Portland Cement

Cement is a pulverized material that develops binding forces due to a reaction with
water. it is made by mixing substances containing CaCO3 with substances containing
SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and heating them to a clinker which is subsequently ground to
powder and mixed with 2-6 % gypsum.

The term hydraulic cements referred to cements that harden by reaction with water
and form a Manufacturing
water-resistant product.
of Portland CementThus, Portland cement is a hydraulic cement
Calcium
capable of setting, silicatesand
hardening areremains
the primary constituents
stable of
under water.
portland cement.

Raw
Raw material for material
P.C. for P.C. is&Calcium
is Calcium Silica & Silica
Calcium:
Calcium: Limestone, Limestone,
chalk, chalk, etc
etc (CaO+CO 2) (CaO+CO2)

Silica: Clays
Silica: Clays and shales (SiOand shales
2+Al (SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3+H2O)
2O3+Fe 2O3+H2O)

Process Flow Chart

Manufacturing of Portland Cement

1- Raw materials are crushed, screened & stockpiled.
2- Raw materials are mixed with definite proportions to obtain “raw mix”.They are
mixed either dry (dry mixing) or by water (wet mixing).
3- Prepared raw mix is fed into the rotary kiln.
4- As the materials pass through the kiln their temperature is raised up to 1300-1600
°C. The process of heating is named as “burning”. The output is known as “clinker”
which is 0.15-5 cm in diameter.
5- Clinker is cooled & stored.
6-Clinker is ground with gypsum (3-6%) to adjust setting time.
7- Packing & marketting.

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 Process Flow Chart

REACTIONS IN THE KILN

~100°C→ free water evaporates.
~150-350C°→ loosely bound water is lost from clay.
~350-650°C→decomposition of clay→SiO2&Al2O3
~600°C→decomposition of MgCO3→MgO&CO2 (evaporates)
~900°C→decomposition of CaCO3→CaO&CO2 (evaporates)
~1250-1280°C→liquid formation & start of compound formation.
~1280°C→clinkering begins.
~1400-1500°C→clinkering
~100°C→clinker leaves the kiln & falls into a cooler.

2
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF P.C.
Portland cement is composed of four major oxides (CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 ≥90%)
& some minor oxides. Minor refers to the quantity not importance.

Oxide Common Name Abbreviation Approx. Amount (%)

CaO Lime C 60-67

SiO2 Silica S 17-25
Al2O3 Alumina A 3-8
Fe2O3 Iron-oxide F 0.5-6
MgO Magnesia M 0.1-4
Na2O Soda N
0.2-1.3
K2O Potassa K
Ś
SO3 Sulfuric Anhydride 1-3

CaO→limestone
SiO2-Al2O3→Clay
Fe2O3→Impurity in Clays
SO3→from gypsum→not from the clinker
The amount of oxides in a P.C. Depends on the proportioning of the raw materials
and how well the burning is done in the kiln. The chemical composition is found by
chemical analysis.
A typical analysis of O.P.C.

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 C 63.6
S 20.7
A 6
F 2.4
Ś 2.1
M 2.6
N 0.1
K 0.9
Free C 1.4
Total 99.8

Insoluble residue=0.2
Loss on ignition=1.4

- CaO (C), SiO2 (S), Al2O3 (A) & Fe2O3 are the major oxides that interact in the kiln
& form the major compounds. The proportions of these oxides determine the
proportions of the compounds which affect the performance of the cement.
- SO3→comes largely from gypsum. P.C. alone sets quickly so some gypsum is
ground with clinker to retard the setting time. If too much gypsum is included it
leads to distruptive expansions of the hardened paste or concrete. ASTM C 150 →
SO3 ≤ 3% in O.P.C.
- MgO & free CaO
MgO+H2O→MH
C+H→CH this reaction leads to volume expansion & cause cracking.

