INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

LAB MANUAL

SUBJECT NAME: BASIC ELECTRONICS

SUBJECT CODE: 4321601

 IT ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr./Ms.:____________________________________________________

PEN No.:___________________________ of Diploma in IT Engineering has

successfully completed the Term work / Practical in the course BASIC
ELECTRONICS (4321601) during the academic
term:_______________________________________________________________.

Date: .

Lecturer Head of Department

N. G. Patel Polytechnic N. G. Patel Polytechnic

Principal
N. G. Patel Polytechnic
Isroli-Afwa, Ta-Bardoli, Dist-Surat, Pin-394620.
 N. G. PATEL POLYTECHNIC
At-Isroli, Post-Afwa, Ta-Bardoli, Dist- Surat-394620.
IT ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDEX

SUBJECT NAME: (BASIC ELECTRONICS)

SUBJECT CODE: (4321601)
NAME OF STUDENT: __________________________________________________________________.
ENROLLMENT NO: ____________________________________________________________________.

SR. PAGE ASSESMENT TOTAL SIGN OF

NO. SCHEME MARKS
NO. DATE DATE
STAFF
NAMEOFPRACTICAL
FROM TO 10 10 05 25
Study and Identify Resistors using Color
01
Code.
Study and Identify Inductors.
02
03 Study and Identify Capacitors.
Study V-I characteristics of PN Junction
04
Diode.
05 Study and Identify Transistors.

06 Study and Identify types of Cable.

Study and Identify various connectors for
07
various types of Cables.
08 Study and Identify Types of Switches.

09 Study and Identify Types of Transformers.

Test working of Half wave Rectifier and
10
Full wave Rectifier.
11 Test working of Bridge Rectifier.
Measurement of various electrical
12 quantities in a circuit using Digital
Multimeter.
Study Front panel controls of Cathode
13
Ray Oscilloscope (CRO).
Measurement of Amplitude and
14 Frequency of electrical signal using
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO).
EXPERIMENT NO.:01 DATE:
AIM: STUDY AND IDENTIFY RESISTORS USING COLOR CODE.

What is Electrical Resistance?

The property of a substance which opposes the flow of electric current (or electricity) through it is
called Resistance OR Resistance is the ability of a circuit which opposes current.
Mica, Glass, Rubber, Wood etc. are the examples of resistive materials. The unit of resistance is OHM
(Ω) where 1Ω = 1V/1A, which is derived from the basic electrical Ohm’s law = V = IR.
Resistance of a resistor depends on their length (l), resistivity (ρ) and its cross sectional area (a) which is also
known as laws of resistance … R = ρ (l/a).

Identify Types of Resistors:

Resistors are available in different size, Shapes and materials. We will discuss all possible resistor types one by
one in detail with pro and cons and application as follow.
There are two basic types of resistors.
 Linear Resistors
 Non Linear Resistors
Linear Resistors:
Those resistors, which values change with the applied voltage and temperature, are called linear resistors. In
other words, a resistor, which current value is directly proportional to the applied voltage is known as linear
resistors.
Generally, there are two types of resistors which have linear properties.
 Fixed Resistors
 Variable Resistors
 Fixed Resistors:
As the name tells everything, fixed resistor is a resistor which has a specific value and we can’t change the value
of fixed resistors.
Types of Fixed resistors.
 Carbon Composition Resistors
 Wire Wound Resistors
 Thin Film Resistors
 Thick Film Resistors

Carbon Composition Resistors:

A typical fixed resistor is made from the mixture of granulated or powdered carbon or graphite, insulation filler,
or a resin binder. The ratio of the insulation material determines the actual resistance of the resistor. The
insulating powder (binder) made in the shape of rods and there are two metal caps on the both ends of the rod.
Wire wound Resistors:
Wire wound resistor is made from the insulating core or rod by wrapping around a resistive wire. The resistance
wire is generally Tungsten, manganin, Nichrome or nickel or nickel chromium alloy and the insulating core is
made of porcelain, Bakelite, press bond paper or ceramic clay material.

Thin Film Resistors:

Basically, all thin film resistors are made of from high grid ceramic rod and a resistive material. A very thin
conducting material layer overlaid on insulating rod, plate or tube which is made from high quality ceramic
material or glass. There are two further types of thin film resistors.
 Carbon Film Resistors
 Metal Film Resistors
Carbon Film Resistors:
Carbon Film resistors contains on an insulating material rod or core made of high grade ceramic material which
is called the substrate. A very thin resistive carbon layer or film overlaid around the rod.
Metal Film Resistors:
Metal film resistors are same in construction like Carbon film resistors, but the main difference is that there is
metal (or a mixture of the metal oxides, Nickel Chromium or mixture of metals and glass which is called metal
glaze which is used as resistive film) instead of carbon.

Cermet Oxide Resistors (Network Resistors):

In the cermet oxide resistors, the internal area contains on ceramic insulation materials. And then a carbon or
metal alloy film or layer wrapped around the resistor and then fix it in a ceramic metal (which is known as
Cermet). They are made in the square or rectangular shape and leads and pins are under the resistors for easy
installation in printed circuit boards. They provide a stable operation in high temperature because their values do
not change with change in temperature.

Variable Resistors:
As the name indicates, those resistors which values can be changed through a dial, knob, and screw or manually
by a proper method. In these types of resistors, there is a sliding arm, which is connected to the shaft and the
value of resistance can be changed by rotating the arm. They are used in the radio receiver for volume control
and tone control resistance.
Following are the further types of Variable Resistors
 Potentiometers
 Rheostats
 Trimmers
Potentiometers:
Potentiometer is a three terminal device which is used for controlling the level of voltage in the circuit. The
resistance between two external terminals is constant while the third terminal is connected with moving contact
(Wiper) which is variable. The value of resistance can be changed by rotating the wiper which is connected to
the control shaft.

Rheostats:
Rheostats are a two or three terminal device which is used for the current limiting purpose by hand or manual
operation. Rheostats are also known as tapped resistors or variable wire wound resistors.
Variable wire wound resistors are available in the range of 1 ohm up to 150 Ohms. The available power rating
of these resistors is 3 to 200 Watts. While the most used Rheostats according to power rating is between 5 to 50
Watts.
Trimmers:
There is an additional screw with Potentiometer or variable resistors for better efficiency and operation and they
are known as Trimmers. The value of resistance can be changed by changing the position of screw to rotate by a
small screwdriver.

Non Linear Resistors:

Following are the additional types of Non Linear Resistors.
 Thermistors
 Varisters (VDR)
 Photo Resistor or Photo Conductive Cell or LDR
Thermistors:
Thermistor is a two terminal device which is very sensitive to temperature. In other words, Thermistors is a type
of variable resistor which notices the change in temperature. Thermistors are made from the cobalt, Nickel,
Strontium and the metal oxides of Manganese. The Resistance of a Thermistor is inversely proportional to the
temperature, i.e. resistance increases when temperature decrease and vice versa.
Photo Resistor or Photo Conductive Cell or LDR (Light Dependent Resistors):
Photo Resistor or LDR (Light Dependent Resistors) is a resistor which terminal value of resistance changes with
light intensity. In other words, those resistors, which resistance values changes with the falling light on their
surface is called Photo Resistor or Photo Conductive Cell or LDR (Light Dependent Resistor). The material
which is used to make these kinds of resistors is called photo conductors, e.g. cadmium sulfide, lead sulfide etc.

Application of Resistors
Practically, both types of resistors (Fixed and Variable) are generally used for the following purposes.
Resistors are used:
 For Current control and limiting
 To change electrical energy in the form of heat energy
 As a shunt in Ampere meters
 As a multiplier in a Voltmeter
 To control temperature
 To control voltage or Drop
 For protection purposes, e.g. Fusible Resistors
 In laboratories
 In home electrical appliances like heater, iron, immersion rod etc.
 Widely used in the electronics industries
WHAT IS RESISTOR COLOR CODE?

