. So, before this; what I would like to do is

393
i = 0. So, inside this loop i is a variable of this iteration which is increasing by 1 for every iteration.
So, we what is j here we have so there is also a variable j will try to get back to that soon.

Otherwise I will use it when we define that, so this is i so i, 1 will return me a column vector so I
prefer to use column vectors here. And then 𝐶𝐿𝑑 is now varying with W/S. So for each and every
W/S there is 𝐶𝐿𝑑 . So, how can I find s from here or so that means for each and every W/S. Am I
correct or not? Where W/S is a variable here. So, W/S is wing loading in Newton per meter square.

So, 𝐶𝐿𝑑 . So, wing area based upon input weight and wing loading. Ok, so once I have s I will be
able to find out b am I correct b of i, 1 equal to square root of aspect ratio times S of i, 1. So, now
it is a tricky part is not it. We do not know what is aspect ratio here? So, let us now iterate aspect
ratio also for different aspect ratio sqrt yes.

So, let us now make it a variable aspect ratio so let AR is varying from say 4 to 10. Again the same
let us assume so with the increment of 1. So, let me call this as w/s which is in kg per meter square.
So, I am converting this kg per meter square multiplied by 9.81. So, that it becomes in Newton’s
per meter square. So, w here is in Newtons so w by s is in kg. So, either I use w here. So, that it
is in kg. So, it returns in kg per meter square. So b, for b I need to have aspect ratio as an input so
aspect ratio is varying here. So, I will use this; another variable of this outer loop, what is j so here
j is increasing for every aspect ratio increment in aspect ratio. So, particular so a value of j
corresponds to a particular aspect ratio here.

So, I would like to store this so AR let us say of aspect ratio or A underscore R otherwise aspect
ratio I am storing it just for storing purpose. So is j,1 = AR. So, now aspect ratio is an input s is an
input to find out what is b based upon wing loading and the initial weight. So, we figured out what
is s here. So, if you want me to change this a w underscore that will make more sense w is in kg,
kg multiplied by 9.81 will be Newtons.

So, once we have span of the UAV we can find out root chord, span and area and aspect ratio say
so the root chord we for not to find root chord what we require is lambda as an input taper ratio.

394
So, here if you see the span neither span or the area is affected by this taper ratio here. Is not it.
So, that is why it majorly placed between root chord and tip chord that is how I prefer using it.

So, now whatever i here should be replaced by j for a particular aspect ratio, so all these
calculations are for particular aspect ratio. The inner loop runs for a particular AR that is runs for
a particular j value here. So, the i progression here happens with j input if i want to save this wing
what I can do is W underscore S.

This is just for storage purpose. So, of i, j wing loading. So, wing loading will be again will be
same for, is not it similar to that of what we witnessed in our previous subroutines. So, for each
for every j the column vector of w/s will remain same, because we are varying it, we are forcing it
to vary with this like from 4 to 10 with an increment of 1. So, this is equals to W underscore S. So,
I am using this wing loading for a particular j.

And this keeps increasing from 4 to10, so to calculate 𝐶𝐿𝑑 and then S span root chord. So, root
chord requires an input. So, lambda is taper ratio. So, I am not considering taking in another
iteration like another loop here for tapper ratio instead you can do that. But instead I would like to
do it here for a particular taper ratio let it be 0.4.

So, either you can consider this as an input you can make it as a input here instead of w because w
is already done earlier. So, velocity of flight is also more or less known yes let me make this also
an input here. So, taper ratio TR is enter the taper ratio of UAV. So, we made this also as an input
so I get taper ratio from there and it remains constant for this entire iteration. So, you can plot
multiple like for various aspect ratio you get for different w/s.

You will get to know what is the corresponding like root chord tip chord and the span and the wing
area to generate the desired CL. So, based upon this data you find out what is like now you change
the taper ratio. You change the input and find out the same plot. So, that you have you can also
cross plot them to compare or to figure out which taper ratio is more feasible for you to
manufacture.