ASTM C 150 → M<6%

free C < 3%
IQS not exceed 0.8% in soundness test

4
- Alkalies (Na2O & K2O) may cause some difficulties if the cement is used with
certain types of reactive aggregates in making concrete. The alkalies in the form of
alkaline hydroxides can react with the reactive silica of the aggregate & resulting in
volume expansion after hardening. This process may take years. Na2O & K2O ≤
0.6%

- Insoluble Residue I.R.: is that fraction of cement which is insoluble in HCl. It

comes mainly from the silica which has not reacted to form compounds during the
burning process in the kiln. All compounds of P.C. is soluble in HCl except the silica.
The amount of I.R., determined by chemical analysis, serves to indicate the
completeness of the reactions in the kiln. ASTM C 150 → I.R. ≤ 0.75%
- Loss on Ignition (L.O.I.): is the loss in weight of cement after being heated to
1000°C. It indicates the prehydration or carbonation due to prolonged or improper
storage of cement & clinker. If cement is exposed to air, water & CO2 are absorbed &
by heating the cement up to 1000°C loose these two substances. ASTM C 150 →
L.O.I. ≤ 3% for O.P.C.

COMPOUND COMPOSITION OF P.C. (OR CLINKER)

Oxides interact with each other in the kiln to form more complex products
(compounds). Basically, the major compounds of P.C. can be listed as:

Name Chemical Formula Abbreviations

Tri Calcium Silicate 3CaO.SiO2 C 3S

Di Calcium Silicate 2CaO.SiO2 C 2S

Tri Calcium Aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 C 3A

Tetra Calcium Alumino

4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF
Ferrite

5
The degree to which the potential reactions can proceed to “equilibrium” depends on:
- Fineness of raw materials & their intermixing.
- The temperature & time that mix is held in the critical zone of the kiln.
- The grade of cooling of clinker may also be effective on the internal structure of
major compounds.
- There are also some minor compounds which constitute few %, so they are usually
negligible. Moreover, portland cement compounds are rarely pure.
For example in C3S, MgO & Al2O3 replaces CaO randomly.
C3S→ALITE & C2S→BELITE
Ferrite Phase: C4AF is not a true compound. The ferrite phase ranges from C2AF to
C6AF. *C4AF represents an average.

Methods of Determining Compound Composition

Each grain of cement consists of an intimate mixture of these compounds.
They can be determined by:

1- Microscopy
2- X-Ray Diffraction
But due to the variabilities involved the compound composition is usually calculated
using the oxide proportions.
3- Calculations (Bouge’s Equations)

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Hydration of cement
Hydration is a Chemical reactions between cement and water. As water comes into
contact with cement particles, hydration reactions immediately starts at the surface of
the particles. Although simple hydrates such as C-H are formed, process of hydration
is a complex one and results in reorganisation of the constituents of original
compounds to form new hydrated compounds. At any stage of hydration the hardened
cement paste (hcp) consists of:
- Hydrates of various compounds referred to collectively as GEL.
- Crystals of calcium hydroxide (CH).
- Some minor compound hydrates.
- Unhydrated cement
The residual of water filled spaces – pores.
As the hydration proceeds the deposits of hydrated products on the original cement
grains makes the diffusion of water to unhydrated nucleus more and more difficult.
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Thus, the rate of hydration decreases with time and as a result hydration may take
several years.

Major compounds start to produce:

- Calcium-silicate-hydrate gels
- Calcium hydroxide
- Calcium-alumino-sulfohydrates
At the beginning of mixing, the paste has a structure which consists of cement
particles with water-filled space between them. As hydration proceeds, the gels are
formed & they occupy some of this space.

C2S & C3S: 70-80% of cement is composed of these two compounds and most of the
strength giving properties of cement is controlled by these compounds.

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Upon hydration both calcium-silicates result in the same products.
2C3S+6H → C3S2H3 + 3CH
2C2S+4H → C3S2H3 + CH
Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate (C-S-H gel) is similar to a mineral called
“TOBERMORITE”. As a result it is named as “TOBERMORITE GEL”

Upon hydration C3S & C2S, CH also forms which becomes an integral part of
hydration products. CH does not contribute very much to the strength of portland
cement.

C3S having a faster rate of reaction accompanied by greater heat generation

developes early strength of the paste. On the other hand, C2S hydrates & hardens
slowly so results in less heat generation & developes most of the ultimate strength.
Higher C3S→higher early strength-higher heat generation (roads, cold environments)
Higher C2S→lower early strength-lower heat generation (dams)

C3A: is characteristically fast reacting with water and may lead to a rapid stiffening
of the paste with a large amount of the heat generation (Flash-Set)-(Quick-Set). In
order to prevent this rapid reaction gypsum is added to the clinker. Gypsum,
C3A&water react to form relatively insoluble Calcium-Sulfo-Aluminates.