Resistors are usually very tiny, and it is challenging to print resistance values on them. So, color bands are
printed on them to represent the electrical resistance. These color bands are known as resistor color codes.

Resistor Color Table:

Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 1

Brown 1 10 ± 1%

Red 2 100 ± 2%

Orange 3 1000

Yellow 4 10,000

Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5%

Blue 6 1,00,000 ± 0.25%

Violet 7 10,000,000 ± 0.1%

Grey 8 ± 0.05%

White 9

Gold 0.1 ± 5%

Silver 0.01 ± 10%

How to Read Resistor Color Code?

 To read them, hold the resistor such that the tolerance band is on your right. The tolerance band is usually
gold or silver in color and is placed a little further away from the other bands.
 Starting from your left, note down all the colors of the bands and write them down in sequence.
 Next, use the table given below to see which digits they represent.
 The band just next to the tolerance band is the multiplier band. So if the color of this band is Red
(representing 2), the value given is 102.
Learning with an example

After learning about resistance color codes, let us learn how to find resistor color codes with an example. Here’s
an example to get you started:
The band colors for resistor color code in the order:

Band colors in order RED RED BLACK GOLD

Digit representation 2 2 1 ±5%

Value 22 Ω ±5 %

The tolerance values represent by how much the resistance can vary from its mean value in terms of percentage.
A gold band represents the lowest variation, so be sure to buy these at the electronics store. The value of the
given resistance is: 22 Ω ± 5%. The tolerance of the resistor can be calculated as follows:

Tolerance=Value of resistor × value of tolerance band

= 22 Ω × 5% = 1.1 Ω

This means that the 22 Ω resistors with a tolerance value of 1.1 Ω could range from the actual value as much as
23.1 Ω to as little as 20.9 Ω. It is important to note that the band next to the tolerance band represents the
multiplier. All the bands to the left of this band represent the significant digits. There can be more than two such
bands.

EXAMPLES: (SOLVE BELLOW GIVEN EXAMPLES)

1) The color band on carbon resistor is respectively are Orange, Green, Red and Gold. Find the value of this
resistor.
2) The color band on carbon resistor is respectively are White, Blue, Orange and Silver. Find the value of
this resistor.
3) The color band on carbon resistor is respectively are Green, Black and Red. Find the value of this
resistor.

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EXPERIMENT NO.:02 DATE:

AIM: STUDY AND IDENTIFY INDUCTORS.

What is Inductor?
We have already shared a detailed post about inductors? You can read it here: What is Inductor – Its Working,
Parameters, and Factors& Applications
Below, we will discuss different types inductors based on different factors and their applications.
 Air Core Inductor
 Ferromagnetic/Iron Core Inductor
 Ferrite Core Inductor
 Iron Powder Core Inductors
 Ceramic Core Inductors
 Laminated Steel Core Inductor
 Toroidal Core Inductor
 Drum/Bobbin Core Inductor
 Multi-Layer Inductor
 Thin Film Inductor
 Molded Inductor
 Coupled Inductor
 Power Inductor
 Radio-Frequency RF Inductor
 Chokes
 Variable Inductors
Types Of Inductors Based On Their Core:
The core of the inductor plays an important role in its characteristics. The material & design of the core specifies
the inductance, current capacity & operating frequency of the inductor.
Based On Core Material:
Some types of inductors classified according to their core material are given below:
Air Core Inductor:
Air core inductors have non-magnetic core such as plastic, ceramic or just air as suggested by its obvious name.
Air core inductor uses any non-magnetic material as core to reduce the core losses i.e. eddy current & stray
losses, especially when the operating frequency is very high. But the use of non-magnetic core also decreases its
inductance.

Ferromagnetic/Iron Core Inductor:

Such type of inductor consists of a core that is made up of a ferromagnetic material. They are also known as iron
core inductors.
Ferromagnetic materials are magnetic in nature & their magnetic core is used to increase the inductance of the
coil significantly. It is because of the fact that the ferromagnetic materials have high magnetic permeability &
they increase the magnetic field of the coil.
Ferrite Core Inductor:
These types of inductor use ferrite core. Ferrite is a material with high magnetic permeability made from the
mixture of iron oxide (ferric oxide, Fe2O3) & a small percentage of other metals such as nickel, zinc, barium, etc.
There are two types of ferrites i.e. Hard Ferrites & Soft Ferrites.
 The Hard ferrites are used in permanent magnets as they do not demagnetize very well. They are not used in
inductor because of their high hysteresis loss.
 While Soft ferrites magnetization changes easily & are a good conductor of the magnetic field. Thus they are
used in transformer & inductors.

Iron Powder Core Inductors:

The core of such kind of inductors is made up of a mixture of iron grains with an organic binder such as epoxy
resin etc.
The epoxy insulation coating over the iron particles reduces the eddy current loss in the core. Since the size of
the particles determines the eddy current flow in the core. Smaller the particle’s size, lesser the eddy current
induced.
Ceramic Core Inductors:
Ceramic is a non-magnetic material just like air. Ceramic cores are used to provide a shape for the coil & a
structure for its terminals to sit upon. As it is a non-magnetic material, it has low magnetic permeability & low
inductance. But it provides a reduction in the core losses. It is mostly available in SMD packaging & is used in
applications where low core losses, High Q & low inductance are required.

Laminated Steel Core Inductor:

In such type of inductors, the core is laminated which means that it is made up of a bunch of thin sheets placed
on top of each other in a tight form. The sheets are coated with insulation to increase its electrical resistance &
prevent eddy current flow between them. Therefore the eddy current loss in laminated core inductors decreases
significantly. They are used in high power applications.
Toroidal Core Inductor:
As the name suggests these types of inductors have a toroidal core which is a circular ring or donut shape core.
The core is made of ferromagnetic material.
The advantage of this circular core is that the magnetic field is contained within the core & there is very low
magnetic flux leakage.

Drum/Bobbin Core Inductor:

This type of inductor is made of a bobbin-shaped core. It is a cylinder with two flat discs at each end. It is also
known as drum core inductor.
The coil is wounded around the cylinder. The bobbin core does not provide a closed magnetic path instead the
flux goes through the disc into the air gap & then enters the core through the second disc at the other end. It
provides a large air gap for its magnetic field to store more energy.
Types of Inductors Based on Their Usage:
Inductors are designed for different usage. Their design varies from application to application where some of
these inductors based on its usage are given below.
Multi-Layer Inductor:
As the name suggests, these inductors have multiple layers of wire wounded on top of each other. Such inductors
have large inductance due to an increase in the number of turns of the winding.
Multi-layer inductors are available in SMD (surface mount devices) packaging.

The SMD multilayer inductors have multiple layers of conductive traces on top of each other separated by a
ferrite material. These traces act as the coil of an inductor.

Thin Film Inductor:

Such type of inductor is designed on a substrate of thin ferrite or magnetic material. A conductive spiral shaped
trace of copper is placed on top of the substrate. The design allows stability & resistant to vibrations.
Molded Inductor:
Such type of inductor is coated with insulation such as molded plastic or ceramics just like the resistors.
The core is made from ferrite or phenolic material. The winding can be in different designs & it is available in
different shapes like axial, cylindrical & bar shape.

Coupled Inductor:
Couple inductors are made of two windings around a common core.
The changing magnetic flux due to first winding induces emf in the second winding; this phenomenon is known
as mutual inductance. These both winding are electrically isolated. Thus coupled inductor provides electrical
isolation between two circuits. A Transformer is a coupled inductor.
Radio-Frequency RF Inductor:
Such types of inductors are designed for high-frequency applications. A general inductor does not perform very
well due to its high impedance and core losses at high frequency. Most of these losses occur due to parasitic
capacitance, skin effect, proximity effect & core loss (eddy current loss), etc.