395
So, S upon and also we have discussed in length about what is the significance of taper ratio and
how it will help for the aerodynamic loading as well. So, we have discussed in our previous course
so you can refer to those lectures. So, this makes sense so I will just write it down wing span wing
span based on AR and aspect ratio and wing area. And then root chord wing based on aspect ratio
or say b span and taper ratio.

So, what is 𝑐𝑡 straight forward? 𝑐𝑡 is 𝑐𝑟 ∗ λ, is not it. 𝑐𝑟 i, j times taper ratio is an input against. So,
say can we find out so L/D in the earlier case is what CL/CD is 15 here. That is an input. So, we
can also find out what is CD for this L/D. Let us assume d, design of i, j = CL/CD of i, j which is
varying with wing loading.

So, upon CL/CD. So, which is a constant and then we can find out what is k efficiency factor k. So,
first e first let us we have to find out e to figure out what is k. So, e of e again can be find figured
out from this empirical relationship value of e can be estimated using this empirical relationship
based upon the aspect ratio of the wing 𝑒 = 1.78 ∗ (1.045𝐴𝑅)−0.64 this is for a straight tapered
wing.

Using this expression we will be able to identify what is e, also Oswald’s efficiency factor for a
straight tapered wing. And again it based upon this empirical relationship. So, it is like 𝑒 = 1.78 ∗
(1.045𝐴𝑅)−0.64. So aspect ratio is a variable here so every time it will try to find out what is the
new e. So, for a given aspect ratio that means for a for a given j this e value remains constant,.
That means so it only varies so what we can do is instead of doing this here we can calculate it
outside.

Since it just depends upon the aspect ratio what we can do is this e equal to. So this is just j, 1. So,
what we can say is Oswald's efficiency factor. So, once we know e it is straight forward to calculate
what is induced drag correction vector. So, which varies with e and aspect ratio again this can be
1
out of this inner loop, it does not depend upon wing loading. So, e k of i, j sorry j,1 should be 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅.

396
 𝐶
This is induced drag correction factor or factor. So, 𝐶 𝐿 so 𝐶𝐷0 I can estimate for this particular this
𝐷

thing 𝐶𝐷0 or say directly 𝐶𝐷0 of i, j = CD underscore design of i, j - k times k of j,1 times k CL
underscore d square d of i, j square. This is a profile drag and this is wing tip chord. So, drag
coefficient at CL design so based upon. So, this is zero lift independent drag coefficient or zero lift
drag coefficient.

Based on these parameters that; CL CD drag coefficient CL design and L/D. So, L/D is an input so
𝐶𝐷0 is figured out. So, now I think it is end of the iteration, 1st iteration. And you can end the 2nd
iteration as well here. So, the outer loop is closed as well as the inner sorry not the second iteration
I am sorry so end of this inner loop and end of the outer loop. So, we can now plot how are these
parameters varying with wing loading.

So, let us say this is figure 1 so subplot let it be what CL design CD corresponding CD and then say
S b 𝑐𝑡 , 𝑐𝑟 are these are the planform parameters, for a given lambda. Here, this is for a given
lambda we have iterated for different aspect ratio as well as wing loading here. So, that is what we
have done here. So, let it be 5, 1, 1. So, plot what I am going to plot is wing loading. So, this is W
underscore S again this is in kg.

So, I am sorry so this W/S so wing loading and how CL design is varying,. So, wing loading will
be more or less same for every; you know colon, 1. For every j the wing loading variation will be
same because we are varying it from 4 to 10 as I told you. So, the C D design so will varies with
aspect ratio so let us say colon, 1 this is for initial aspect ratio here. Aspect ratio 4 we have 6 such
plots here.

So, try I will try to star k and then we will hold on. I will just open our previous program to weight
estimation program where we have similar figure that we have plotted just, not in this. What was
that it was in climb performance I guess. We have used hold on, for different plot you do not think
even this is going to help us ok. So, let us first save this. What are we doing, now wing planform
geometry.

