Bull. Fac. ScL, Univ. Ryukyus, No.

84 : 45 - 59 (2007) 45

Impact of sea level rise on coastal zone of Vietnam

Pham Thi Thuy Hanh* and Masahide Furukawa**

* Graduate School of Engineering and Science, University of the Ryukyus

** Department of Physics and Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of the Ryukyus

Abstract

The coastline of Vietnam is more than 3,260 km and stretches across from north to

south. Here occur a series of interactive processes between the land and the sea, between the

dynamic force of rivers and the sea, between the natural and human processes, etc. Recently,

sea level rise due to climate change is serious global threat. Some researches being

undertaken in Vietnam indicates that significant impacts due to sea level rise may already

be occurring. These impacts have resulted increasing unpredictability and severity of coastal

problems such as landloss, increasing flooding of low lying coastal areas, accelerated erosion

along the coasts, watersalt intrusion, degradation coastal ecosystem and impact directly

people living coastal region.

Introduction

Vietnam located on the Indochinese peninsula of South - East Asia. Mainland

stretches from 08° 10' to 23°24' north latitude and widens from 102°09' to 109n30' east
longitude. Its mainland frontier amount to 4,510 km, of which 1,306 km are adjacent to

China in the north, 2,067 km to Laos in the west and 1,137 km to Cambodia in the west-

south (Figure 1).

Vietnam embraces around 3,260 km of coastline from Mong Cai in the north to Ha

Tien in the south (excluding the coastline of islands) with two fertile deltas of Red river

and Mekong river discharge into the sea. It's bordered by the Gulf of Tonkin and the
South China Sea to the east and the Gulf of ThaiLan to the sputh. Offshore Vietnam's

continental shelf, there are thousands of islands and islets lying scattered from the

northern to southern end. Among them, the Truong Sa (Spratly) and Hoang Sa (Paracel)
are the largest archipelagos (Figure 2).
Vietnam covers relatively complicated terrain: countless mountains, criss-crossed
rivers, stretching and meandering coastline, percentage relation between mountain and

plains in mainland area indifferent among regions. The country is divided into 8

Received: July 10, 2007

46 Pham Thi Thuy Hanli and Masahide Furukawa

Figura I. Map ol" Vietnam in the region

Figure 2. Vietnamese coastal zone from space

 Impact of sea level rise on coastal zone of Vietnam 47

regionswith total 64 provinces and centrally-run cities. The coastal zone is divided into 3
regions: north, central and south with 28 coastal provinces. This area was settled by
nearly a haft of nation's population.

Lying tropical monsoon climate regime, Vietnam is influenced by natural calamities as

typhoon, monsoons, storm surge, sea level rise and El-Nino phenomena. Scientific research
currently being undertaken in Vietnam indicates that significant impacts due to sea level

rise may already be occurring. Even a limited rise in sea level over coming decades could
seriously affect human and nation, especially influence direct on people living near coastal
area. According to Tuong (2001) recorded increments in sea level varying from 1.75 to
2.56 mm/ year at 4 Vietnamese stations (Hon Dau, Da Nang, Qui Nhon, Vung Tau). The
high value is observed in the north and in the south part of the country. It could be said

that sea level rise in Vietnam is in comparision with the sea level rise in the region and
in the world. In East Asia, Vietnam is a nation that would suffer the heaviest impacts by

sea level rise and in Vietnam the Mekong river and Red river delta would be impact at
the highest level. A rise in sea level would inundate wetlands and lowlands, erode

shorelines, exacerbate coastal flooding, increase the salinity of estuaries and aquifers and
otherwise impair water quality and impact coastal ecosystem.

Sea level measurement and sea level rise in Vietnam

1. The character of tide in Vietnamese coastline

According to Le Ba Thao (1998), there are a various tidal system and always changes

in South China Sea, but almost coastal zones are influences by diurnal tide, some other

places are influences by semidiurnal tide and mix (Table 1).