Chokes:
Choke is just a simple inductor but it is specifically designed for blocking (choking) high-frequency signals. The
impedance of a choke increases significantly with the increase in the frequency. Therefore it blocks high AC
current and allows DC & low-frequency AC current with some loss.

Variable Inductors:
As the name suggests, these inductors are designed to have variable inductance. This variable inductor is
designed in more than one possible ways.
The most common design of variable inductor is having a movable ferrite core. Moving the core along the
winding will increase or decrease the permeability which affects the inductance of the inductance. The core can
be designed to slide or screwed in or out of the coil.
Another method of variable inductor design is to increase or decrease the number of turns through movable
contact on top of the windings. The conductor used in these windings have no insulation (so the core must be
insulated), thus moving the Contact on top of the turn will change the number of effective turns.

Applications of inductors can be seen in the following

 Tuning circuits

 Sensors

 Store energy in a device

 Induction motors

 Transformers

 Filters

 Chokes

 Ferrite beads

 Inductors used as relays

Conclusion:________________________________________________________________________________
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EXPERIMENT NO.:03 DATE:

AIM: STUDY AND IDENTIFY CAPACITORS.

What is Capacitor?

A capacitor is a two-terminal passive electronic component that stores charge in an electric field between its
metal plates. It is made up of two metal plates (electrodes) separated by an insulator known as the dielectric.

Capacitance:
The capacitance is the ability of a capacitor to store charge in its metal plates (Electrodes). Its unit is Farad F.
One Farad is the amount of capacitance when a charge of one-coulomb causes the potential difference of one
volt across its terminals. The capacitance is always positive, it cannot be negative.
Types of Capacitors:
There are different types of Capacitors classified on the basis of their sizes, shapes & materials. Different types
of capacitors are given below with details.
1) Fixed Capacitors:
As the name suggests, the fixed capacitor has a fixed capacitance value. It cannot be changed. Fixed capacitors
are further divided into two types.
1.1. Polar-Capacitors
1. 2. Non-polar Capacitors
1.1) Polar Capacitors:
Polar capacitors or polarized capacitors are such type of a capacitor whose terminals (electrodes) have polarity;
positive and negative.
The positive terminal should be connected to positive of supply and negative to negative. Reversing the polarity
will destroy the capacitor. These types of capacitors are only used in DC applications.

Polar capacitors are further classified into two types:

1.1.1. Electrolytic-Capacitors
1.1.2. Super capacitors
1.1.1) Electrolytic Capacitors:
An electrolytic capacitor is a type of polar capacitor that uses an electrolyte as one of its electrodes to maintain
heavy charge storage. It is made up of two metal plates whose positive (anode) plate is covered with an
insulating oxide layer through anodization. This insulating layer acts as the dielectric. The electrolyte is used as
the second terminal cathode. The electrolytes can be solid, liquid or gas type material.
The electrolytic capacitors are classified into three families:
1.1.1.1. Aluminum-Electrolytic-Capacitors
1.1.1.2. Tantalum-Electrolytic Capacitors
1.1.1.3. Niobium Electrolytic Capacitors
1.1.1.1) Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors:
In the aluminum Electrolytic capacitor, the electrodes used are made of pure aluminum. However, the anode
(positive) electrode is made by forming an insulating layer of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) through anodization. The
electrolyte (solid or non-solid) is placed on the insulating surface of the anode. This electrolyte technically acts
as the cathode. The second aluminum electrode is placed on top of electrolyte which acts as its electrical
connection to the negative terminal of the capacitor.

1.1.1.2) Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors:

Such type of electrolytic capacitor uses tantalum metal as an anode electrode. Tantalum pallet is oxidized to form
an insulating layer of oxide that acts as the dielectric. This pallet is dipped into an electrolyte (solid or liquid).
The electrolyte acts as a cathode. However, a layer of graphite and silver is coated on top of the electrolyte for
cathode electrical connection.

1.1.1.3) Niobium Electrolytic Capacitors:

In niobium electrolytic capacitor the anode is made of niobium metal (Niobium monoxide). It is oxidized
through iodization to form an insulating layer of niobium pent oxide. This layer acts as the dielectric.
1.2) Non-Polar capacitors:
Non-polar or non-polarized capacitors are such types of capacitors whose terminals have no fixed polarity.
They can be used either way in a circuit. Due to its non-polarized terminals, they are used in DC circuits as well
as AC circuits.
They are cheaper than Polar capacitor but they have low capacitance and high range of voltage ratings from a
few volts to thousands of volts.

Non-polar capacitor is classified into three types:

1.2.1. Ceramic-Capacitor
1.2.2. Mica-Capacitor
1.2.3. Film Capacitor

1.2.1) Ceramic Capacitors:

As the name suggests the ceramic capacitor is a type of non-polar capacitor in which the dielectric used is a
ceramic material.
It is made of two layers of metal (usually nickel and copper) with ceramic (Para electric or Ferroelectric) as the
dielectric. These alternating layers are stacked together to provide high capacitance value.
1.2.2) Mica Capacitors:
Mica capacitor as its name suggests is a non-polar capacitor that uses mica (chemically inert and
stable material) as the dielectric.
There are two type of mica capacitor:
1.2.2.1. Clamped-Mica-Capacitor
1.2.2.2. Silver Mica Capacitor

1.2.2.1) Clamped Mica Capacitors:

These types of capacitors were used in the early 20th century. They were constructed from thin sheets of mica
and metal (usually copper) foil. These sheets and foils are stacked together and clamped. They were then
encapsulated in insulating material.

1.2.2.2) Silver mica capacitors:

Unlike clamped mica capacitor where sheets of mica are clamped with metal foils, the silver mica capacitor is
made of sheets of mica with metal (silver electrode) being coated on its both sides. Multiple layers are added
together to increase its capacitance. It is then dipped in an insulator Epoxy for protection against humidity and
air etc.

1.2.3) Film Capacitors:

Film capacitor, also known as Polymer film capacitor or plastic film capacitor is a type of non-polar capacitor
which uses a film of usually plastic and sometimes paper as a dielectric.
Its construction has two types or formats of configuration
 Metalized Capacitor
 Film/Foil Capacitor
1.2.3.1) Metalized Capacitors:
Metalized capacitors are those types of capacitors that use a metalized dielectric film, which is made by
depositing a metal layer over the dielectric film. The metal used can be Aluminum or Zinc.

1.2.3.2) Film/Foil Capacitors:

Such types of capacitors are constructed by sandwiching a dielectric film with metal foils. The metal is usually
Aluminum which acts as the electrodes.

1.2.3.3) Paper Capacitors

It is the first film capacitor where an oil-impregnated paper was used as a dielectric between Aluminum foils.
The main drawback of paper film/foil capacitor was that it soaks moisture, which degrades its performance over
time. They were fairly bulky.

2) Variable Capacitors:
Such types of capacitors whose capacitance can be changed either mechanically or electrically is known as
the variable capacitors. They don’t have fixed capacitance value instead they provide a range of values. They are
used in tuning LC circuits for a radio receiver, impedance matching in antennas.
These variable capacitors are divided into two main types based on its operating mechanism:
2.1. Mechanically-Controlled
2.2. Electrically-Controlled
2.1) Mechanically Controlled Variable Capacitors
These variable capacitors capacitance value can be changed mechanically through a knob or a screwdriver. They
are made of semi-circular metal plates with a dielectric in between them.

One set of plates which is movable is known as rotor & the other set of plates which is stationary is known as the
stator. The rotor rotates around a shaft that increases or decrease the distance between the plates which changes
the capacitance of the capacitor.