397
So we have this control c control v. So, this we are varying it to let us say this is like we can still
have color code, is not it? So 3 and 4 so this is with red this is with green. So, how many 1, 2, 3,
4are done 7 in total,. From 7 to 10 it is like 7 is not it. Sorry 4 to10. So, this is like 5, 6, 7. I am
done with the first plot. So, magenta and then black, blue, red, green, magenta, yellow. So, there
is no need to hold it on further this particular subplot.

So, but by label what we can mention is design CL C underscore L underscore d. The 2nd plot we
want to vary we want to see how the area is varying, is not it? But CL design it varies with wing
loading not with aspect ratio is not it? I am I correct or not? So, it is like same w/s it will not have
the variation with aspect ratio there is no point in doing this. I am sorry because this is not going
to vary with aspect ratio.

So, there is no need of holding it on and the simple y label as. So, the second subplot let us do it
for say variation of s. In fact s will also not vary with aspect ratio it just depends upon wing loading.
So, wing loading is independent of aspect ratio here is another variable of this iterations. So, CL
design and s are independent of aspect ratio geometric parameters here. So, what I have is simple
no if you plot any one of this it will remain constant here.

So, plot w s there is no need for this entire story. Otherwise I will just copy this so that I can use it
for the other plots the third one. So, what I am going to do is delete this and then simple s here, s
in meter square done. So, the third one will vary how the span is varying with b. So, b is varying
with aspect ratio b in meters. And with the input of lambda we are able to find out what is root
chord and its variation with aspect ratio.

So we are plotting 𝑐𝑟 variation with aspect ratio for like 𝑐𝑟 variation for w/s and cross plotting for
and we are holding on the same plot and we are superimposing for various aspect ratios here. See
our variation with various aspect ratios. And similarly we can do it for 𝑐𝑟 here C underscore R. So,
it is done. So, the x label here is if you just want to see how the drag coefficient is varying.

Then we can have another plot here and just immediately after this we can have another plot let us
label it as 2,3, 4 and CD is again of course it depends on L/D and yeah it depends upon CL design

398
and design L/D for that particular design. So, it is independent of aspect ratio here. So, we are not
considering that here. Anyway, so and k is independent of this wing loading so 𝐶𝐷0 again is like it
can be outside but CL design, yes is independent of aspect ratio here.

But k depends upon aspect ratio it will not depend upon wing loading but CL design depends upon
wing loading but not on aspect ratio here. So, we have added another plot in this in the subplot this
is more or less done variation with 𝑐𝑡 , 𝑐𝑟 span and then CL design and then the wing area how it is
varying. So, with respect to wing loading in kg per meter square. So, I am just using kg per meter
square here.

So, wing loading variation in kg upon meter square. Let us try to see if we can run this code. So,
what is the altitude of flight it is in meters it is say 2000 meters 30 meter per second and weight of
the UAV is 8.1 kilogram tapper ratio is 0.4. So, you can now see if you insert legend here. So,
black stands for aspect ratio 4 and it increases 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9,10. So, this color see and this greenish
blue, I call it that way. So, it corresponds to aspect ratio 10.

So, if you look at this the wing area when you are flying at so this particular for these 3 parameters
just depends upon wing loading here. So, it is so the wing area turns out to be so at wing loading
10 it requires about 0.8 meter square. So, when you are flying at a lesser wing loading for this
mission requirements you end up close to 2 meter square here. it is close to 2 meter square.

And the CL design is say it is far less when you are flying at lesser wing loading is not it? It is
about 0.08 it is not even 1.1 so and then when you are flying at higher w/s, is not it? So, higher
wing loading because the velocity is quite high here that is the reason why. So, this is about 0.25
0.22. So, the CL design no this is CD design I am sorry you we need to correct it in the plot. So, the
second one is CD design right CD for that CL design.