The tide range reaches about 4.0 m in the north (Red River Delta) and decreases to

0.5 m in the central area, then increases up to 3.5 m in the south (Mekong River Delta).

The difference in the tide range and character are caused by different geographical

conditions. The coastal current varies in velocity and direction according to season and

Table 1: Character of tide on Vietnamese coast from north to south

Rising and falling Maximum

Segment of beach Type of tide
times per day high water

From Mong Cai to Thanh Hoa Typical diurnal tide 1 3-4m

From Thanh Hoa to Dong Hoi Irregular diurnal tide 1-2 1.2-2.5m

From Dong Hoi to Quy Nhon Irregular semiduirnal tide - 0.5-1.2m

Thuan An mouth Typical semiduirnal tide 2 0.5m

From Quy Nhon to Vung Tau Irregular diurnal tide 2 1.2-2.0m

From Vung Tau to Ca Mau Irregular semidiurnal tide - 1.2-2.5m

From Ca Mau to Ha Tien Irregular diurnal tide - 2.0-3.5m

48 Pham Thi Thuv Hanh and Masahide Furukawa

location. Three areas of upvvelling exist in the Vietnamese coastal zone. The largest is

along the central coast, and the second largest is offshore of the Mekong deltas. In the

Gulf of Tonkin, the site of the upwelling changes according to the season, it lies near the

south west gulf coast during the south west monsoon season and in the center of gulf

during the north east monsoon (Ministry of Fishery, 1996).

2. Sea level measurement

When analyzing sea level change at specific coastal locations two components must be

considered. First, there is the global component, arising from thermal expansion of ocean

water (the steric contribution) and the transfer of continental water reservoirs to the

ocean (the eustatic contribution). The second is the local component reflecting vertical

land movement or subsidence due to tectonics, isostatic adjustments and sediment

compactions. The sum of the global and local components is referred to as relative sea

level rise and reflects the rate of sea level change at a specific location (Cazenave and

Nerem, 2004).

Sea level change is difficult to measure. Relative sea level change have been derived

mainly from tide gauge data. In Vietnam, the marine hydrometeorological observing has

been recorded at 21 stations (Figure 3). A network of tide gauge has been established
along the coast and in islands. The observation parameters arc main meteorological (wind,

Figure 3. Schema of marine hydrometeorological station network

 Impact of sea level rise on coastal none of Vietnam

pressure, air temperature, humidity-) and oceanographie (wave, sea level, salinity, water
temperature-**). All tide data are transmitted via Inmarsat - C System to the Marine
Hydrometeorological Center (MHO in llaNoi. The data will he analyzed, processed by

ORKAX (European) & TIDE (Canada) software and stored there and available using.

Among 21 stations there are 7 tide gauges recording sea level every one hour (Table 2).
Almost others are observed four times per day at 01; 07; 13; and 19 o'clock local time.

In Vietnam, Global Position System (GPS) technology is not used for network station

but used for sea maping monitoring. There are 2 GPS near the tide gauge. One located at

near Hon Dau station (in the north) and the other one located near VungTau station (in

the south).

Table 2: Location of 7 tide gauges recording sea level every one hour

Location
No Name of station Established Remarks
Lat. (N) Long m
1 lion Dau 20° 40 106° 48' 1956
2 Hon Ngu 18* 48 I0oc 46' I9(;i

3 Da Nang 16° 06 L08° 13' 1963

i Quy Nhon 13° 46 1093 13' 1963 Gloss station
5 Vung Tau 10° 20 107° 04' 1918
6 Phu Quoc 10° 37 106" 35' 1976

7 DK1-7 8* 01 110° 37' 1995 Platform station

3. Sea level rise results

Relative sea level rise in Vietnam is calculated from tide-gauge data collected by the

Marine Hydrometeorological Centre at the 4 chief stations (Hon Dau, Da Nang, Qui Nhon

va Vung Tau). The figure 4 illustrated sea level varying for the period 1960 - 2000 at Hon