C3A+CŚH2+10H→C4AŚH12 (calcium- alumino-monosulfohydrate)

C3A+3CŚH2+26H→C6AŚ3H32 (calcium-alumino-trisulfohydrate “ettringite”)

- When there is enough gypsum “ettringite” forms with great expansion

If there is no gypsum→flash-set will occur
- more gypsum leads to increase the formation of ettringite which will cause
cracking due to expansion.
Also Calcium-Sulfo Aluminates are prone (less resistant) to sulfate attack and does
not contribute much for strength. The cement to be used in making concretes that are

9
going to be exposed to soils or waters that contain sulfates should not contain more
than 5% C3A.

C4AF: The hydration of ferrite phase is not well understand. Ferrite phase has lesser
role in development of strength. The hydration products are similar to C3A. Alumina
& iron oxide occur interchangebly in the hydration products.
C4AŚH12 or C4FŚH12
C6AŚ3H32 or C6FŚ3H32

Heat of hydration
- Hydration process of cement is accompanied by heat generation.
As concrete is a fair insulator, the generated heat in mass concrete may result in
expansion and cracking. This could be overcome by using suitable cement type.
- It could also be advantages for cold weather concreting.
- The heat of hydration of OPC is on the order of 85-100 cal/gr. About 50% of this
heat is liberated within 1-3 days & 75% within 7 days.
- By limiting C3S and C3A content heat of hydration can be reduced.
Hydration of Portland Cement

Heat of Hydration(cal/gr)=120*(%C3S)+62*(%C2S)+207*(%C3A)+100*(C4AF)

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 Heat of
Hydration
(cal/gr)

C 3S 120

C 2S 62

C 3A 207

C4AF 100

P.C.+water→the
compounds in the
cement undergo chemical reactions with the water independently, and different
products result from these reactions.

C 3S C 2S C 3A C4AF

Rate of Reaction Moderate Slow Fast Moderate

Heat Liberation High Low Very High Moderate

Early Cementitious Value Good Poor Good Poor

Ultimate Cementitious Value Good Good Poor Poor

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 Physical properties of cement

1- Fineness
As hydration takes place at the surface of the cement particles, it is the surface area of
cement particles which provide the material available for hydration. Fineness of
cement is important; it affects:
- rate of hydration: The rate of hydration is controlled by fineness of cement. For a
rapid rate of hydration a higher fineness is necessary. the rate of hydration effect the
setting time and hardening, thus, the fineness of cement affect the rate of setting and
hardening (gain of strength). The particle size fraction below 3 microns has been
found to have the predominant effect on the strength at one day while 3-25 micron
fraction has a major influence on the 28 days strength. Increase in fineness of cement
is also found to increase the drying shrinkage of concrete.

- durability (Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)): Finer cements are very sensitive to alkali-
aggregate reaction.
- rate of carbonation during storage: Finer cements deteriorate faster upon exposure
to atmosphere.
- cost: Higher fineness requires higher grinding
- Amount of gypsum addition: Finer cements require more gypsum for proper
hydration.
- bleeding: Finer cements require more water.

Fineness of cement is tested in two ways :

(a) By sieving. Sieve 90 microns is used for this test
(b) By determination of specific surface (total surface area of all the particles in one
gram of cement) by air-permeability apparatus. Expressed as cm2/gm or m2/kg.
Generally Blaine Air permeability apparatus is used. For example, in the Blaine air
permeability method a known volume of air is passed through cement. The time is
recorded and the specific surface is calculated by a formula. For OPC specific surface
is 2600-3000 cm2/gr.
12
􏰀
􏰀
 Sieving

Blaine Apparatus

2- Setting
Setting refers to a change from liquid state to solid state. Although, during setting,
cement paste gain some strength, setting is different from hardening. The water
content has a marked effect on the time of setting. In acceptance tests for cement, the
water content is regulated by bringing the paste to a standard condition of wetness.
This is called “normal consistency”. Normal consistency of O.P.C. Ranges from
20-30% by weight of cement.