Mechanical controlled types of capacitors are further divided into two sub-types.

2.1.1. Tuning-Capacitors
2.1.2. Trimmer-Capacitors

2.1.1) Tuning Capacitors:

This type of variable capacitor is used for tuning & is commonly used in LC circuits for radio tuning. Its
capacitance can be varied by rotating a knob which rotates the rotor across the stator with a dielectric between
them. The dielectric used is either air or mica.
2.1.2) Trimmer Capacitors:
This type of variable capacitor’s capacitance is varied by using a screwdriver. They are not very tolerant to
continuous changing in capacitance. They can only withstand a few adjustments.
It has the same construction design as a tuning capacitor. The dielectric used in the trimmer capacitor is
either air or ceramic.

2.2) Electrically Controlled Variable Capacitors:

Such type of variable capacitor is made of P-N junction semiconductor device whose junction capacitance is
controlled using the reverse voltage.

Varactor diode or more commonly known as Vericap is a special type of diode that uses the reverse bias voltage
to vary its junction capacitance.

Applications of Capacitors:
There are some of the general applications for all types of capacitors.
 Smoothing power supply’s output.
 Power factor correction
 Frequency filters, high pass, low pass filters.
 Coupling & Decoupling of signals.
 Motor Starter.
 Snubber (Surge absorber & Noise filter)
 Oscillators

Conclusion:________________________________________________________________________________
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EXPERIMENT NO.:04 DATE:
AIM: STUDY V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE.

APPARATUS: P-N Junction diode kit,

Voltmeter (0-30 Volt DC),
Ammeter (0-150 mA),
Connecting wires.

INTRODUCTION:
The semiconductor diode is formed by doping P-type impurity in one side and N-type of impurity in another side
of the semiconductor crystal forming a p-n junction as shown in the following figure.

At the junction initially free charge carriers from both side recombine forming negatively charged ions in P side
of junction(an atom in P-side accept electron and becomes negatively charged ion) and positively charged ion on n
side(an atom in n-side accepts hole i.e. donates electron and becomes positively charged ion)region. This region
deplete of any type of free charge carrier is called as depletion region. Further recombination of free carrier on
both side is prevented because of the depletion voltage generated due to charge carriers kept at distance by
depletion (acts as a sort of insulation) layer as showndotted in the above figure.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:
When voltage is not applied across the diode, depletion region forms as shown in the above figure. When the
voltage is applied between the two terminals of the diode (anode and cathode) two possibilities arises depending
on polarity of DC supply.

FORWARD-BIAS CONDITION:
When the +Ve terminal of the battery is connected to P-type material & -Ve terminal to N-type terminal as
shown in the circuit diagram, the diode is said to be forward biased. The application of forward bias voltage will
force electrons in N-type and holes in P-type material to recombine with the ions near boundary and to flow
crossing junction. This reduces width of depletion region. This further will result in increase in majority carriers
flow across the junction. If forward bias is further increased in magnitude the depletion region width will
continue to decrease, resulting in exponential rise in current as shown in ideal diode characteristic curve.

REVERSE-BIASED:
If the negative terminal of battery (DC power supply) is connected with P-type terminal of diode and +Ve
terminal of battery connected to N type then diode is said to be reverse biased. In this condition the free charge
carriers (i.e. electrons in N-type and holes in P-type) will move away from junction widening depletion region
width. The minority carriers (i.e. –ve electrons in p-type and +ve holes in n-type) can cross the depletion region
resulting in minority carrier current flow called as reverse saturation current(Is). Diode can pass current only in
one direction.
PROCEDURE:

FORWARD BIAS CONDITION:

1. Connect the components as shown in the Figure.
2. Vary the supply voltage such that the voltage across the Silicon diode varies from 0 to 0.6
V in steps of 0.1 V and in steps of 0.02 V from 0.6 to 0.76 V. In each step record the current
flowing through the diode as I.
3. Repeat the above steps for Germanium diode too but with the exception that the voltage
acrossthe diode should be varied in steps of 0.01 V from 0.1 to 0.3 V in step-2.

FORWARD BIAS OBSERVATION TABLE:

For Silicon diode For Germanium diode

Sr.
No. Forward voltage Forward current Forward voltage Forward current
across diode across diode across diode across diode
(Vd) (Id) (Vd) (Id)

5
6

PROCEDURE:

REVERSE BIAS CONDITION:

1. Connect the diode in the reverse bias as shown in the Figure.
2. Vary the supply voltage such that the voltage across the diode varies from 0 to 10V in steps of 1
V. Record the current flowing through the diode in each step.
3. Repeat the above steps for Germanium diode too and record the current in each step.
4. Now plot a graph between the voltage across the diode and the current flowing through
the diode in forward and reverse bias, for Silicon and Germanium diodes on separate graph
 sheets. This graph is called the V-I characteristics of the diodes.
5. Calculate the static and dynamic resistance of each diode in forward and reverse bias using
thefollowing formulae.

REVERSE BIAS OBSERVATION TABLE:

For Silicon diode For Germanium diode

Sr.
No. Reverse voltage Reverse current Reverse voltage Reverse current
across diode across diode across diode across diode
(Vd) (Id) (Vd) (Id)

CONCLUSION:

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EXPERIMENT NO.:05 DATE:

AIM: STUDY AND IDENTIFY TRANSISTORS.

What is a transistor?
A transistor is a type of semiconductor device that can be used to conduct and insulate electric current or voltage.
A transistor basically acts as a switch and an amplifier. In simple words, we can say that a transistor is a
miniature device that is used to control or regulate the flow of electronic signals.

Parts of a Transistor
A typical transistor is composed of three layers of semiconductor materials or, more specifically, terminals
which help to make a connection to an external circuit and carry the current. A voltage or current that is applied
to any one pair of the terminals of a transistor controls the current through the other pair of terminals. There are
three terminals for a transistor. They are listed below:

 Base: This is used to activate the transistor.

 Collector: It is the positive lead of the transistor.
 Emitter: It is the negative lead of the transistor.
Well, the very basic working principle of a transistor is based on controlling the flow of current through one
channel by varying the intensity of a smaller current that is flowing through a second channel.

Types of Transistors
There are mainly two types of transistors, based on how they are used in a circuit.

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The three terminals of BJT are the base, emitter and collector. A very small current flowing between the base
and emitter can control a larger flow of current between the collector and emitter terminal.
Furthermore, there are two types of BJT, and they include:

 P-N-P Transistor: It is a type of BJT where one n-type material is introduced or placed between two p-
type materials. In such a configuration, the device will control the flow of current. PNP transistor consists
of 2 crystal diodes which are connected in series. The right side and left side of the diodes are known as
the collector-base diode and emitter-base diode, respectively.

 N-P-N Transistor: In this transistor, we will find one p-type material that is present between two n-type
materials. N-P-N transistor is basically used to amplify weak signals to strong signals. In an NPN
transistor, the electrons move from the emitter to the collector region, resulting in the formation of
current in the transistor. This transistor is widely used in the circuit.
Field Effect Transistor (FET)
For FET, the three terminals are Gate, Source and Drain. The voltage at the gate terminal can control a current
between the source and the drain. FET is a unipolar transistor in which N-channel FET or P-channel FET are
used for conduction. The main applications of FETs are in low noise amplifiers, buffer amplifiers and analogue
switches.

Other Types:
Apart from these, there are many other types of transistors which include MOSFET, JFET, insulated-gate bipolar
transistor, thin-film transistor, high electron mobility transistor, inverted-T field-effect transistor (ITFET), fast-
reverse epitaxial diode field-effect transistor (FREDFET), Schottky transistor, tunnel field-effect transistor,
organic field-effect transistor (OFET), diffusion transistor, etc.