,\Un Modmt: Mas

Figure 4. The varying of maximum, moderate and minimum water level following month (at Hon Dau station).
50 Pham Thi Thuy Hanh and Masahide Furukawa

Dau station that is longest station and clear typical data of sea level rise. A sea level rise
of 1.9 mm a year has been observed in this period. The station at Vung Tau in south

Vietnam shows a different trend. This maybe an unreliable result as the siting of this
station has changed, although Da Nang station in Centre Vietnam also shows a different

trend from Hon Dau. Up to now scientific researches in Vietnam have been axamined for

evidence of sea level rise. According Tuong (2001) recorded increments in sea level varying

from 1.75 to 2.56 mm/year at 4 chief stations. This is in broad agreement with the

observed rise in global mean sea level (Table 3).

Table 3: Observed rate of sea level rise and estimate contributions from different sources

Rate of sea level rise (mm per year)

Source of sea level rise
1961-2003 1993-2003

Thermal expansion 0.42 ± 0.12 1.6 ± 0.5

Glaciers and ice caps 0.50 ± 0.18 0.77 ± 0.22

Greenland ice sheet 0.05 ± 0.12 0.21 ± 0.07

Antarctic ice sheet 0.14 ± 0.41 0.21 ± 0.35

Sum of individual climate

1.1 ± 0.5 2.8 ± 0.7
contributions to sea level rise

Observed total sea level rise 1.8 ± 0.5" 3.1 ± 0.7*

Difference
(Observed minus sum of estimated 0.7 ± 0.7 0.3 ± 1.0
climate contributions)

(' Data prior to 1993 are from tide gauges and after 1993 are from satellite altimetry.
Sources: IPCC WG1 Fourth Assessment Report, 2007).

Some studies a meteorological events as typhoon, monsoon occurred in very short time

- several hours or some days during the last some decades. It could not impact on the

change of mean sea level (Table 4).

Table 4: Impact of Typhoon on mean sea level (MSL) Ah max cm

Stations Daily MSL Monthly MSL Yearly MSL 20 year MSL

Hon Dau 8 1 0.2 0.01

Da Nang 7 1 0.3 0.015

Qui Nhon 4 1 0.3 0.015

Vung Tau 20 1 0.5 0.025

According Tuong (2001), analysing sea level change during the years of El-Nino
U965-1969;1972;1976; 1982; 1983; 1987), it was found out that the yearly mean sea level
(MSL) a little decrease in comparison with MSL in previous running year. The value of
the decrease is not preceed 10 cm. This confirms that the El-Nino phenomena show the
rate of SLR (Table 5).
 Impact of sea level rise on coastal zone of Vietnam 51

Sea level in Vietnam has increased 5 cm within the past 30 years. Sea level is expected to
rise up to 9 cm in 2010; 33 cm in 2050; 45 cm in 2070; and 1 meter in 2100 (Ninh, 2007).

Table 5: Impact of El-Nino phenomena on yearly mean sea level change Ah cm

El-Nino Ah (cm)
Hon Dau Vung Tau
year
Da Nang Qui Nhon

1957 - 2.0

1968 - 2.0

1969 - 5.0

1972 - 2.0

1976 - 5.0 - 6.0

1982 - 4.0 -10.0 - 4.0 - 3.0

1987 - 10.0 - 4.0 - 3.0 - 1.0

Sea level rise impacts

Like other developing countries, Vietnam is heavily dependent on natural resources

and any change in the prevailing environmental condition is likely to have serious

consequences (Table 6).

It will exacerbate all these ongoing problems when Global warming and especially sea
level rise are growing rapidly. In Vietnam, there are a number of causes for sea level rise

such as the north-east monsoon, increased riverflow, local heavy rains, alluvium

Table 6: Assessment of disasters severity in different geographic areas

Geographic Areas and Economic Zones

Natural
Red North South North Mekong Coastal
disasters North
River central central east River Economic
east
Delta coast coast south Delta zone

Storm

Flood

Flashflood

Whirl-wind

Saline
intrusion

Inundation

Landslide

Storm
surge

Notes: The table shows the assessment of disaster severity in each zone.
Very severe ( + + + +) Severe ( + + +) Medium ( + +) Light ( + ) None
52 Pham Thi Thuy Hanh and Masahide Furukawa

accumulation, human activities and the greenhouse effect. Some are active in the present-

day while others threaten the future.