So, I am not running it again here. So, this is about 0.15 when you are flying at w/s of 10 kg per
meter square. So, you can see this tip chord here is with the 0.4 aspect ratio see how the variation
of Ct with respect to you know wing loading. So, the tip chord turns out to be about 16 centimeters,

399
and the root chord turns out to be about for 40 centimeters. So, 40 centimeters will be the root
chord and tip chord is 16 centimeters and the corresponding span of the UAV is about 2.8 meters.

So, I am talking about wing loading of 10 here, 2.8 meters approximately. So, when you are
planning to have a hand launch UAV it should be at least w by s should be at least you know within
6. You know you should not go for higher w by s because you need higher launch velocity then.
So, say 6 the 𝑐𝑡 is about 20 centimeters or 21 centimeters is close to and then the 𝑐𝑟 is about say
half a meter.

You know half a meter of root chord and the span is about 3.6 m, 3.7 m span for this particular
UAV which is weighing about 8.1 kilogram. So, the area here is about 1.35 meter square and the
drag that you may encounter is so this is quite less here 0.01 close to, and. So, the design C L is
about 13. So, this is how we can like complete the plan form geometry selection. So, in the next
lecture we will try to look at what is the cross sectional properties for this particular planform what
should be the cross sectional properties. Thank you.

400
 UAV Design – Part II
Prof. Dr. Subrahmanyam Saderla
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

Lecture No -25
Subroutine for Airfoil Selection

Welcome back,
(Refer Slide Time: 00:25)

In our previous lecture we finished a preliminary approach for wing planform geometry selection
where the driving factors are 𝐶𝐿𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 which depends upon the wing loading. So 𝐶𝐿𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 from the

level flight conditions can be given as:

2(𝑊⁄𝑆)
𝐶𝐿𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 =
𝜌𝑉∞2
so we observed for a given flight velocity or with the variation of 𝑊⁄𝑆 there is a variation of

𝐶𝐿𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 right. So based upon this 𝐶𝐿𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 we have proceeded ahead and this 𝑊⁄𝑆, and with some
non-dimensional parameters as an input such as aspect ratio and taper ratio. we figured out how to
estimate the wing planform geometry in terms of span of the UAV, which is given as:
𝑏 = √𝐴𝑅 ∗ 𝑆
Where you can estimate S as:

401
 𝑊
𝑆=
𝑊⁄
𝑆
which you have considered as an input. The variable of the iteration and then using this S you can
figure out what is the span for the for a given aspect ratio and then with the input of taper ratio you
can calculate what should be the root chord to achieve that area with that particular span. Root
chord can be calculated as:
2𝑆
𝐶𝑟 =
𝑏(1 + λ)
so λ is this input here. And then you figure out what is 𝐶𝑡 based upon λ, which is
𝐶𝑡 = 𝐶𝑟 λ
So with that we can estimate what should be the wing planform area. but 𝐶𝐿𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 ideally depends

upon to planform area that governs the total force here, but the cross sectional properties governs
this particular 𝐶𝐿 . We need certain 𝐶𝐿𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 for a given wing planform area and the weight of the

UAV. Which more or less we can say it this 𝐶𝐿𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 depends upon this wing loading and this

𝐶𝐿𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 is governed by the cross sectional properties of the wing.

The force is governed by S here planform area or lifting area and now with that lifting area and
then dynamic pressure you are now having 𝐶𝐿 value, so the 𝐶𝐿 factor varies from what 0 to say
typically 1.2, 1.3 near stall. So more or less when you operate at a certain angle of attack where
1
the 𝐶𝐿 is within less than no 1 so it is actually decreasing the overall lift that it will generate 𝜌𝑉 2
2

or say it is a force multiplied this by this non dimensional term right. this 𝐶𝐿 is governed by the
cross sectional properties. Now, like in the current lecture we are going to discuss about what
should be 𝐶𝐿𝛼 for the wing.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:30)

402
In order to achieve the 𝐶𝐿 , what we call it as 𝐶𝐿𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 ? We need to talk in terms of what should be

𝐶𝐿𝛼 of the planform say 𝐶𝐿0 of the planform or say alpha at which 𝐶𝐿 =0 and 𝛼𝑑 which corresponds
to 𝐶𝐿𝑑 here.