Advantages of Transistor

 Lower cost and smaller in size.

 Smaller mechanical sensitivity.
 Low operating voltage.
 Extremely long life.
 No power consumption.
 Fast switching.
 Better efficiency circuits can be developed.
 Used to develop a single integrated circuit.
Limitations of Transistors:
Transistors have a few limitations, and they are as follows:

 Transistors lack higher electron mobility.

 Transistors can be easily damaged when electrical and thermal events arise. For example, electrostatic
discharge in handling.
 Transistors are affected by cosmic rays and radiation.

Applications of Transistors:
Transistors are integral to a multitude of electronic devices due to their versatile functionalities. Some of their
primary applications are:
 Amplification: Transistors are able to amplify a weak input signal into a strong output signal. This
property is used in a variety of devices such as hearing aids, radio and television transmission, and audio
amplification in public address systems.
 Switching: Transistors can be used as switches, rapidly turning a current on and off. This application is
widely used in digital systems and computers, where binary language (1s and 0s) forms the basis of
computation and data processing.
 Regulation of Electrical Signal: In voltage regulation applications, transistors are used to maintain
constant output voltage levels, despite variations in input voltages or output load conditions. They play a
critical role in power supply circuits.

Conclusion:________________________________________________________________________________
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EXPERIMENT NO.:06 DATE:
AIM: STUDY AND IDENTIFY TYPES OF CABLE.

An electrical cable is an assembly of one or more wires running side by side or bundled, which is used to
carry electric current.

Types of Cables:
There are several types of cables and wires depending on their applications and uses.
Communications Cable:
The types of cables and wires that are used for communication or signal transmission purposes are called
communication cable. There sole purpose is to transmit information.

Coaxial Cable:
Coax or coaxial cable is type of electrical cable made from four layers, forming coaxial shape (having common
axis or center). The central part of coaxial cable is a conductor covered by an insulating plastic layer which is
surrounded by a metallic shield. On top that is a fourth layer of plastic insulation.
The coaxial cable is used for transmission of high frequency signal. This is why the metallic shield is used for
blocking noise interference. It is commonly used for cable television signal distribution, signal transmission
between antennas, transmitter and receiver.
The coaxial cable is further divided into various types and each of them has their own application.

Hard line Coaxial or Heliax Cable:

Hardline coaxial or mostly known by its trademark name Heliax cable is a thick coaxial cable with its center
solid conductor made from copper and the shield made from copper or silver tubing. It is specifically used for
high frequency broadcast transmission. It can carry hundreds of channels and is usually installed between a
transmitter on ground and aerial antenna.
Radiating or Leaky Coaxial Cable:
Radiating or leaky coaxial cable is another type of coaxial cable where the shield is deliberately designed in such
way to radiate RF waves. The shield is made with slots tuned for specific RF wavelength that provide bi
directional leakage effect between transmitter and receiver. This type of coaxial cable is used in places where
antenna is not feasible such as underground tunnels, elevator shafts etc.

RG-6 Coaxial Cable:

RG-6 is the most common type of coaxial cable used for signal transmission in residential and commercial
applications. It is made from a solid copper wire with plastic insulation covered by an aluminum foil and a
braided shield for protection against interference. It is used for audio and video signal transmission in
application such as cable TV, Satellite TV signal and radio etc.

Twisted Pair Cable:

This type of communication cable is made from two insulated wires twisted together to form a twisted pair. The
purpose of twisting is to reduce the electromagnetic interference or noise. They are used in Ethernet network and
telephone communication.

They are further divided into two types based on their noise protection.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable:
The UTP cables do not have any extra shield for protection against noise. They twisted pairs may reduce the
noise but it still affects it. Various categories of UTP cables are used in residential and commercial building with
various bandwidth e.g. CAT1, CAT2 etc.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable:

The STP cable has an extra layer of foil that protects the wires from electromagnetic interferences. They are used
for high-end applications where the cables may get affected by external environmental interferences.

Fiber Optic Cables:

Fiber optic or optical fiber cable is a type of communication cable made of flexible, transparent glass fibers
known as optical fibers that transmit data in the form of light.

The fiber’s thickness is approximately equal to human hair and each individual fiber is covered with plastic
insulation. There is another external protection layer that protects the fibers from interference.
The fiber optics cable is classified into two main types;
Single Mode or Mono-mode Fiber Optics Cable:
This cable allows only one mode of light to transmit. It is made of a very thin single strand of fiber that allows
only single light wave to propagate. This decreases the number of light reflection which reduces the attenuation
in signal. It provide high transmission rate at long distance with very low attenuation but at high cost.
Multi-Mode Fiber Optics Cable:
This type of fiber optic cable is made of relatively thicker fibers that allow more than one light waves so it can
transmit relatively more data. But the number of light reflections due to large number of waves at large distance
causes attenuation and distort the signal at the receiving end. This is why it is used for relatively short distance
transmission such as LAN, security system etc.
Ribbon Cable:
This type of cable is made from multiple small grade insulated wires parallel to each other in a flat shape that
resembles a piece of ribbon thus the name ribbon cable. They are flexible and they can handle very low voltages.

Shielded or Screened Cable:

Shielded cable or screened cable is a type of electrical cable whose conductors are protected by an extra metallic
layer known as shield. The shield may be made from braided aluminum, copper or any other metal or it could be
a foil, a spiral tape or a solid layer made from the said conducting metals.
It provides protection against electrical noise or EMI (electromagnetic interference) generated by any near
electrical sources. It is eliminated by grounding the shield at one end.

Multi-Conductor or Multicore Cable:

Multi-core or multi-conductor cable has multiple conductors with insulated sheaths that are rolled into one
jacketed cable. Its job is to avoid the messy connection by having one single cable instead of 10 or 20 separate
wires and save time by connecting them one by one.

Conclusion:________________________________________________________________________________
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EXPERIMENT NO.:07 DATE:

AIM: STUDY AND IDENTIFY VARIOUS CONNECTORS FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF CABLES.

A Connector is an electro-mechanical device whose job is to connect or disconnect a circuit path. Connectors are
made of different materials based on their functions. They come in different shapes, sizes, qualities, and
complexities.

HDMI Ports and Connectors:

What is HDMI?
HDMI means High-Definition Multimedia Interface, a standard for simultaneously transmitting digital video
and audio from a source, such as a computer or TV cable box, to a computer monitor, TV or projector.
The majority of HDMI connectors in use today are the Type A (Standard), Type C (Mini) and Type D (Micro)
shown below.
The Standard HDMI connector (Type A) is the most widely used of the five HDMI connector types. These 19-
pin connectors can be found on almost every brand of TV, computer monitor, game console, streaming device
and desktop computer.
Mini HDMI connectors (Type C) also have 19-pins and support the same features as the full-sized Type A
connector in a smaller, more compact form factor. Because of its smaller size, it is typically used on portable
devices such as DSLR cameras and tablets.
The smallest HDMI connector, Micro HDMI (Type D), is about half the width of the Mini HDMI connector
yet still retains the full functionality of its larger siblings. Micro HDMI connectors are used on small, portable
devices such as phones.

Type-A Type-C Type-D

RS-232 Interface:

The RS-232 interface is the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) standard for the interchange of serial binary
data between two devices. It was initially developed by the EIA to standardize the connection of computers with
telephone line modems.
What is RS232 Protocol?
In RS232, ‘RS’ stands for Recommended Standard. It defines the serial communication using DTE and DCE
signals. Here, DTE refers to Data Terminal Equipment and DCE refers to the Data Communication Equipment.
Example of DTE device is a computer and DCE is a modem. Formally, it is specified as the interface between
DTE equipment and DCE equipment using serial binary data exchange.

