The Arabic Language
By Professor Samir Abu-Absi
Introduction
Arabic is one of the world’s major languages with over
300 million people in various Arab countries who use it
as a mother tongue.1 It is also used extensively as the
major language in a non-Arab country, the Central
African Republic of Chad, and as a minority language in
several other countries, including Afghanistan, Israel
(where both Arabic and Hebrew are official languages),
Iran, and Nigeria. In 1974, Arabic was adopted as one of
the six United Nations official languages, joining
Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish. Over one
billion Muslims in places like India, Indonesia, Pakistan
and Tanzania study Arabic as a foreign or second
language for liturgical and scholarly use. In the United
States, several Muslim and Arab communities employ
Arabic in their daily interactions and for religious
purposes.
History and Development of Arabic
Arabic belongs to the Afro-Asiatic (or Hamito-Semitic)
family of languages that consists of over three hundred
languages, some of which are extinct and some used
marginally as liturgical languages. Arabic and Hebrew
are the two prime examples of living Semitic languages
while Hausa and various dialects of Berber are examples
of surviving Hamitic languages.
The earliest known example of Arabic is an inscription
found in the Syrian desert dating back to the fourth
century A.D. The pre-Islamic Arab tribes who lived in the
Arabian peninsula and neighboring regions had a
thriving oral poetic tradition. But it was not
systematically collected and recorded in written form
until the eighth century A.D. This poetic language,
probably the result of the fusion of various dialects,
came to be regarded as a literary or elevated style
which represented a cultural bond among different
tribes.
Prophet Muhammad received his messages from God in
Arabic through the Angel Gabriel over a period of
twenty-three years, 610-632 A.D. The Holy Quran,
containing these messages, was originally committed to
memory by professional reciters (hufaz and qura’). With
the spread of Islam, different accents for the
pronunciation of the Quran came into use until a
standardized version (with notations for different
accents) was completed under the third Caliph, Uthman
Ibn ‘Affan, in the mid-seventh century A.D. As more and
more non-Arabic speakers were drawn to Islam, the
Quran became the most important bond among
Muslims, Arabs and non-Arabs alike, revered for its
content and admired for the beauty of its language.
Arabs, regardless of their religion, and Muslims,
regardless of their ethnic origin, hold the Arabic
language in the highest esteem and value it as the
medium of a rich cultural heritage. It is this intimate
connection between the Quran and Arabic which gave
the language its special status and contributed to the
Arabization of diverse populations.
The Spread of Arabic
By the beginning of the eighth century, the Islamic Arab
Empire had spread from Persia to Spain, resulting in the
interaction between Arabs and local populations who
spoke different languages. In Syria, Lebanon, and
Palestine, where the majority of the population spoke
some dialect of Aramaic and where Arab tribes had been
present in the vicinity, the local languages were for the
most part replaced by Arabic. In Iraq, Arabic became the
dominant language among a population who spoke
Aramaic and Persian. A more gradual process of
Arabization occurred in Egypt where Coptic and Greek
were the two dominant languages. In North Africa,
where Berber dialects were spoken and still are used in
some parts, the process of Arabization was less
complete. Persia and Spain, however, retained their
respective languages.
In the early days of the Empire, the majority of the
population would not have been Arabic monolinguals.
The interaction of Arabic with other languages led to the
borrowing of new vocabulary which enriched the
language in areas such as government, administration,
and science. This, in addition to the rich internal
resources of Arabic, enabled the language to become a
suitable medium for governing a vast empire.
Under the Umayyad dynasty (661-750 A.D.), with
Damascus as the center of power, Arabic continued its
tradition of excellence as the language of poetry,
enriched its literature with translations from Persian and
other languages, and acquired new terminology in
various fields of study which included linguistics,
philosophy, and theology. Under the Abbasid rule from
Baghdad (750-1258 A.D.), Arabic literature reached its
golden age as linguistic studies reached a new level of
sophistication. Many scholars, Arabs and non-Arabs,
Muslims, Christians and Jews, participated in the
development of intellectual life using Arabic as their
preferred language. A systematic effort at translation
from various sources had made Arabic the most suitable
scholarly medium of the day in disciplines such as
philosophy, mathematics, medicine, geography and
various branches of science. Many of the words readily
borrowed during this period were easily assimilated into
Arabic and later transmitted to other languages.