Do you remember this formulation? So we assumed a linear variation of 𝐶𝐿 with 𝛼 till certain
domain right after that there will be non-linear variation near stall there is a loss in lift. So within
a linear regime, so what you have is 𝛼𝐶𝐿 =0 this we discussed many times. So let us say this is my
𝐶𝐿𝑑 corresponds to 𝛼𝑑 .

So using the definition of lift curve slope 𝐶𝐿𝛼 of this wing entire wing should be
𝐶𝐿𝑑 − 0
𝐶𝐿𝛼 =
𝛼𝑑 − 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0
And design lift coefficient can be obtained by using:
𝐶𝐿𝑑 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝛼𝑑 − 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 )
that means if I have to talk about this 𝐶𝐿𝑑 , I need to talk about 𝐶𝐿𝛼 which is again the cross sectional
property of the wing. let us say there is a wing here that is giving you the lift, desired lift. So this
is the wing that you have designed it is giving you the desired lift. So but cross section is what is
1
going to the wing area is going to help you with this 2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 right where the cross section is what

is going to help you with the corresponding 𝐶𝐿𝑑 . So when you talk about cross section that means

403
you need to talk about 𝐶𝐿𝛼 .

𝐶𝐿𝛼 of the entire wing and then finally the entire wing is made out of cross section into each and
every location right that means you need to know what should be the profile that you need to
generate select for the particular wing. To be frank it what should be the aerofoil that you need to
select right? How can you select that aerofoil by knowing what should be the corresponding
aerodynamic characteristics of a particular aerofoil.

Now say if you get what should be so in order to generate this 𝐶𝐿𝑑 what should be the 3 dimensional
𝐶𝐿𝛼 right and 𝛼𝑑 as well as 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 . If you know those parameters then you can convert them to 2
dimensional profile what should be 𝐶𝐿𝛼,2𝐷 based upon 3D data right and the wing planform
geometry in terms of aspect ratio and e you can use those values to find out what should be the
corresponding 𝐶𝐿𝛼,2𝐷 here right is not it.

So for example see this from aerofoil to aerofoil this particular the same 𝐶𝐿𝑑 can be achieved at
different 𝛼𝑑 . Am I correct or not 𝛼𝑑 ? If you select a particular aerofoil, it has a particular 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0
which we thought more or less constant for wing as well as aerofoil and 𝛼𝑑 for wing will be
different as well as aerofoil is different. So but for the time being we assume both are more or less
same.

Otherwise alpha design we will say it is possible at a particular angle of attack 3 dimensional angle
of attack from there you find out what is 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 vary 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 for those for a given alpha design. By
doing so what happens is the 𝐶𝐿𝛼 varies. Because you know 𝐶𝐿𝑑 you have fixed 𝛼𝑑 right you make
these two as variables of the iteration so you can find out the corresponding 𝐶𝐿𝛼 is not it. Once you
know, 𝐶𝐿𝛼,3𝐷 you can find out what is 𝐶𝐿𝛼,2𝐷 because you know.

What is aspect ratio and you know, what is it e based upon the previous what you call discussion
right we have developed this previous sub routine in based upon for the plan form selection, so
there from there you figure out what is the aspect ratio and what is the e. Then using those two
values as an input here, you can find out 𝐶𝐿𝛼,2𝐷 so to be frank it is like