Vicat apparatus is used to determine normal consistency. Normal consistency is that

condition for which the penetration of a standard weighed plunger into the paste is
10mm in 30sec. By trial and error determine the w/c ratio.

13
In practice, the terms initial set and final set are used to describe arbitrary chosen
time of setting. Initial set indicates the beginning of a noticeable stiffening and final
set may be regarded as the start of hardening (or complete loss of plasticity).

Setting can be obtained by using the vicat apparatus.

Initial setting time>45min

ASTM C150
Final setting time<375min

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Factors Affecting Setting Time

-Temperature and Humidity

-Amount of Water
-Chemical Composition of Cement
-Fineness of Cement (finer cement, faster setting)

Flash-set
-Abnormal Settings
False-set

Flash-Set: is the immediate stiffening of cement paste in a few minutes after mixing
with water. It is accompanied by large amount of heat generation upon reaction of
C3A with water. Gypsum is placed in cement to prevent flash-set. The rigidity can not
be overcome and plasticity may not be regained without addition of water.
The amount of gypsum must be such that it will be used up to almost hardening.
Because expansion caused by ettringite can be distributed to the paste before
hardening. More gypsum will cause undesirable expansion after hardening.

False-Set: is a rapid development of rigidity of cement paste without generation of

much heat. This rigidity can be overcome and plasticity can be regained by further
mixing without addition of water. In this way cement paste restores its plasticity and
sets in a normal manner without any loss of strength.

Probable Causes of False-Set:

When gypsum is grounded by too hot of a clinker, gypsum may be dehydrated into
hemihydrate (CaSO4.1/2H2O) or anhydrate (CaSO4). These materials when react with
water gypsum is formed, which results in stiffening of the paste.

15
Alkali oxides in cement may carbonate during storage. Upon mixing such a cement
with water, these alkali carbonates will react with Ca(OH)2 (CH-Calcium Hydroxide)
liberated by hydrolysis of C3S resulting in CaCO3. CaCO3 precipates in the mix &
results in false-set.

3- Soundness of cement
Soundness is defined as the volume stability of cement paste. The cement paste
should not undergo large changes in volume after it has set. Free CaO and MgO may
result in unsound cement. Upon hydration C and M will form CH and MH with
volume increase, thus, cracking.
Since unsoundness is not apparent until several months or years, it is necessary to
provide an accelerated method for its determination.

Lechatelier Method: Only free CaO can be determined.

Autoclave Method: Both free CaO and MgO can be determined.

4- Strength of cement
Strength tests are not carried out on neat cement pastes, because it is very difficult to
form these pastes due to cohesive property of cement.
Strength tests are carried out on cement mortar prepared by standard gradation (1 part
cement+3 parts sand+1/2 part water)
a- Direct Tension (Tensile Strength):
-σt=P/1in2
-Difficult test procedure

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b- Flexural Strength (tensile strength in bending):

σf=(M*C)/I
M:maximum moment
I:moment of inertia
C:distance to bottom fiber from C.G.

c- Compression Test:
i) Cubic Sample ii)Flexural Sample after it is broken

4cm 4cm

P
4cm

σc=P/A σc=P/A
A=4x4

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5- Porosity
At any stage of hydration, the hardened cement paste consists of:
a. Hydration products (calcium silicates hydrate, tricalcium
aluminates hydrate and calcium ferrite) , known as gel.

b. Ca(OH)2 produced from the hydration of the silicates.

c. Some minor components.
d. Unhydrated cement.

e. Voids (pores):
i- Capillary pores: the capillary pores at any stage of hydration
represent that part of the gross volume which has not been filled by the
products of hydration. The volume of the capillary system is reduced
with the progress of hydration.
Thus the capillary porosity of the paste depends on:
- The water/cement ratio of the mix.
- The degree of hydration, which influence by the type of cement.

ii- Gel pores: The gel pores are the pores in the spaces between the gel
particles. The gel pores are much smaller than the capillary pores. It
could be contain large amount of evaporable water.

The gross volume available for all these products of hydration consists of the
sum of the absolute volume of the dry cement and volume of mix water
(assuming that there is no loss of water due to bleeding or evaporating).