A period of decline began in the eleventh century as the
result of several factors including the start of the
Crusades, the political unrest in Spain, Mongol and
Turkish invasions from the East, and internal divisions
within the Empire. This marked a period of relative
stagnation for Arabic although its status as the language
of Islam was never threatened.
The nineteenth century saw a period of intellectual
revival which began in Egypt and Syria and spread to
the rest of the Arab world, beginning with the
Napoleonic expedition to Egypt in 1798. The expedition
provided for the introduction of the first Arabic printing
press to Egypt and the translation of numerous Western
literary works into Arabic. This initial contact was
continued by Muhammad Ali, an enlightened Egyptian
ruler, who sent students to France and other countries
to study various disciplines; they returned to Egypt as
teachers and writers. Lebanon had been in contact with
the West as early as the seventeenth century,
maintaining a strong religious connection with some
European groups. Other Western influences came from
Arab immigrants to the Americas and from missionaries
who contributed to the establishment of foreign
languages, mainly English and French, as important
components of the educational system in parts of the
Arab world.
The initial enthusiastic thrust towards westernization
clashed with nationalistic independence movements
that were a natural response to European colonialism in
the region. These movements were usually linked to the
two major pillars of Arab nationalism: the Muslim
religion and the Arabic language. Thus, Arab
intellectuals found themselves torn between the rich
and glorious heritage of the past and a future which
became increasingly associated with Western
technology and modernity. The nineteenth century saw
the beginning of the development of Arabic as a viable
modern language.
Elements of Arabic Structure
Arabic, like all Semitic languages, is characterized by
the use of certain morphological patterns (patterns of
word formation) to derive words from abstract roots that
represent general semantic notions or meanings. These
roots usually consist of three consonants which form the
basis for the formation of numerous words from any
given root. For instance, the root KTB, which is
associated with the notion of ‘writing,’ is found in the
verb stems KaTaB ‘wrote’ and KTuB ‘write’ which can be
conjugated by the addition of appropriate prefixes and
suffixes. To illustrate further how word stems can be
derived from various roots, it is helpful to look at the
makeup of a root in terms of the position that each
consonant (C)occupies relative to the two other
consonants. Thus the stem KaTaB can be represented
by the pattern C1aC2aC3 where C1=K, C2=T, and C3=B. A
modification of the stem to C1aC2C2aC3 (doubling the
medial consonant of the root) results in the derivation of
the stem KaTTaB which has the causative meaning
‘made (someone) write.’ On the other hand, lengthening
the first vowel of the stem (C1aaC2aC3) derives KaaTaB,
meaning ‘corresponded.’ The addition of the
prefix ta- results in taKaaTaB, with the reciprocal
meaning ‘exchanged letters (with someone).’ There are
fifteen possible patterns that a verb root can
theoretically have, although five of these are extremely
rare. Each of these patterns can be modified to indicate
a passive voice and an imperfect present) tense:
e.g. KuTiB ‘was written,’ yaKTuB ‘writes,’ yuKTaB ‘is
written.’