404
 𝐶𝐿𝑑
𝐶𝐿𝛼,3𝐷 =
𝛼𝑑 − 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0
So this is same for aerofoil as well as wing is not it so depending upon this we can find out what
is 𝐶𝐿𝛼,2𝐷 ,
𝐶𝐿𝛼,3𝐷
𝐶𝐿𝛼,2𝐷 =
𝐶𝐿𝛼,3𝐷
1 − 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

so we know what is e what is AR, you can find out what is 𝐶𝐿𝛼,2𝐷 from there. Once you know, like
𝐶𝐿𝛼,2𝐷 you know, you can find out based upon this 𝛼𝐶𝐿 =0 you can find out 𝐶𝐿0,2𝐷 .
𝐶𝐿0,2𝐷 = −𝐶𝐿𝛼,2𝐷 𝛼𝐶𝐿 =0
So you can find out 2D as well as here from here you can also find out what is 𝐶𝐿0,3𝐷
𝐶𝐿0,3𝐷 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼,3𝐷 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0
So once you know, 𝐶𝐿0,2𝐷 what should be the 𝐶𝐿𝛼,2𝐷 and what should be 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 , right 2D and 3D
are the same. So then you will be more or less getting that you will be able to find out.

What should be the corresponding aerofoil from the aerofoil database. So that is how you can
select the aerofoil here. So let us now write an algorithm to do this.

So it is a new script again. So what we have is 𝐶𝐿𝑑 , so 𝐶𝐿𝑑 from our previous performance look
wing plan form geometry, we will try to take data from there. So at 2,000 meters when flying at
30 meters per second with a weight of the UAV is 8.1 kg so 0.4 taper ratio. So what we have is e
so let us now assume the aspect ratio as 10 for this particular case, let us assume aspect ratio is 10.

So now I will try to take a new sheet here.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:31)

405
Let us take aspect ratio 10 let take a let us take the data corresponding data, so the wing loading is
otherwise the weight of the UAV is 8.1 kg S of the UAV is what? For aspect ratio 10 S is
approximately 0.81 meter square. So S is 0.81 because meter square now this is for sorry wing
loading of 10 not aspect ratio of 10. I am sorry this is wing loading of 10 so the wing loading so it
𝑊
is simply 𝑊⁄ its 0.81 meter square.
𝑆

So with this area and wing loading by considering an aspect ratio now the aspect ratio here varies
from 4 to 10 so for data 7, which is which corresponds to aspect ratio 10 and at wing loading 10
kg per meter square the wingspan is about 2.8 right 2.84 meters and the aspect ratio show that we
have considered here is 10 and the wing loading is also 10 from the data. 10 kg per meter square
or 100 newton per meter square approximately.

So and then what do I require essentially is this particular parameter 𝐶𝐿𝑑 . So 𝐶𝐿𝑑 here you have is
approximately 𝐶𝐿𝑑 is 2.2, so let us consider this as an input here for me to calculate sorry 0.22 not
2.2.

So the 𝐶𝐿𝑑 from here is 0.216, which is 0.22, so this is 0.22. We have considered so 𝐶𝐿𝑑 is 0.22, so
the value of k for this particular aspect ratio and aspect ratio, so for aspect ratio 10 the value of k
is so the 7th value 0.0421 so the value of k is 0.0421 and where e otherwise you can say since
aspect ratio is 10 you can also do this way aspect ratio is 10 and also sufficiency factor for this

406
aspect ratio is 0.7566 0.76 considering that e is 0.76, so k can be
1
𝑘=
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
So these are the now what we need to do is I need to we have to vary this we need to find out what
is 𝐶𝐿𝛼,3𝐷 ,
𝐶𝐿𝑑
𝐶𝐿𝛼 =
𝛼𝑑 − 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0
And let me define this variables used so this is lift curve slope it is 3D. For so we need to vary this
values angle of attack as well as 𝛼𝑑 and then 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 .

So first of all let I would like to vary these two parameters. 𝛼𝑑 . If it varies from say 2 degrees or
say 1 degree, 1 star Pi by 180 so it varies from 1 degree with an increment of 0.5 degree by 180
up to 5 degrees, let us say. So you have data for about 10 points here. So pi by 180 instead of 0.5,
let me take it make it 5 sorry 1 degree. You can choose the like interval just to minimize the plotting
time I would like to use it as 1 step of 1.

