A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a

society at any scale due to hazardous events interacting with

conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity, leading to
one or more of the following: human, material, economic and
environmental losses and impacts.
A disaster is a result of a natural hazard impacting a vulnerable
community. Poor planning or development or a lack of
preparation are human failures which make communities
vulnerable to climate hazards. When the impact of these events
becomes too extreme, they are often called disasters. Disasters
are defined by their influence on people: if a hazard
overwhelms or negatively affects a community, it is considered
a disaster.
 TYPES OF DISASTER
NATURAL DISASTER
A natural disaster can be defined as:

“A major event brought about by the natural processes of the Earth that
causes widespread destruction to the environment and loss of life.”

Natural disasters often cause destruction on a massive scale. Certain natural

disasters such as wildfires cause destruction of animal habitat as well as damage
to property and loss of life.
Examples: cyclones, tsunamis, earthquake and volcanic eruption which are
exclusively of natural origin.
MAN MADE DISASTER
Man-made disasters are events that result from human actions, negligence, or
error, leading to widespread harm, damage, or disruption. These disasters can
have significant environmental, social, and economic impacts.
Examples: Chemical spills, explosions, infrastructure failures, power outage,
pollution etc.
VARIOUS TYPES OF MAN MADE DISASTER:
1. GEOLOGICAL DISASTER
• Geological disasters are catastrophic events that arise as a result of
changes in the earth, either above the surface or below the surface.
For instance, volcanic eruptions frequently occur where tectonic
plates make contact. Moreover, earthquakes are prone in regions
with active plate tectonics.
• Examples: Avalanches, landslides etc.
2. HYDROLOGICAL DISASTER
• Hydrological Disasters are described as a sudden and violent event
caused due to the change in the quality, distribution or movement
of water below the surface or in the atmosphere. For example, a
tsunami is a large column of water or waves caused by the
displacement of a large volume of water. They are generally
caused due to earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under the sea.
• Examples: Flood, Tsunami etc.
3. METEOROLOGICAL DISASTER
• Meteorological Disasters are usually caused by extreme weather
such as rain, snow or drought. These affect the earth’s atmosphere
and the weather-forming process. Moreover, these types of
meteorological disasters are particularly destructive to the
environment and can wreak havoc on life. Examples of
meteorological disasters include hurricanes, hailstorms and
tornadoes.
• Examples: Cyclonic storm, Blizzard, Drought, Hailstorm etc.
1. Industrial Accidents:
• Chemical Spills: Accidental release of hazardous substances into the
environment, often from industrial facilities or transportation
vehicles. Examples include the Exxon Valdez oil spill and the Bhopal
gas tragedy.
• Explosions: Accidental detonations in industrial plants, storage
facilities, or transportation vehicles, causing extensive damage and
casualties. Examples include the Chernobyl nuclear disaster and the
explosion at the Beirut port in 2020.
• Nuclear Accidents: Radiation leaks, reactor meltdowns, or other
incidents at nuclear power plants, leading to environmental
contamination and health risks. Examples include the Fukushima
Daiichi nuclear disaster and the Three Mile Island accident.
2. Technological Disasters:
• Infrastructure Failures: Collapse of bridges, buildings, or other
structures due to design flaws, poor maintenance, or natural
disasters. Examples include the collapse of the Morandi Bridge in
Genoa, Italy, and the collapse of the Rana Plaza building in
Bangladesh.
• Power Outages: Extended disruptions to electrical power supply,
often caused by equipment failures, cyberattacks, or severe weather
events. Examples include the Northeast blackout of 2003 and the
widespread power outages caused by Hurricane Katrina.
• Cyberattacks: Deliberate targeting of computer systems or networks
to disrupt operations, steal data, or cause damage. Examples include
the WannaCry ransomware attack and the Stuxnet virus targeting
industrial control systems.
3. Human-caused Environmental Disasters:
• Deforestation: Large-scale clearing of forests for agriculture,
urbanization, or logging, leading to habitat loss, soil erosion, and
biodiversity decline.
• Air Pollution: Release of harmful pollutants into the atmosphere from
industrial activities, transportation, and energy production,
contributing to respiratory problems and environmental degradation.
• Water Pollution: Contamination of water bodies by industrial waste,
agricultural runoff, sewage, or oil spills, posing risks to human health
and aquatic ecosystems.
DEFINITION
Earthquake can be defined as the
sudden shaking of the earth crust. It is
one of the most destructive natural
hazards. They may occur at any time of
the year, day or night, with sudden
impact and little warning.

CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
1. PLATE TECTONICS
The earth’s crust is a rocky layer of varying thickness ranging from a depth
of about 10 kilometres under the sea to 65 kilometres under the
continents. The crust is not one piece but consists of portions called
‘plates’ which vary in size from a few hundred to thousands of kilometres.
The ‘theory of plate tectonics’ holds that the plates ride up on the more
mobile mantle, and are driven by some yet unconfirmed mechanisms,
perhaps thermal convection currents. When these plates contact each
other, stress arises in the crust. These stresses can be classified according
to the type of movement along the plate’s boundaries:
a) Pulling away from each other,
b) Pushing against one another and
c) Sliding sideways relative to each other.
All these movements are associated with earthquakes.

The areas of stress at plate boundaries which release accumulated energy by

slipping or rupturing are known as 'faults'. The theory of 'elasticity' says that
the crust is continuously stressed by the movement of the tectonic plates; it
eventually reaches a point of maximum supportable strain. A rupture then
occurs along the fault and the rock rebounds under its own elastic stresses
until the strain is relieved. The fault rupture generates vibration called seismic
(from the Greek 'seismos' meaning shock or earthquake) waves, which radiates
from the focus in all directions. The point of rupture is called the 'focus' and
may be located near the surface or deep below it. The point on the surface
directly above the focus is termed as the 'epicentre' of the earthquake.

• Earthquakes can be of three types based on the focal depth:

(i)Deep: - 300 to 700 kms from the earth surface
(ii)Medium: - 70 kms to 300 kms
(iii)Shallow: less than 70 kms
• The deep focus earthquakes are rarely destructive because by the time
the waves reach the surface the impact reduces. Shallow focus
earthquakes are more common and are extremely damaging because of
their proximity to the surface.
2. FAULTING
• A fault is a fracture or zone of weakness in the Earth's crust where
movement has occurred.
• Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of energy along faults due
to the movement of tectonic plates.
• The main types of faults include:
a. Normal Faults: Occur in areas where the Earth's crust is being
stretched or pulled apart. In a normal fault, the hanging wall moves
downward relative to the footwall.
b. Reverse Faults: Occur in areas where the Earth's crust is being
compressed or pushed together. In a reverse fault, the hanging wall
moves upward relative to the footwall.
c. Strike-Slip Faults: Occur in areas where two plates slide horizontally
past each other. In a strike-slip fault, the movement is
predominantly horizontal.
3. OTHER CAUSES
• Volcanic Activity: Earthquakes can occur before, during, or after
volcanic eruptions. They are often caused by the movement of
magma beneath the Earth's surface or by the collapse of volcanic
material.
• Human-Induced Seismicity: Certain human activities, such as
reservoir impoundment (reservoir-induced seismicity), mining
operations, and hydraulic fracturing (fracking), can induce
earthquakes. These activities can alter the stress distribution within
the Earth's crust, leading to seismic events.
 EARTHQUAKE

The earthquake phenomenon involves several interconnected aspects,

including seismic waves, magnitude, intensity, aftershocks, and
foreshocks. Let's delve into each of these components:

1. SESIMIC WAVES
• Seismic waves are the vibrations that propagate through the
Earth's interior during an earthquake.
• There are three main types of seismic waves:
• Primary Waves (P-waves): These are the fastest seismic waves and
travel through solid rock, liquids, and gases. P-waves cause
particles in the rock to move back and forth in the direction of
wave propagation.
• Secondary Waves (S-waves): These waves are slower than P-waves
and can only travel through solid rock. S-waves cause particles to
move perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, resulting
in shear motion.
2. MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY
• Earthquake magnitude is a measure of the energy released by an
earthquake, typically expressed on logarithmic scales such as the
Richter scale or the Moment magnitude scale (Mw).
• Earthquake intensity measures the effects of an earthquake on the
Earth's surface and human structures. It is typically expressed using
the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale, which ranges from I
(not felt) to XII (total destruction).
• Magnitude and intensity provide complementary information
about an earthquake: magnitude reflects the energy release at the
source, while intensity describes the shaking and damage
experienced at specific locations.

3. AFTERSHOCKS AND FORESHOCKS

• Aftershocks are smaller earthquakes that occur in the same region
and along the same fault system as the mainshock. They are
caused by the redistribution of stress within the Earth's crust
following the mainshock.
• Foreshocks are smaller earthquakes that precede the mainshock
and are located near the mainshock's epicenter. Foreshocks may
provide warning signs of an impending larger earthquake, although
not all earthquakes have foreshocks.
 IMPACT OF

The impact of an earthquake can be profound and multifaceted,

affecting human lives, infrastructure, economies, and the environment.