It is estimated that the sea level will rise at a rate between 0.3 and 1.0 m over the
next 100 years. For the analysis aim rise was chosen as a base for preliminary
assessment of impacts. Coastal areas at or below 1 m of elevation constitute much of

Vietnam's coastline. Sea level rise presents a serious threat to these coastal areas in

particular to the two low-lying deltaic areas of the north and south. The serious physical
impacts of sea level rise on the coastal zone are:

- Loss of wetland and other low land and population displacement;

- Increased vulnerability to flooding, including storm events;

- Accelerated erosion along the coasts and in river mouths;

- Increased salinity of estuaries, saltwater intrusion into freshwater, aquifers and

degradation of water quality.

1. Land loss

Coastal marshes and swamps are particularly vulnerable to rising sea level. As the sea

rises, the outer boundary of these wetlands will erode, and new wetlands will form inland

as previously dry areas are flooded by the higher water levels. The amount of newly
created wetlands, however, could be much smaller than the lost area of wetlands. Tidal

wetlands are generally found between sea level and the highest tide over the monthly
lunar cycle. As a result, areas with small tide ranges are the most vulnerable. In Vietnam,
the wetlands affected and threatened by sea level rise could be 1700 ki, which is about 60%
of Vietnam's coastal wetlands. Most threatened areas will be the Minh Hai and Vung Tau-
HCHC mangrove areas, the Xuan Thuy RAMSAR site at the Red River mouth, since
these cannot migrate landward (Huan, 1996).

According to Tom et al. (1996), with 1 m sea level rise the following could lead to
loss 40,000 k& of land in Vietnam. Among them are 5,000 y of rice paddy in the Red
River Delta and 15,000 - 20,000 ki of rice paddy in Mekong River Delta. Sea level rise
threatens these regions and would drastically affect their peoples. Arable land might be
reduced and people may have to be relocated, increasing pressure on some resources in
neighbouring areas. The impacts of sea level rise on coastal populations in term of
displacement or forced migration as a result of inundation will depend on rate as well as
magnitude of change.

2. Increase flooding

The geographical character of Vietnam with its long coastline and narrow hinterland
creates an exceptionally high ratio of coastline and land area. There is about 100 ki of
land on the mainland for each kilometer of coastline. Recently, flooding in the coastal
zone have increased in intensity and frequency of occurrence. It is mainly a result of high
 Impact of sea level rise on coastal zone of Vietnam 53

river discharges, elevated sea level during typhoon and weak dikes. Even now flooding due
to high tide has been serious in the south of Vietnam especially in the areas near Ho Chi
Minh city. Annual flooding in the Mekong River Delta, inundates an area of more than
1.7 x 106 ha affecting 9 million people directly. The impact is not limited to a narrow

coastal zone but will even be more serious further inland.

According to data collected by Hydrometeorological Service, there has been an increase

in the number of tropical cyclones affecting Vietnam since the 1950s. When the typhoon
surges falling in spring tide, the sea level rise up 5 - 6 m and very strong wave can break
out seadikes and make coastal deformation deeply. The storm - surges, which pose a
danger to the coastal inhabitants have amplitudes ranging from 0.5 to a maximum of 3

m along the coast to the west of the Gulf of Tonkin. The avegare amplitude is 1.4 m

along the central and south coasts (Ninh et al, 1992).

3. Coastal erosion

Vietnam has around 3,260 km curving shoreline with many river estuaries. A long the

coastline in average in every 20 km there is a river mouth. It has important geographical

position especially it has enrichment and diversity of resources but it is sensitive place at
once. According to results research of Vietnamese Geography Institute (2004), erosion
and accretion are occurring popularly in the whole coastline and river mouths. Coastal

erosion is caused by a variety of factors, which broadly fall in to 2 categories. First, sand

often migrates along the shore, causing some areas to erode and others to accrete. Second,

rising sea level causes virtually all shores to erode. Measurements of coastal parameters

such as wave action and beach erosion rates are still poorly covered although

fragmentarily being addressed in some joint- funding programme.