You can choose it to be 0.5 or point less than that even less than that. So this is how typical 𝛼𝑑
now within this range because even 𝐿⁄𝐷 maximum for typical aerofoils will also fall within this
range may be up to 7 degrees, you can say, maybe up to 7 degrees. And 𝐶𝐿𝛼 from here is like
depends upon 𝛼𝑑 and then 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 . So if this varies let us say.

For 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 is from say - 0.5 degrees to with an increment of 0.5 degree with an increment of -0.5
degree. So it should be -0.5 or 0.5, it should be from varying some say 0.4 degree. So - 4 degree
say pi by 180 with an increment of 1 degree. So I am trying to convert this degree to radian here,
so this is pi by 180 so up to, say up to 0 degrees let us do that.

Upto symmetrical aerofoil let us say this times pi by 180. This is in general from 2 degrees right 2
degrees or 3 degrees at least design angle of attack, otherwise there is no use right we cannot use
the effectively use the CL maybe from 3 degrees to be frank from 3 degrees so that makes sense so
let me introduce the variables of this iteration so from j = j+ 1 sorry j = 0 so it becomes what? j =
j+1 here inside this loop.

407
 180
So I would like to store angle of attack design of j, 1 = 𝛼𝑑 ∗ I am storing it in terms of degree
𝜋

second. So it is done aoa design and then; so we have 𝐶𝐿𝛼,3𝐷 is not it so let us have another variable
for the inner loop. So 𝐶𝐿𝛼 here depends upon both 𝛼𝑑 as well as 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 , so I would like to store the
second variable as well 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 , so which is again where I can simply store it as a single column
vector.

Or say I can repeat storing for each and every iteration outer loop iteration as well, so this𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 ,
so converting it to radians again. So 𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 in radians. So similarly design angle of attack in radians,
𝐶𝐿𝑑 is what we need to produce is not it when moving at 30 meters per second we need to produce
the 𝐶𝐿𝑑 so with the wing of aspect ratio 10, so S we are not using it anyway here so weight of the
UAV.
𝑊 = 8.1 ∗ 9.81
because as we considered for wing loading 10 here and then what do we need so 𝐶𝐿𝛼 is known so
𝐶𝐿𝛼,2𝐷 .
So we need to now talk about lift coefficient at 0 alpha for airfoil. So the second depends upon CL
alpha 2D times the same angle of attack because we considered that is a decent that as a decent
assumption. It is 0 lift there is no induced angle of attack that is what we assume.

So it will be more or less same so what we have is lift coefficient or zero lift coefficient airfoil
zero lift coefficient. So airfoil let us make this as airfoil underscore airfoil selection. So now
another important aspect is like once you select this you should also look at that design coefficient
of lift are you able to achieve that particular L/D that you have considered right that is another
aspect that you need to take care of.

I am not going to do include that particular aspect here right so figure one what I am trying to plot
right now is so for different design angle of as a angle of attack design which is nothing but trim
angle of attack for that particular design CL. So for different values of this or say for different
values of zero lift angle of attack how this 𝐶𝐿𝛼 is varying for wing and aerofoil.

408
At the same time, we will cross plot like or superimpose not cross plot, superimpose when there is
a change in design angle of attack what will be the like variation of this parameters with again
𝛼𝐶𝐿=0 . Subplot mainly with the four parameters. So let us talk about only four rest if you are
interested you can consider them plotting so what I am interested right now is in plotting for angle
of attack for zero lift coefficient.

So that is that remain constant colon, 1. So that I am plotting for various design trim angle of
attacks. So what I have is; so I am plotting the variation of CL colon, 1. So this corresponds to
when alpha is 3 degree design alpha is 3 degree or alpha trim is 3 degree for design CL right? So I
can say I can connect them with the same k colon k star. So, and then so I have to hold it on because
this varies.

This varies for various design angle of attacks right that we have considered. So, this can be b
black. So for 3 degrees, 4 degrees, 5 degrees this one right 5 degrees. This is for 6 degrees of alpha
design, right? And then we varied it from so 3 to 7 degrees so k b g m r let us say and then m
control c control v so this is for 5. So 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 degrees. So, and the y label.