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In the consequence of hydration, the water takes one of three forms:
1. Free water: present in the capillary pores – with weak firmness, and
evaporate quickly leaving the paste.
2. Chemically combined water: form a definite part of the hydrated
compounds. In fully hydrated cement represents about 23% of the mass of dry
cement
3. Gel water: which can be found in:
a) Gel pores
(between the layers of the hydration products)
b) Part of it is held by the surface force of the gel particles. It is known as the
adsorbed water. It has established that the gel water is about 28% of the
volume of the cement gel.

A convenient division of water in the hydrated cement into two categories:

- Evaporable water – includes water in the capillary pores and some

water in the gel pores.
- Non-evaporable water – includes nearly all chemically combined water
and also some water not held by chemical bonds. The amount of non-
evaporable water increases as hydration proceeds.

In well-hydrated cement, the non-evaporable water is about 18 per cent by

mass of the dry material; this proportion rises to about 23 per cent in fully
hydrated cement.

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The solid products of hydration occupy a volume which is less than the sum of
absolute volume of the original dry cement (which has hydrated) and of the
combined water; hence, there is a residual space within the gross volume of the
paste. For fully hydrated cement, with no excess water above that required for
hydration, this residual space represents about 18.5 % of the original volume of
dry cement. The residual space takes the form of voids or capillary pores,
which can be empty or full of water, depending on the quantity of the original
mix water and depending also on whether additional water could ingress
during hydration. If the mix contained more water than necessary for full
hydration, the pores will be full of water.

20
Thus,
Vp = V of original cement which has hydrated + V of the combined water –V
of the capillary pores
The mass of combined water (non-evaporable) = 0.23 Ch

Where:
C = the mass of the dry cement (which has hydrated)
h= the degree of hydration

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For fully hydrated cement (specific gravity of cement =3.15)
Vec = 0.185 Vc

Vc = C / 3.15

For a specific degree of hydration (h)

V of the combined water –V of the capillary pores =

Thus,

The volume of the gel water (Vgw) is 28% of the volume of the cement gel (Vp
+ Vgw)

Vgw = 0.28 (0.488Ch + Vgw)

Volume of cement gel (Vg) = (0.488+0.190) Ch

Vg = 0.68 Ch

The volume of the unhydrated cement (Vuc) = V of original dry cement (Vc) –
hydrated cement (Vch)
Vuc = Vc (1- h)

22
The volume of water occupied by the capillary pores (Vcw) can be derived as
follows:

Vuc!=!Vc!(15!h)!

The volume of water occupied by the capillary pores (Vcw) ca

For 100% hydration with no excess of water Vcw = 0

The amount of water required for full hydration Vw = 0.419 C
For 100% hydration with no excess of water Vcw = 0
Thus, W/C ratio for full hydration = 0.419 ≈ 0.42
The amount of water required for full hydration Vw = 0.419
So W/C ratio for full hydration = 0.419 ≈ 0.42

Example – 1 Example – 1
Assume we have 200 gram of cement within a closed tube, so
Assume we have 200 gram of cement within movement
a closed occur
tube,and
so 100%
that there is no
hydration of cement will achieved
the hydration products.
water movement occur and 100% hydration of cement will achieved.
Solution:
Volume of solid hydration products (Vp) = 0.488 Ch = 0.488x
Calculate the volumes of the hydration products.
Volume of dry cement which has hydrated = 200/3.15 = 63.5
Solution: W/C to produce 100% hydration = 0.42, so , W= 200x 0.42=8
or
Volume of dry cement which has hydrated = 200/3.15 = 63.5 ml.
Mass of chemically combined water (Non evaporable water)=
Volume of combined water= 46 ml (density of water=1gm/ml
W/C to produce 100% hydration = 0.42, so , W= 200xof0.42=84gm
Volume gel water (Vgw=
) =84ml
0.19 Ch = 0.19 x 200 x1= 38ml.
Total water= chemically combined water + Gel water
Volume of solid hydration products (Vp) = 0.488 Chwater=
Total = 0.488x
46+38=200x1=97.6
84 ml. ml.
Volume of gel water (Vgw) = 0.19 Ch = 0.19 x Total volume
200 x1= of hydrated cement= Vp + Vgw = 97.6+ 38 = 135
38ml.
Volume of empty pores (Vec) = 0.059 Ch = 11.8
or we can determine the volume of water as follows:
Mass of chemically combined water (Non evaporable 11.8 Cap.%p.
84 Water 38 Gel$W.
water)=0.23×200 = 46 gm. ! !
63.5 !Dry$
Volume of combined water= 46 ml (density of water=1gm/ cement 97.6 Solid&p.

ml).
Total water= chemically combined water + Gel water !!!!0%# !!100%
hydration hydration
Total water= 46+38= 84 ml.
Total volume of hydrated cement= Vp + Vgw != 97.6+ 38 = 12!