By modifying the root consonants, using various vowel
combinations, and utilizing different prefixes and
suffixes, several possibilities exist for deriving nouns,
adjectives and adverbs from any given root. The
following words, for example, all of which are derived
from KTB, can be found in a typical
dictionary: KiTaaB ‘book,’ KuTuBii ‘bookseller,’ KuTTaaB‘
elementary or Quranic
school,’ KuTayyiB ‘booklet,’ KiTaaBa ‘writing,
script,’ KiTaaBaat ‘writings, essays,’ KiTaaBii ‘written,
literary,’ maKTaB‘office, bureau,’ maKTaBii ‘of an
office,’ maKTaBa ‘library,’ miKTaaB ‘typewriter,’ muKaaT
aBa ‘correspondence,’ iKtiTaaB ‘enrollment,
registration,’ istiKTaaB ‘dictation,’ KaaTiB ‘writer,’ maKT
uuB ‘letter,’ muKaaTiB ‘correspondent,’
and muKtaTiB ‘subscriber’ (Cowan). Many of these
words can be pluralized,
e.g. KuTuB ‘books,’ KuTTaB ‘writers,’ maKTaBaat ‘librari
es,’ and some can occur with a feminine ending,
e.g. KaaTiBa ‘female writer,’ muKaaTiBa ‘female
correspondent,’ and KaaTiBaat ‘female writers.’ The
preceding examples illustrate a rich and versatile
morphological pattern of word derivation that can
theoretically allow for hundreds of Arabic words to be
derived from a single root.
Orthography
The Arabic writing system is an adaptation of the
Nabatean script which evolved from Aramaic writing
system. It consists of twenty-eight letters representing
consonant sounds and is written from right to left. Three
of these letters representing the consonants /’, w, y/ are
also used for representing the long vowel sounds /aa,
uu, ii/, respectively.2 The short vowel sounds /a, u, i/,
which may be represented with diacritic marks above or
below a letter, are normally omitted except in situations
where semantic ambiguity or serious errors in
pronunciation cannot be tolerated. The Quran and the
Arabic Bible are always printed with a full representation
of short vowel sounds and also with other diacritics
which signify the doubling of consonants or the absence
of any vowel sounds following a particular consonant.
Arabic script is cursive, meaning that certain letters
must be connected to others whether in writing or
printing. While no distinction exists between capital and
lower case letters, a letter may occur in more than one
form (as illustrated in the Arabic Alphabet table)
depending on its position in the word and what other
letters surround it.
To illustrate the system, it may be helpful to use some
examples of words derived from the root KTB ‘writing,’
which is represented in Arabic by the letters ,ك,ت,ب
respectively. When these letters are connected to each
other from right to left, they result in a word which is
spelled كتب. The absence of any long vowels in this word
means that all the possible vowels which can occur in
this word are short. Hence the word can be ambiguously
read as KaTaBa ‘(he) wrote,’ KuTiBa ‘was
written,’ KaTTaBa‘made (someone) write,’
or KuTuB ‘books.’ Which of the above readings is the
appropriate one is determined by the context. The
word KaaTiB‘writer’ and KiTaaB ‘book,’ both with long
vowel sounds are written as كاتبand كتاب, respectively.
In pre-Islamic times, Arabic script suffered from a
number of deficiencies including the lack of letters for
certain consonant sounds and the absence of any
system for indicating vowel sounds. The present system
is the result of some major reforms which were
introduced when the script was found inadequate as a
tool for recording and preserving the Holy Quran. This
close association with the Quran bestowed a sanctified
status on a script that arose from a humble beginning.
This enabled it to develop into a unique art form not
equaled by any other calligraphic tradition.
With the spread of Islam, many non-Arabs found
themselves learning Arabic in order to be able to read
the Quran. Thus many languages which came under the
influence of Arabic through Islam adopted the use of the
Arabic script. These languages, most of which were non-
Semitic in origin, included Farsi (Persian), Pashto,
Kashmiri, Urdu, Sindhi, Malay, and others (Kaye).
Dialectal Varieties
Several regional dialects of Arabic exist, some of which
may not be readily intelligible to speakers from other
regions. To varying extents, these language varieties
show differences in grammar, pronunciation, and
vocabulary. Arabic speakers refer to these spoken
varieties as ‘aammiyya, or colloquial, as opposed to the
literary or classical fushalanguage which is acquired
through formal instruction. This linguistic duality,
commonly referred to as diglossia in the linguistic
literature, involves the complementary use of two
varieties (high and low) in specific contexts.
The high variety is Classical Arabic; the ultimate
example of which is the language of the Quran, is used
in formal situations. The low variety refers to various
regional vernaculars or colloquial varieties used for
everyday interactions. While this often-cited distinction
between Classical and Colloquial Arabic may be useful, it
merely represents two poles of a continuum which more
accurately characterizes a complex linguistic situation.