Sorry per radian 𝐶𝐿𝛼 per radian, that is what we can you want to get. So, this is 3 dimensional 𝐶𝐿𝛼 .
So I would like to plot for second one which is instead of 𝐶𝐿0,3𝐷 right? There is a 𝐶𝐿0,3𝐷 so what I
can do is this is 𝐶𝐿0,3𝐷 so this will be 𝐶𝐿0,3𝐷 . The third plot will be cl alpha small cl, is not it? So
what we have is small cl right.

we are giving it a name here 2D is so I do not think it will trouble us much. So and then the final
plot is about 𝐶𝐿0 right. 𝐶𝐿0,2𝐷 instead of and next label is alpha at which CL is zero right So, let see
just before doing this I will try to give this input so that I will understand the code is initiated right.

So, this is what 𝐶𝐿𝛼,3𝐷 how it is varying for different so if I insert legend here. So say this is I take
it here. So this first data corresponds to backslash alpha underscore d = 3 degree. So alpha d is 3
degrees. So, the second one corresponds to 4 degrees. The third one corresponds to 5 degrees
otherwise backslash deg backslash it works anyways. Fourth one corresponds to 6 degrees.

409
If alpha design is at 6 degrees and alpha design is it at 7. So there are few optimization algorithms
in order to achieve this number so I we are not discussing about those algorithms here, so this is
what no so at alpha say design alpha is at 5 degrees where you are able to achieve the same L/D,
so at 5 degrees say so this is like this green color here so that 5 degrees say if you were aerofoil
𝐶𝑙0 or say alpha at which CL = 0 is - 2 degrees let us say right.

So this will be the corresponding 𝐶𝐿0,2𝐷 so 𝐶𝐿0 of the aerofoil should be 0.067 approximately for
that particular case and then 𝐶𝐿𝛼,2𝐷 should be so this is per radian, let us say the 𝐶𝐿𝑑 is from say 2
degrees angle of attack is from 2 degrees to 5 degrees, so that means 1 2 3 4 5, right? So I am just
modifying this I am just removing 7 degrees trim angle of attack is too high to ask so just to make
it more realistic I am trying to remove that particular value so.

You can notice so for example, in this particular case when you use a symmetric aerofoil even it
demands now when you just trim it at 2 degrees alpha so this is for I can insert the legend here. So
the black is meant for initial alpha trim which is say if you are trimming it 2 degrees alpha the
𝐶𝐿𝛼,3𝐷 itself is close to 6.6 radians 6.2 radians, which is quite high right, is not it? So you can say
for symmetric aerofoil say for the same this things trim alpha for the same trim alpha.
Which means the data one that corresponds to data one here right, so if I have a cambered airfoil
which has say no alpha at with 𝐶𝐿 is negative right at - 0.5 degree, so then it drops down to say
about 5.3 you can see this so this particular value may be 5 close to 5 here. So that is 5 per radian
for wing. We are talking about three dimensional wing in case of today it is further more high here
it is more than 8 or 7 which is not realistic, is not it?

So you need to choose a particular value of this alpha at what CL = 0 and then 𝐶𝐿𝛼,2𝐷 , 𝐶𝐿0,2𝐷 right?
So using those values so from the database aerofoil database, you will be able to select a particular
aerofoil. So once you select that 𝐶𝐿0,2𝐷 and 𝐶𝐿𝛼,2𝐷 and 𝐶𝐿𝛼,3𝐷 sorry 𝐶𝐿0,2𝐷 you can now go back to
this aerofoil database see here we have presented database of all the NACA aerofoils.

So from theory of wing sections so this is based upon that data. So you can find out what is the

410
𝐶𝐿0 values here. For this particular aerofoils right and then the 𝐶𝐿𝛼 per radian for this particular
aerofoils and you can also see what is alpha at which 𝐶𝐿 is 0. So you can see these values. So you
can select based upon this look considering the corresponding L/D at that particular alpha right.
Hope you learned something from this exercise, thank you.

411
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