The DTE (computer) transmits the information serially to the other end equipment DCE (modem). In this case,
DTE sends binary data “11011101” to DCE and DCE sends binary data “11010101” to the DTE device.

Communication Interface:
RS232 determines the communication between the DTE and DCE using DB9 and DB25 connectors. The D-sub
connectors (DB9, DB25) come with male and female cable. DB9 connector has 9 pins and DB25 connector has
25 pins with each pin having its own function.
DB9 Male and Female Pin outs:

DB25 Pin out:

Applications:
RS232 communication is used in different applications. Some of them are:
 Teletypewriter devices.
 Demodulator applications.
 PC COM port interfacing.
 In embedded systems for debugging.
 Modems and printers.
 Handheld equipment.
 CNC controllers, Software debuggers etc.
 Barcode scanners and Point of Sales (POS) terminals.

RJ45 connector:
What Is an Ethernet Cable?
Devices in a wired network are usually connected physically to a server, modem, router, or each other with
Ethernet cables. Each end of an Ethernet cable has a connector called an RJ45 connector. A Registered Jack 45
(RJ45) connector is a standard type of physical connector for network cables. RJ45 connectors are used almost
exclusively with Ethernet cables and networking. The eight-pin RJ45 connector is a standardized interface
which often connects a computer to a local area network (LAN).
Applications:
Ethernet networking,

Industrial automation,

Telecommunications.

USB Connectors:

What are USB connectors?

Universal Serial Bus (USB) was developed in the 1990s in an effort to simplify the connections between
computers and peripheral devices. It has become widely popular due to its compatibility with many platforms
and operating systems, its low cost of implementation, and its ease of use. Most computers that are built today
come with several USB ports, and USB is the interface of choice for most home and office peripherals including
printers, cameras, modems, and portable storage devices.

TYPES OF USB CONNECTOR:

USB connectors are sometimes referred to as “male” connectors, as they plug into a “female” port.
The different types of connector—shown by USB version—are as follows.

Audio connectors and video connectors:

Audio connectors and video connectors are electrical or optical connectors for carrying audio or video
signals. Audio interfaces or video interfaces define physical parameters and interpretation of signals. For digital
audio and digital video, this can be thought of as defining the physical layer, data link layer, and most or all of
the application layer. For analog audio and analog video these functions are all represented in a single signal
specification like NTSC or the direct speaker-driving signal of analog audio.
VGA:
VGA (Video Graphics Array) is an analog display technology used for high resolution displays. Its use for
computer display is being superseded by DVI as resolutions increase.
Found on:
 Computers
 Data Projectors
 Flat Panel TV's

We can adapt to:

 RGBHV
 DVI
 Mini-VGA
 Mini-DVI
Mini-VGA:
Mini-VGA is an analog display connector found on some Apple computers and a few Sony computers. It must
be adapted to connect an external display. It has been superseded by Mini-DVI.

Found on:
 Apple iBooks
 Some 12” Apple Powerbooks

We can adapt to:

 VGA
 S-Video
 Composite Video

Mini-DVI:
Mini-DVI was developed by Apple to provide a digital video output on devices where a full size DVI connector
would not fit. It is slightly taller than its predecessor, Mini-VGA, and has 4 rows of pins in two slots instead of 2
rows of pins in one block.

Found on:
 Apple Powerbook G4
 Apple MacBook
 Apple iMac (Intel)

We can adapt to:

 VGA
 DVI

DVI:
Digital Visual Interface (DVI) is a video interface standard designed for use with digital displays. Using a digital
interface provides a much higher image quality than using older analog standards such as VGA when connecting
to an LCD panel or projector.

Found on:
 Laptops
 Data Projectors

We can adapt to:

 VGA
 Mini-DVI
USB:

Found on:
 Laptops
 Digital Cameras
 Digital Video Cameras
 Digital Audio Recorders
 Data Projectors
 Computer peripherals
o PowerPoint Remotes
o Card Readers
o Keyboards/Mice
o Printers

Mobile Connectors:

A phone connector, also known as phone jack, audio jack, headphone jack or jack plug, is a family of electrical
connectors typically used for analog audio signals. The standard is that a plug (described as the male connector)
will connect with a jack (described as female).

The phone connector is cylindrical in shape, with a grooved tip to retain it. In its original audio configuration, it
typically has two, three, four or, occasionally, five contacts. Three-contact versions are known as TRS
connectors, where T stands for "tip", R stands for "ring" and S stands for "sleeve". Ring contacts are typically the
same diameter as the sleeve, the long shank. Similarly, two-, four- and five- contact versions are
called TS, TRRS and TRRRS connectors respectively.

USB is an industry standard for connecting, communicating, and charging devices or accessories. There are
different types of USB cables and connectors, which we will cover in more detail below.
USB-C:

The USB-C or USB Type-C connector has a reversible/symmetrical design and is 60% smaller than USB-A. It can be
plugged into any USB-C device using either end. It has been tested with up to 10,000 connection styles and is 6 times more
durable than USB-A. A USB-C cable is capable of carrying USB 3.1, USB 3.0, USB 2.0, and USB 1.1 signals.

USB Micro-A:

Recognized by the USB-IF, this connector can be found on mobile devices such as cellphones, GPS units, and digital
cameras. Micro-USB A offers a connection physically smaller in size to a USB Mini-b, while still supporting the high
speed transfer rate of 480 Mbps and On-The-Go features. The connection can be easily identified by its white-colored
receptacle and compact 5 pin design.

USB Micro-B:

Recognized by the USB-IF, this connector can be found on mobile devices such as cell phones, GPS units, and digital
cameras. Micro-USB B offers a connection physically smaller in size to a USB Mini-B, while still supporting the high-
speed transfer rate of 480 Mbps. The connection can be easily identified by its black-colored receptacle and compact 5 pin
design.

Conclusion:________________________________________________________________________________
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EXPERIMENT NO.:08 DATE:

AIM: STUDY AND IDENTIFY TYPES OF SWITCHES.

TYPEOF
FIGURE CIRCUIT SYMBOL DETAIL
SWITCH
This type can be used to switch
the power supply to a circuit.
ON-OFF
When used with mains electricity
Single Pole,
this type of switch must be in the
Single Throw=
live wire, but it is better to use a
SPST
SPST toggle switch DPST switch to isolate both live
and neutral.
A push-to-make switch returns to
Its normally open (off) position
(ON)-OFF when you release the button, this
Push-to-make= is shown by the brackets around
SPST ON. This is the standard doorbell
Momentary Push-to-make switch switch.

A push-to-break switch returns to

ON-(OFF)
its normally closed (on) position
Push-to-break=
when you release the button.
SPST
Momentary Push-to-break switch

A SPDT toggle switch may be

used as a simple on-off switch by
connecting to COM and one of
ON-ON the A orb terminals shown in the
Single Pole, SPDT toggle switch diagram. A and B are
Double Throw= interchangeable so switches are
SPDT usually not labeled.

A special version of the standard

SPDT slide switch
SPDT switch. It has a third
ON-OFF-ON (PCB mounting) switching position in the center
SPDT Centre Off which is off. Momentary (ON)-
OFF-(ON) versions are also
available where the switch returns
to the central off position when
SPDT rocker switch
released.
A pair of on-off switches which
operate together (shown by the
Dual ON-OFF
dotted line in the circuit symbol).
Double Pole,
A DPST switch is often used to
Single Throw=
switch mains electricity because
DPST
DPST rocker switch it can isolate both the live and
neutral connections.
 A pair of on-on switches which
operate together (shown by the
dotted line in the circuit symbol).
A DPDT switch can be wired up
as a reversing switch for a motor
Dual ON-ON as shown in the diagram.
Double Pole,
Double Throw= DPDT slide switch A special version of the standard
DPDT SPDT switch. It has a third
switching position in the centre
ON-OFF-ON which is off. This can be very
DPDT Centre useful for motor control because
Off you have forward, off and reverse
positions. Momentary (ON)-OFF-
Wiring for Reversing Switch (ON) versions are also available
where the switch returns to the
central off position when
released.
A popular type has a rotary action
and it is available with a range of
contactarrangementsfrom1-pole
12-way to 4-pole 3 way.
Rotary switch
The number of ways (switch
positions) may be reduced by
adjusting a stop under the fixing
nut.