In both the Mekong River Delta and Red River Delta, erosion has occurred along one-

fourth of the coastline of each delta. Nowadays coastal erosion is key concern increasing

in scale and amount with the resulting damage. Overall 243 coastal sites covering 469 km

of coastline have eroded at a rate of 5-10 m/year. Ninety-six of these sites have lost even

more than 1 km of coastline to erosion. The longest eroded coastal stretch extends 60 km
at Ganh Hao in Mekong River Delta and along the Bo De coast; some 36 km of coastline

have been eroding at a rate of 30-50 m/ year for the last century.

The second longest eroding coastal stretch at Van Ly (Nam Dinh province) in Red

River Delta which extends over a length of 30 km. The Van Ly coast has been eroding at

a rate of 10-15m/year during the last half century, the mean rate of coastal erosion

increased from 8.6 m/year during 1965-1990 to 14.5 m/year during 1991-2000 along the

Van Ly coast. In Cat Hai island (Hai Phong City), from 1949 to 1965, this segment was

eroded with 6.4 km long in the southern and rate of 5-18 m/year. From 1965 to 1988, it

was kept continuously eroding with an extent of 2.9 km long rate of 10-25 m/year. From

1988 to 2001, the coast continued to be eroded but the erosional extent and rate were
54 Pham Tlii Thuy Jlanh and Masahide Furukawa

decreased thanks to presence of newly built jetties and seaclykes. In addition the segment

of Dinh Vu area, in period 1965 - 1980, erosion occurred with highest rate, reaching 11.8

m/year. In period of 1980-2001, the rate of erosion decreased due to upgrading protection
and the average rate of erosion is 4.3 m/year.
At Central Vietnam, the coastline Irora Thanh lion to Birth Thuan have 263 areas

with coastal erosion. The total length of the eroded coast of the region i.s 392 km. The
most serious erosion coasts are Tuy An (Phu Yen province), Phan Ri Cua and Phan Thiet
city (Binh Thuan province). In general, the erosion rate ranges from 1-5 m/year. but
sometimes it is as much as 10-15 m/year.

In Vietnam, there are several of studies about the coastline erosion. Figure 5, 6 and

7 show a change of shoreline in some segment of Red River Delta due to coastal erosion.

/ /^[Link] Rive

Coastline 1W2

Coastliue 1966
ff-y~^~$ Niiih C'o River Coastline 1927

Dav EhTa

Figure 5. Change of shoreline in Nam Dinh province from 1905 to 1992

 Impact of sea level rise on coastal zone of Vietnam

Figure fi. Change of shorelines in Cat Hfii from 1927 to 2001

Shoreline I' ;■.:

Shor#iln*1%5
Shoreline 1S4S
Shoreline 1S
i. ■!■!■, -i ":■■'i

7. Change of shorelines in Dinh Vu from 1927 to 2001

56 Pham Thi Thuy Hanh and Masahide Furukawa

4. Increase salinization
As sea level continues to rise the associated effects of permanent inundation, erosion

and episodic flooding is likely to increase the salinity of surface and groundwater near

coastal area. Sea level rise would generally enable saltwater to advance inland in both
aquifers and estuaines. In estuaries, the gradual flow of freshwater toward the ocean

prevents low - lying continental water systems from having the same salinity as the

ocean. A rise in sea level would increase salinity in open bays because the increased the

cross-sectional area would slow the average speed at which freshwater flows to the ocean.