135.6 ml.
Volume of empty pores (Vec) = 0.059 Ch = 11.8
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Example – 2
Calculate the volumes of hydration products of 100 gm cement with 30 gm of
water.
Solution:
W/C= 0.3 < 0.42
The amount of water is not enough to hydrate all cement
Lets assume that the amount of cement which has hydrated =X gm.
Total water = 0.42X
Example – 2
Calculate the volumes of hydration products of 100 gm cement with 30 gm of water.
X= 30/0.42 = 71.43 gm
Solution:
Volume of W/C=
cement
0.3 < that
0.42 has hydrated = 71.43/3.15 = 22.68 ml
The amount of water is not enough to hydrate all cement
Volume of Lets
unhydrated cement
assume that the amount of=cement
(100/3.15)- 22.68=
which has hydrated =X 9.1
gm. ml
Total water = 0.42X
X= 30/0.42 = 71.43 gm
Volume of solid hydration products= 0.488X = 34.86 ≈
Volume of cement that has hydrated = 71.43/3.15 = 22.68 ml
35 ml
Volume of unhydrated cement = (100/3.15)- 22.68= 9.1 ml
Volume of gel water
Volume of solid(V gw) = products=
hydration 0.19 Ch = 0.19
0.488X X≈=35 13.5
= 34.86 ml
Volume of gel water (Vgw) = 0.19 Ch = 0.19 X = 13.5
Volume of emptyofpores
Volume (Vec(V)ec)== 0.059
empty pores 0.059 X =X4.2=ml4.2 ml

4.2 Cap.!p!
Water Unhydrated*
30 9.1 cem.

13.5 Gel$W.

31.9
!!Dry$
cement 35 Solid&p.

H.W
Q1) Assume we have 100 gram of cement within a closed tube, so that there is
no water movement occur. Calculate the volume of the hydration products
with 1-100% hydration of cement will be achieved. 2- 60% hydration of
cement.
! 13!
Q2) Calculate the volume of the hydration products for 150 gm of cement with
0.5 w/c ratio, assume there is no external water can penetrate.

24
25
Types of Portland Cement
Cements of different chemical composition and physical characteristics may
exhibit different properties when hydrated. It should thus be possible to select
mixtures of raw materials for the production of cements with various
properties. In fact several cement types are available and most of them have
been developed to ensure durability and strength properties to concrete. It
should also be mentioned that obtaining some special properties of cement may
lead to undesirable properties in another respect. For this reason a balance of
requirements may be necessary and economic aspects should be considered.

Standard Types: these cements comply with the definition of P.C., and are
produced by adjusting the proportions of four major compounds.
Special Types: these do not necessarily comply with the definition of P.C. and
are produced by using additional raw materials.

Standard Cement:
Type I: Ordinary Portland Cement
It has normal constituents. Suitable for general concrete construction when
special properties are not required.

Type IV: Low Heat P.C.

Generates less heat during hydration and therefore gain of strength is
slower but ultimate strength is not effected. In standards a minimum value
of C3S and C3A and a maximum value for C2S are placed. The fineness
must be not less than 320 m2/kg to ensure a sufficient rate of gain of
strength. It is used in mass-concrete and hot-weather concreting.

26
Type II: Modified Portland Cement
In some applications, a very low early strength maybe a disadvantage. for this
reason this type of cement was produced. This cement has a higher rate of heat
development than type IV cement and the rate of gain of strength is similar to
that of type I cement. The main difference between Type I and II is the moderate
sulfate resistance of Type II cement due to relatively low C3A content (≤%8).
Since C3A is limited, rate of reactions is slower and as a result heat of hydration
at early ages is less. It is suitable for small scale mass concrete like retaining
walls.