Conclusion:________________________________________________________________________________
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EXPERIMENT NO.:09 DATE:

AIM: STUDY AND IDENTIFY TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS.

What Is a Transformer?
A transformer is a device used in the power transmission of electric energy. The transmission current is AC. It is
commonly used to increase or decrease the supply voltage without a change in the frequency of AC between
circuits. The transformer works on the basic principles of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.

Transformer Types:

Transformers are used in various fields like power generation grid, distribution sector, transmission and electric
energy consumption. There are various types of transformers which are classified based on the following factors:

 Working voltage range

 The medium used in the core

 Winding arrangement

 Installation location
Based on Voltage Levels

Commonly used transformer types, depending on the voltage, are classified as follows:

 Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power generator and the power grid. The secondary
output voltage is higher than the input voltage.

 Step-down Transformer: These transformers are used to convert high-voltage primary supply to low-
voltage secondary output.

Based on the Medium of Core Used

In a transformer, we will find different types of cores that are used.

 Air Core Transformer: The flux linkage between primary and secondary winding is through the air.
The coil or windings wound on the non-magnetic strip.

 Iron Core Transformer: Windings are wound on multiple iron plates stacked together, which provides a
perfect linkage path to generate flux.

Based on the Winding Arrangement

 Autotransformer: It will have only one winding wound over a laminated core. The primary and
secondary share the same coil. Auto means “self” in the Greek language.

Based on Install Location

 Power Transformer: It is used at power generation stations, as they are suitable for high voltage
application

 Distribution Transformer: It is mostly used at distribution lanes for domestic purposes. They are
designed for carrying low voltages. It is very easy to install and characterized by low magnetic losses.

 Measurement Transformers: They are mainly used for measuring voltage, current and power.
  Protection Transformers: They are used for component protection purposes. In circuits, some
components must be protected from voltage fluctuation, etc. Protection transformers ensure component
protection.

Working Principle of a Transformer

The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.

There are usually two coils – primary coil and secondary coil – on the transformer core. The core laminations are
joined in the form of strips. The two coils have high mutual inductance. When an alternating current passes
through the primary coil, it creates a varying magnetic flux. As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
this change in magnetic flux induces an EMF (electromotive force) in the secondary coil, which is linked to the
core having a primary coil. This is mutual induction.

Overall, a transformer carries out the following operations:

1. Transfer of electrical energy from one circuit to another

2. Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction
3. Electric power transfer without any change in frequency
4. Two circuits are linked with mutual induction

Parts of a Single-phase Transformer

The major parts of a single-phase transformer consist of

1. Core

The core acts as a support to the winding in the transformer. It also provides a low reluctance path to the flow of
magnetic flux. The winding is wound on the core, as shown in the picture. It is made up of a laminated soft iron
core in order to reduce the losses in a transformer. The factors, such as operating voltage, current, power, etc.,
decide core composition. The core diameter is directly proportional to copper losses and inversely proportional
to iron losses.

2. Windings

Windings are the set of copper wires wound over the transformer core. Copper wires are used due to the
following:

 The high conductivity of copper minimizes the loss in a transformer because when the conductivity
increases, resistance to current flow decreases.

 The high ductility of copper is the property of metals that allows it to be made into very thin wires.

There are mainly two types of windings: primary windings and secondary windings.

 Primary winding: The set of turns of windings to which the supply current is fed.

 Secondary winding: The set of turns of winding from which output is taken.

The primary and secondary windings are insulated from each other using insulation coating agents.

3. Insulation Agents

Insulation is necessary for transformers to separate windings from each other and to avoid short circuits. This
facilitates mutual induction. Insulation agents have an influence on the durability and stability of a transformer.

The following are used as insulation mediums in a transformer:

 Insulating oil

 Insulating tape

 Insulating paper

 Wood-based lamination

Ideal Transformer

The ideal transformer has no losses. There is no magnetic leakage flux, ohmic resistance in its windings and no
iron loss in the core.
Applications of Transformer:

 The transformer transmits electrical energy through wires over long distances.

 Transformers with multiple secondaries are used in radio and TV receivers, which require
several different voltages.

 Transformers are used as voltage regulators.

Conclusion:________________________________________________________________________________
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EXPERIMENT NO.:10 DATE:

AIM: TEST WORKING OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER.
APPARATUS:

-Rectifier circuit model,

-Volt meter (0-50Volt, DC),
-Ammeter (0-1Amp, DC),
-Multi meter, connecting wires.

RECTIFICATION:

The process to convert AC voltage into DC voltage is known as rectification. The device which used to convert
AC into DC is known as rectifier. A P- N junction offers very low resistance when it is forward biased and offers
very high resistance when it is reverse biased. This unidirectional property of junction diode is used to convert
A.C. quantities into d.c. quantities.

HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

In half wave rectification of a single-phase supply, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed,
while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, mean voltage is
lower. Half-wave rectification requires a single diode in a single-phase supply, or three in a three-phase supply.
Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct current; half-wave rectifiers produce far more ripple than
full-wave rectifiers, and much more filtering is needed to eliminate harmonics of the AC frequency from the
output.
 The no-load output DC voltage of an ideal half wave rectifier is:

OBSERVATIONTABLE:

Practically
Theoretical readings
Vpp= Value of readings
Sr. Vm=Vpp/2
2Vm load Idc=Vdc/RL Vdc Idc
(X’mer o/pvolt.) Vdc=Vm/π
resistance (Amp)
No. (Volt) (Volt) (Amp)
(Ohms)

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER:

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive
or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC
(direct current), and yields a higher mean output voltage. Two diodes and a center tapped transformer,
or four diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC source (including a transformer without center tap), are
needed. Single semiconductor diodes, double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four-diode
bridges, are manufactured as single components.
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER USING A CENTER TAP TRANSFORMER AND 2 DIODES.

OBSERVATIONTABLE:

FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH TWO DIODES:

Practically
Theoretical readings
Vpp= Value of readings
Sr.
2Vm Vm=Vpp/2 load Vdc Idc
No.
(X’mer resistance Vdc=2Vm/π Idc=Vdc/RL (Volt) (Amp)
o/pvolt.) RL (Ohms)

Conclusion:________________________________________________________________________________
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EXPERIMENT NO.:11 DATE:

AIM: TEST WORKING OF BRIDGE RECTIFIER.

APPARATUS:
-Rectifier circuit model,
-Volt meter (0-50Volt, DC),
-Ammeter (0-1Amp, DC),
-Multi meter, connecting wires.

RECTIFICATION:
The process to convert AC voltage into DC voltage is known as rectification. The device which used to convert
AC into DC is known as rectifier. A P- N junction offers very low resistance when it is forward biased and offers
very high resistance when it is reverse biased. This unidirectional property of junction diode is used to convert
A.C. quantities into d.c. quantities.

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER:

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive
or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC
(direct current), and yields a higher mean output voltage. Two diodes and a center tapped transformer,
or four diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC source (including a transformer without center tap), are
needed. Single semiconductor diodes, double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four-diode
bridges, are manufactured as single components.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER: A FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER USING 4 DIODES.