HUMAN INFRASTRUCTURE ECONOMIC

IMPACT DEVELOPMENT IMPACT

CULTURAL
ENVIRONME
AND SOCIAL
NTAL IMPACT
IMPACT
1. HUMAN IMPACT
• Loss of Life and Injuries: Earthquakes can cause fatalities and injuries
due to building collapses, falling debris, and other hazards. The
severity of casualties depends on factors such as the earthquake's
magnitude, depth, population density, and building standards.
• Psychological Trauma: Earthquake
survivors may experience
psychological distress, including
post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), anxiety, depression, and
grief. The fear of aftershocks and
uncertainty about the future can
exacerbate psychological impacts.
• Displacement and Homelessness: Earthquakes can render homes
uninhabitable, leading to displacement and homelessness for
affected individuals and families. Temporary shelters, refugee
 camps, and evacuation centres may be established to provide
shelter and assistance to displaced populations.

2. INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT
• Building Damage: Earthquakes can cause structural damage to
buildings, bridges, roads, and other infrastructure. Poorly
constructed or unreinforced buildings are particularly vulnerable to
collapse during seismic events.
• Utility Disruptions: Earthquakes can disrupt essential services such
as water supply, electricity, gas, and telecommunications. Damage
to infrastructure networks can hamper rescue and recovery efforts
and prolong the restoration of normal services.
• Transportation Disruptions: Damage to roads, railways, airports,
and ports can disrupt transportation networks, hindering the
movement of goods, emergency responders, and evacuees.
Landslides and liquefaction can further impede travel in affected
areas.
3. ECONOMIC IMPACT
• Property Damage and Losses: The direct costs of earthquake
damage to buildings, infrastructure, and businesses can be
substantial. Reconstruction and repair efforts require significant
financial resources and may strain government budgets and
insurance systems.
• Disruption to Economic
Activities: Earthquakes can
disrupt economic activities such
as manufacturing, agriculture,
tourism, and trade. Business
closures, supply chain
disruptions, and decreased
consumer confidence can have long-term economic consequences
for affected regions.
• Loss of Livelihoods: Displaced workers, business owners, and
farmers may experience income loss and unemployment due to
earthquake-related damage to workplaces, markets, and
agricultural land.
4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
• Landslides and Ground Deformation: Earthquakes can trigger
landslides, rockfalls, and soil liquefaction, altering the landscape
and damaging ecosystems. Slope instability and ground
deformation may increase the risk of future landslides and erosion.
• Ecological Disruption: Earthquakes can disrupt natural habitats,
wildlife populations, and ecosystems. Changes to soil composition,
water flow patterns, and vegetation cover may affect biodiversity
and ecosystem services in affected areas.
• Water-related Hazards: Earthquakes can trigger tsunamis, flooding,
and groundwater contamination, posing risks to coastal and inland
communities. Coastal ecosystems such as coral reefs and
mangroves may be damaged by tsunami waves and saltwater
intrusion.
5. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL IMPACT
• Community Disruption: Earthquakes can disrupt social networks,
community cohesion, and cultural traditions. Displacement, loss of
homes, and separation from family and friends can strain social ties
and support systems.
• Cultural Heritage Loss: Earthquakes can damage or destroy historic
buildings, monuments, archaeological sites, and cultural artifacts.
The loss of cultural heritage can have profound implications for
identity, memory, and heritage tourism.
EARTHQUAKE PREPAREDNES
AND RESPONSE
1. PREPAREDNESS

• Education and Awareness: Public education campaigns and

outreach initiatives are essential for raising awareness about
earthquake risks, preparedness measures, and evacuation
procedures. Educational materials, such as brochures, videos, and
workshops, can help inform individuals, families, and communities
about earthquake safety.
• Emergency Planning: Developing and implementing comprehensive
emergency plans at the community, institutional, and household
levels is critical for effective earthquake preparedness. Emergency
plans should include procedures for evacuation, communication,
first aid, and sheltering in place.
• Building Codes and Retrofitting: Enforcing and updating building
codes to ensure that new construction projects adhere to seismic-
resistant design standards is essential for reducing earthquake risk.
Retrofitting existing buildings and infrastructure to improve their
resilience to seismic hazards can also help mitigate the impact of
earthquakes on vulnerable structures.
 • Early Warning Systems: Investing in early warning systems that can
detect seismic activity and provide timely alerts to the public and
emergency responders can save lives and reduce the impact of
earthquakes. These systems rely on
seismic monitoring networks and
communication technologies to
detect earthquakes and
disseminate warnings within
seconds to minutes before shaking
occurs.
• Community Preparedness Activities:
Engaging communities in
earthquake preparedness activities,
such as drills, exercises, and
simulation exercises, can help reinforce emergency response skills,
test communication networks, and identify areas for improvement.
Community-based organizations, schools, businesses, and local
government agencies can collaborate to coordinate preparedness
efforts and build resilience.
2. RESPONSE:

• Search and Rescue Operations: Immediately following an

earthquake, search and rescue teams are deployed to locate and
extricate survivors trapped in collapsed buildings and other
structures. These teams include trained personnel, search dogs, and
specialized equipment for detecting signs of life in rubble.
• Medical Care and Humanitarian Aid: Providing medical care and
humanitarian assistance to earthquake survivors is a critical aspect
of earthquake response. Medical teams, field hospitals, and
emergency supplies (e.g., medical supplies, food, water, shelter) are
mobilized to treat injuries, prevent the spread of diseases, and meet
the basic needs of affected populations.
• Shelter and Evacuation: Establishing temporary shelters, evacuation
centres, and refugee camps to accommodate displaced individuals
and families is essential for meeting immediate housing needs and
ensuring the safety and well-being of vulnerable populations.
 Evacuation routes, assembly points, and transportation
arrangements should be clearly identified and communicated to the
public.
• Coordination and Communication: Effective coordination and
communication among government agencies, emergency
responders, humanitarian organizations, and the public are essential
for coordinating response efforts, sharing information, and
mobilizing resources. Emergency operations centers (EOCs) serve as
central hubs for coordinating response activities and facilitating
communication among stakeholders.
• Assessment and Damage Evaluation: Conducting rapid assessments
and damage evaluations to determine the extent of earthquake
damage and prioritize response efforts is critical for allocating
resources and coordinating recovery efforts. Damage assessment
teams survey affected areas to identify areas of need, assess
infrastructure damage, and estimate the impact on communities
and economies.

1. Community Education and Awareness:

• Earthquake Education Programs: Implementing educational programs to
raise awareness about earthquake risks, preparedness measures, and
safety procedures. These programs can target schools, workplaces,
community organizations, and the general public.
 • Public Outreach Initiatives: Conducting outreach activities such as
workshops, seminars, and public meetings to engage communities in
earthquake preparedness and mitigation efforts. Providing information
through brochures, websites, social media, and other channels can help
disseminate important messages to a wide audience.
• Training and Capacity Building: Offering training sessions and drills to
teach individuals and communities how to respond effectively during
earthquakes. Training may include first aid, search and rescue techniques,
fire safety, and evacuation procedures.

2. Land-Use Planning:
• Zoning Regulations: Establishing land-use zoning regulations to limit
development in high-risk areas prone to earthquakes and other natural
hazards. Zoning ordinances can help steer development away from fault
lines, landslide-prone areas, and liquefaction zones.
• Seismic Hazard Mapping: Conducting seismic hazard assessments and
mapping to identify areas at risk of earthquakes and inform land-use
planning decisions. Seismic hazard maps can guide the development of
building codes, land-use policies, and infrastructure projects.
• Setback Requirements: Enforcing setback requirements for buildings and
infrastructure near fault lines and other hazardous areas to minimize
exposure to seismic hazards. Setback regulations may require a minimum
distance between structures and active fault traces or landslide zones.
3. Risk Reduction Measures:

• Seismic Retrofitting: Retrofitting

existing buildings and infrastructure
to improve their resilience to
earthquakes. Retrofit measures may
include reinforcing structural
elements, upgrading foundations,
and installing seismic bracing or
dampers.
• Non-Structural Hazard Reduction:
Implementing measures to reduce
non-structural hazards in buildings
 and facilities, such as securing furniture, equipment, and utilities to
prevent injuries and damage during earthquakes. Non-structural hazard
mitigation measures may include installing automatic gas shutoff valves,
securing heavy objects, and anchoring tall furniture.
• Critical Infrastructure Protection: Strengthening critical infrastructure
such as hospitals, power plants, water treatment facilities, and
transportation networks to ensure continuity of essential services during
and after earthquakes. Protecting critical infrastructure can reduce
societal vulnerabilities and enhance community resilience.

4. International Cooperation:
• Sharing Best Practices: Promoting international cooperation and
knowledge exchange to share best practices, lessons learned, and
technical expertise in earthquake mitigation and preparedness.
Collaborative initiatives can facilitate the development of innovative
solutions and capacity-building efforts.
• Joint Research and Development: Supporting joint research and
development projects to advance earthquake science, engineering, and
technology. International partnerships can foster collaboration among
scientists, engineers, policymakers, and practitioners to address common
challenges and develop evidence-based solutions.