Type III: High Early Strength P.C. (or Rapid - Hardening)

Strength development is rapid which means higher early strength than
Type I (3 days f’c equal to 7 days f’c of Type I). For use when high early
strength is desired ( when formwork need to be removed and re-used early
or sufficient strength for further construction is required quickly) . Do not
be used in mass concrete construction or large structural sections (higher
rate of heat development during hydration) to be used when construction
at low temperature (safeguard against early frost damage). Its early
strength is due to higher C3S and C3A content and / or higher fineness
cement.

Type V: Sulfate Resistant P.C.

Used in construction where concrete will be subjected to external sulfate
attack – chemical plants, marine and harbor structures. During hydration
C3A reacts with gypsum and water to form ettringite. In hardened cement
paste calcium-alumino-hydrate can react with calcium and alumino
sulfates, from external sources, to form ettringite which causes expansion
and cracking. C-H and sulfates can react and form gypsum which again
causes expansion and cracking. In Type V C3A is limited to 5%.

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Special types of cement
Portland Pozzolan Cement (P.P.C.)
This type of cement is produced by inter-grinding or blending P.C. clinker
with Pozzolan and Gypsum. Pozzolan is a finely divided silicious or
silicious and aluminous material which, in the presence of water, will
combine with lime (liberated by hydrating portland cement) to produce a
cementitious material with excellent structural properties. P.P.C. Produces
less heat of hydration and offers higher sulfate resistance so it can be used
in marine structures and mass concrete. However, most pozzolans do not
contribute to strength at early ages. The early strength of PPC is less.

Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement (P.B.F.S.C.) Type IS

produced by inter-grinding Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) with P.C. Clinker and
Gypsum. This cement is less reactive (rate of gain of strength and early strength
is less but ultimate strength is same). It has high resistance to sulfate and suitable
to use in mass concrete construction but it is unsuitable for cold weather
concreting.

Both P.P.C. and P.B.F.S.C. Are called blended cements. Their heat of hydration
and strength development are low in early days. Because upon adding water C3S
compounds start to produce C-S-H gels and CH. The Ch and the pozzolanic
material react together to produce new C-S-H gels. That’s why the early strength
is low but the ultimate strength is the same when compared to O.P.C.

White Portland Cement W.P.C.

Is made from materials containing a little iron oxide and manganese oxide
(Fe2O3 + MnO ≤ 0.8%). To avoid contamination by coal ash, oil is used as
fuel during the manufacture of this type of cement. To avoid
contamination by iron during grinding, instead of steel balls nickel-
molybdenum alloys are used. It is used for architectural purpose.

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 High Alumina Cement (HAC).
The raw materials for H.A.C. is limestone and Bauxite (Al2O3 & Fe2O3)
These raw materials are inter-ground and introduced in the kiln clinkered
at 1600°C. Then the obtained material is ground to a fineness of
2500-3000 cm2/gr. The oxide composition is quite different
Al2O3 → 40-45%
CaO → 35-42%
Fe2O3 → 5-15%
SiO2 → 4-10%Major compounds are CA and C2S
It is basically different from O.P.C. and the concrete made from this cement has
very different properties. It has high sulfate resistance due to absence of CH in
the product of hydration. Very high early strength. About 80% of ultimate
strength is obtained within 24 hours. But the strength is adversely affected by
temperature. The setting time is not as rapid as gain of strength. Initial setting
time is 4 hrs and final setting time is 5 hrs.

Expansive Cement
Expansive cement is a cement containing portland cement, expanding agent and
stabiliser. This type of cement increase in volume after mixing with water at
early hydrating period. The expanding agent is the calcium sulfate and C3A3. In
the presence of water these compounds react to form ettringite leads the cement
to expand. The stabiliser, which is blast- furnace slag, slowly takes up the excess
calcium sulfate and bring expansion to an end. Expansive cement concrete used
to minimise cracking caused by drying shrinkage in concrete slabs, pavements,
and structures. The produced concrete is termed shrinkage-compensating
concrete. This type of cement is used to induce tensile stress in reinforcement. It
should be noted that the expansive cement does not prevent the development of
shrinkage, the restrained early expansion balances approximately the subsequent
normal shrinkage. Usually, a small residual expansion is aimed to ensure that
some residual compressive stress in concrete is retained so that shrinkage
cracking will be prevented.
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