Two other varieties are Modern Standard Arabic and
Educated Spoken Arabic. Modern Standard Arabic, a
continuation of Classical Arabic with some modifications
in grammar and an extensive addition of modern
vocabulary, is the language of written communication
throughout the Arabic-speaking world. When educated
speakers from different dialectal backgrounds
communicate orally, they tend to use what is sometimes
known as Educated Spoken Arabic — a mixture of
colloquial speech and Modern Standard Arabic.
Modernization and Reform
The Arab intellectual awakening of the nineteenth
century led to a call for arabization which, in one of its
meanings, referred to the policy of adopting Arabic as
the national official language of newly independent
states. A second sense, used by some writers,
concerned the assimilation of foreign vocabulary into
Arabic in a way that would make the language suitable
for modern life, while at the same time preserving its
essential character. The new demands placed on the
language came to symbolize the conflict between
adherence to tradition and the desire for modernity. The
modernization of Arabic, an effort in which language
academies as well as individuals participated, generally
focused on three areas of concern: orthographical
reform, grammar simplification, and vocabulary
development (Abu-Absi).
Orthographical Reform: Between 1938 and 1968, the
Egyptian academy received over 300 reform proposals,
demonstrating the degree to which attention was
focused on this area. These proposals ranged from
simple modifications in spelling to a complete
replacement of the existing system with a Latin-type
alphabet. They generally addressed two problems: the
high cost of printing due to contextual variations in
letter forms and the relative difficulty of learning the
Arabic writing system compared with Western
alphabets. The orthographical reform proposals failed
because they either represented a break with a very
important tradition, introduced new complexities, or fell
short of the esthetic standards that Arabs have
traditionally placed on the system. Advances in printing
technology and the increased use of computers have
resolved most of the issues that concerned earlier
reformers.
Grammar Simplification: The drive for arabization
brought to the fore the Arabic diglossic situation — a
wide gap between the Classical and the Colloquial
varieties. In searching for a suitable literary and
educational standard, some argued for the use of the
Classical language with its rich history while others
argued for the use of the Colloquial varieties that were
more natural and less cumbersome to learn. Some
Colloquial proponents argued that Classical Arabic was a
dead language that belonged to a by-gone age, had a
complex grammar, and lacked a modern scientific
vocabulary. Classical proponents countered by pointing
out that Arabic had proven itself in the past through its
flexibility and ability to adapt to new situations.
Additionally, it was the most important bond among
Arabs and of utmost importance to all Muslims, Arabs
and non-Arabs alike.
Having accepted a modernized version of Classical
Arabic (Modern Standard Arabic) as a common standard
among Arabs, the majority of intellectuals agreed on the
need for grammar reform and simplification, although
they disagreed on the nature and extent of the reform.
Some proposed the elimination of certain grammatical
contrasts not present in the dialects. For instance, the
literary language distinguishes between two cases for
the word meaning ‘two books,’ KiTaaBaan (when used
as subject) and KiTaaBayn (when used as object).
Eliminating the subjective form would simplify the
grammar and make it closer to familiar spoken dialects.
This type of simplification, as might be expected,
encountered strong resistance as it threatened to effect
a radical structural change in the language. When the
subject of grammar simplification is now discussed, it
usually refers to teaching methods aimed at helping
learners cope with acquiring the literary language.
Vocabulary Development: The development of
scientific and technical vocabulary is an ongoing process
which has received its fair share of attention. The Syrian
academy is credited with leading the way since the early
twentieth century and the Syrian University pioneered
the use of Arabic as the language of instruction in fields
such as law, science, and medicine. The lack of
coordination among the academies, however, and the
proliferation of new terminology led to the
establishment of the Bureau of Arabization in Rabat in
1961 which has published a number of technical
dictionaries dealing with various disciplines.