In a bridge rectifier four diodes are used. The transformer need not have centre tapping in it Secondary
winding. In this case two diode conduct in series alternately during both the half cycle. In this case also the
 D.C. output voltage is,
E.d.c = 2Em/π

OBSERVATION TABLE:

FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FOUR DIODES-BRIDGES RECTIFIER:

Practically
Theoretical readings
Vpp Value of readings
Sr.
Vm=Vpp/2 load Vdc Idc
(X’mer o/p resistance Vdc=2Vm/π Idc=Vdc/RL (Volt) (Amp)
No.
volt.) RL (Ohms)

Conclusion:________________________________________________________________________________
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EXPERIMENT NO.:12 DATE:

AIM: MEASUREMENT OF VARIOUS ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES IN A CIRCUIT USING

DIGITAL MULTIMETER.

A digital multimeter or DMM is a test equipment used for resistance, voltage, current measurement, and other
electrical parameters as per requirement and displaying the results in the mathematical digits form on an LCD or
LED readout. It is a type of multimeter which functions digitally rather giving an analog output. Digital
multimeters are widely accepted worldwide as they have better accuracy levels and ranging from simple 3 ½ to 4
½ digit handheld DMM to very special system DMM.

A digital multimeter (DMM) is a multifunctional meter that displays its electrical quantitative values on an LCD
screen. A digital multimeter much like an analog meter, it is able to read voltage, current, and resistance. What
makes a digital multimeter differ from the analog meter is its ability to display measured electrical values
quickly without any computations. Because of its design, a processor can be built into the meter which allows
the user to take measurements of frequency, the inductance of a coil, capacitance of a capacitor, and a host of
other high functional electrical measurements. There two types of digital multimeters (DMM): scalable digital
multimeter and auto-ranging digital multimeter as shown in Figure. When working with the scalable digital
multimeter you need to have an idea of the value of voltage, current, or resistance that you are attempting to
measure.

Digital Multimeter Block Diagram:

The following figure represents the digital multimeter block diagram with all the functional blocks.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM.
Observation Table:

Sr. Reading of digital multimeter

Type of load
no
Voltage Current
1 100W lamp, AC
2 200W lamp, AC
3 CFL lamp, AC
4 Tube light
5 LED lamp

Applications of Digital Multimeter:

-AC/DC voltage measurement.

-AC/DC current measurement.
-Resistance & continuity measurement.
-To check diode.
-Measurement of capacitance.
-Measurement of frequency.
-To test batteries.
-A broken power cable can be determined.

Conclusion:________________________________________________________________________________
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EXPERIMENT NO.:13 DATE:

AIM: STUDY FRONT PANEL CONTROLS OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO).

FRONT VIEW OF CRO:-

INTRODUCTION:-
The oscilloscope cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube that creates and deflects an electron beam to form a
graphical image representing the electrical properties of a circuit. An oscilloscope is used to test electrical
devices by displaying a graph of the voltage between two points in a circuit over time. Similar CRTs are used in
radar systems, televisions, and computer monitors. This document explains to the beginning engineering or
physics student the structure and operating principle of the oscilloscope CRT. A glass tube contains and encloses
the oscilloscope CRT in a vacuum. An electron gun inside produces an electron beam that passes through two
sets of deflection plates before hitting the fluorescent screen to create an image. This device operates by creating
and accelerating a beam of electrons with an electric field. Another electric field between the deflection plates
directs the beam to the desired location of the display. Finally, the fluorescent screen converts the energy of the
electron beam into slowly emitted visible photons. Four main parts make up the oscilloscope CRT: bulb, electron
gun, deflection plates, and fluorescent screen.
INTERNAL CONSTRUCTION OF CRO:

DESCRIPTION OF PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTION:

ELECTRON GUN SYSTEM:

The electron gun creates the electron beam and adjusts the intensity and width of the beam moving to the screen.
It is located next to the base of the CRT and consists of five major parts: heater, cathode, control grid, focusing
anode, and accelerating anode. The heater, a rod of metal, is supplied an electric current and converts it to heat.
As the heater increases in temperature, the cathode heats up and its electrons are given enough thermal energy to
escape their molecular bonds.

DEFLECTION PLATES SYSTEM:

The deflection plates are simply pairs of oppositely charged metal plates. There are two sets of deflection
plates: vertical and horizontal in Figure. Each set of plates is parallel and located at the neck of the tube. The
vertical deflection plates lie horizontally but control the vertical position of the beam. The horizontal plates are
positioned at right angles to the vertical plates and control the horizontal position of the beam.
FLUORESCENT SCREEN SYSTEM:

The fluorescent screen is the display on the bulb. The most common material used on the display is phosphorous,
and it is painted on the inside of the bulb. Electrons emerging from the deflection plates strike the screen and the
phosphorous converts the energy in the electron beam into photons of visible light. This results in a spot of light
on the display, with brightness proportional to the intensity of the beam.

Conclusion:________________________________________________________________________________
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EXPERIMENT NO.:14 DATE:

AIM: MEASUREMENT OF AMPLITUDE AND FREQUENCY OF ELECTRICAL SIGNAL USING

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO).
APPARATUS:-
-C.R.O.,
-Function Generator,
- D.C Power Supply,
-Multi meter, C.R.O probe, connecting wires.

By using CRO we can measure various electrical quantities like:

-AC Voltage
-DC Voltage
-Frequency
-Resistance
-Amplitude
-Time period etc.
1) A.C. VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT:

PROCEDURE:

(A) FOR VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT

1) Set the knobs and switches on the oscilloscope to measure AC or DC.
2) Connect the leads of the oscilloscope to the function generator – red to red and
black toblack. Turn on the oscilloscope and the signal generator.
3) Adjust the frequency knob on the function generator until it is generating a sinusoidal
signalof 1200 Hz frequency and arbitrary amplitude.
4) Adjust the horizontal (X) and vertical (Y) position knobs on the oscilloscope until the
patternis centered on the screen of the CRT.
5) Change the setting of the VOLTS/DIV knob until the signal fills vertically as much of
thescreen as possible.
6) Change the setting of the TIME/DIV knob until you can fill up the screen with at least
oneor two full cycles are seen of the CRT.
7) Record the number of divisions and the VOLTS/DIV setting for the peak-to-peak
voltage. Also record the uncertainty in the number of divisions.
OBSERVATION TABLE FOR A.C. VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT:

Sr. Applied I/P AC Volt. No. of Volts/Div. Measured AC Error

(Function generator) vertical Scale volt. by CRO
No. Divisions(B) Vm= (B x C)

(A) (C) (D) (A – D)

2) D.C. VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT:

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR D.C. VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT:

Sr. Applied I/P D.C. Volt. by No. of vertical Volts/Div. Measured DC Volt.
Error
Power Supply Divisions Scale by C.R.O
(A – D)
No. Vdc= (B x C)
(A) (B)
(C) (D)

5
3) FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT:

PROCEDURE:

1) Connect CRO with function generator.

2) Switch "ON" the supply to the circuit, AF generator and CRO.
3) Adjust the frequency of AF generator to a multiple or sub-multiple or 50 Hz
4) Until steady pattern is obtained on the CRO screen.
5) Draw the pattern from the CRO screen.
6) Note down the number of loops touched by vertical and horizontal line tangent
7) to the pattern.
8) Calculate the unknown frequency and compare it with actual.
9) Repeat step (4) to (6) for another value of frequency from AF generator.

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT:

Measured Freq.
Sr. Applied I/P Freq. No. of horizontal Time/Div. by C.R.O Error
Total
by Function divisions on CRO
Time F=1/T Hz
No. Generator Scale
(D)
(C) T=(B x C)
(A) (B) (A – D)

1
2
3
4
5

Conclusion:________________________________________________________________________________
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The End