The procedure for introducing new vocabulary ideally
followed certain steps. The first step involved searching
old dictionaries and texts for an obsolete word which
might fit the desired meaning. If no appropriate word
was found, then a literal translation of the term was
given: for example, ‘ilm al hayaat ‘life science’ for
biology. When a literal translation was not possible, then
coining a new word from an existing Arabic root was
recommended: sayyaara ‘car’ derived from the
root SYR whose meaning is associated with ‘movement.’
As a last resort, it was acceptable to borrow a foreign
word and modify it to fit the Arabic phonological
system: siinama ‘cinema’ and fiilm ‘film.’
In real practice, however, scientists, teachers, and
journalists have been more pragmatic and more liberal
in their use of foreign borrowings. This has resulted in
multiple words for the same concept and the acceptance
in common usage of words which may not have been
officially endorsed by the academies. In addition to
thousands of arabized foreign words now part of Modern
Standard Arabic, the language has acquired numerous
foreign phrases and expressions more or less literally
translated from languages like French and English.
The addition of a large number of new words has made
it necessary to channel considerable efforts into
lexicography, or the compilation of dictionaries.
Traditional Arabic dictionaries listed words
alphabetically according to their root consonants. Thus
words like KiTaaB ‘book,’ maKTuuB ‘letter,’
and taKTuBu ‘she writes’ would all be listed under K, the
first letter of the root they all share. The value of this
arrangement lies in revealing the etymological relations
among various words. While using a dictionary of this
type is not difficult for those familiar with Arabic’s
morphological structure, the task becomes cumbersome
and confusing for beginners who may not be able to
readily identify the root. Some recent dictionaries list
words alphabetically and some attempt to combine the
traditional root system and the alphabetical system.
The Influence of Arabic on Other Languages
As both the language of Islam and a medium of culture
and learning for five centuries, Arabic came into close
contact with several other languages. Asian and African
languages such as Urdu, Turkish, Farsi, and Hausa
borrowed a large number of Arabic words dealing with
various aspects of culture, particularly those related to
Islam. Spanish and Portuguese came into direct contact
with Arabic as a result of the Arab conquest. European
Crusaders from various linguistic backgrounds
interacted with Arabs and acquired words relating to
food, clothing, and other aspects of ordinary living. As
Europe emerged from its dark ages, it turned to Arabic
writings for enlightenment and rediscovered classical
Greek and Latin texts preserved in Arabic translations.
Even languages like English, which had relatively little
direct contact with Arabic, borrowed many Arabic words,
often indirectly through Portuguese, Italian, and
Spanish. A linguistic study of the contributions of Arabic
to English cites over 2,000 English words either of Arabic
origin or borrowed and assimilated into Arabic before
being transmitted to other languages (Cannon).
A cursory glance at Arabic loan words in English reveals
a linguistic and cultural influence on English that
extended to art, music, astronomy, architecture,
biology, chemistry, geography, mathematics, law,
literature, the military, finance, and numerous other
fields. The following words illustrate the range of cultural
impact and the extent of linguistic influence that Arabic
has had on English: admiral, alcohol, alcove, algebra,
algorithm, almanac, amber, arabesque, arsenal,
artichoke, balsam, caliber, carat, checkmate, chiffon,
coffee, coral, cork, cotton, damask, dinar, elixir, endive,
fanfare, gazelle, genie, giraffe, guitar, halvah, imam,
Islam, jar, jasmine, kabob, lemon, lilac, lute, magazine,
massage, mattress, monsoon, natron, orange, organza,
poof, Quran, racket, ream, rice, satin, soda, sofa, sultan,
sugar, sherif, sherbet, talc, tambourine, ud (or oud),
vizier, wadi, zenith, and zero.
Conclusion
With the beginning of the twenty-first century, a
revitalized Arabic language has emerged following a
century of struggle and growth that introduced a
number of changes and reforms. The debate concerning
the viability of literary Arabic as the medium for
education, technology, and mass communication has
virtually come to a halt. Modern Standard Arabic has
been accepted as a common and unifying bond among
the Arabs, transcending their diversity in economic
status, political realities, religious beliefs, and national
aspirations.