Furthermore, the impact of sea level rise on ground-water salinity could make some areas

uninhabitable even before they were actually inundated, particularly those that rely on

unconfined aquifer just above sea level. Generally, these aquifers have a freshwater 'lens'

floating on top of the heavier saltwater. As sea level rises, the depth of the freshwater

lens in the coastal zone is greatly reduce, leading to salinization of water supplies. In

extreme cases exacerbated by over - pumping, the aquifer may rapidly become unsuitable
for dinking and even for irrigation. Because of tidal pressures, saltwater now penetrates

30-50 km up the Red River and 60-70 km up the Mekong River. More than 1.7 x 10fi ha of
land has been affected by saltwater intrusion in the Mekong River Delta; this area is

predicted to increase to 2.2 x 105 ha in the near future if suitable management practices

are not implemented. In recent decades, the l%o salinity contour (isohaline) has moved
landward by 4-10 km in the northeast part of the Red River Delta {Thanh et al.,2004).
The saltwater intrusion is a serious problem not only for coastal agriculture, but for

other economic sectors as well. The irrigation of paddy rice maybe seriously affected area
results of the increased intrusion of saline or brackish water. In Vietnam, for instance,

50% of national rice production comes from the Mekong delta in the south, while 20% is

produced in the Red river delta. Although much of this production is for export, a

disaster in the deltas would have profound effects on the whole country.

Saline intrusion associated with sea level rise can have considerable impact on coastal

ecosystems, especiallj* mangrove forest. Salinity is one of the most important

determinants of mangrove forest growth and distribution. Mangrove develop well in place

where the salt concentration is between 20 and 3596. Too high a salt concentration (40-

80%) diminishes the number of species and their size. In place where salt concentration

reach 90%, only a few species can exist and even then they grow slowly. Obviously no

mangrove forest can be found where the salinity is too low. However, mangrove do need
a certain amount of freshwater during their growth. Freshwater from river, channel and

rain dilutes the salinity of sea water, creating brackish water suited to many species

during specific stages of their growth. As sea level rise and river flow alter, the
distribution of salinity and freshwater in mangrove areas will change. The mangrove

ecosystem will respond by changing in productivity, areal extent or species diversity or by

migrating. These changes will likely modify fish, shrimp, crab and wildlife populations
 Impact of sea level rise on coastal zone of Vietnam 57

living in mangrove forest. The more that the mangrove forest is reduced the greater the

impact from salt water intrusion and erosion on the neighbouring land and the greater

the vulnerability to storm- induced flooding. The loosing of mangrove forests at muddy

coasts of Red River Delta is very serious and since without mangrove forests, coastal

protection in this area is almost impossible.

It should be noted that the other types of impacts can be important as well. The

social and economic consequences of sea level rise could well be wide-ranging. Port

facilities may have to be re-engineered. Coastal industries may be lost. Transportation will
be disrupted. About USD 17 billion of capital value will be lost by annual flooding, which

is about 80% of the yearly GDP. At a 30 year development scenario, the loss of capital

value will be close to USD 270 billion which would be even higher than the projected GDP

at that time. The damage increases faster than GDP.

From World Bank data, in Vietnam about 5.3 % of land, 10.8 % of population, 10.2 %
of GDP, 10.9 % of urban area, 7.2 % of agricultural area and 28.9 % of low ground could

be affected if sea level rise by 1 metre.

Conclusion

In conclusion that Vietnam had a evidence sea level rise occurring. Sea level rise has

been traditionally based on tide gauge records which indicated an average rate of sea level

rise in the range 1.75 - 2.56 mm/year. This results agreed with observed rise in global

mean sea level.

The past and current affect of sea level rise on Vietnamese coast are apperent. Even

a small sea level rise increase the risk of storm surges - sudden rises in sea level during

the high tides. In addition sea level rise could also result in the permanent flooding of low-

lying in two fertile deltas of Mekong river and Red river, damaging coastal cropland and

displacing millions of people living near coastline, as well as increase coastal erosion and
saline intrusion. Rising sea levels are already contaminating underground fresh water

supplies in Vietnam. Sea level rise also threatens coastal wetland including mangroves add
to threats to these ecologically valuable areas.

The study of sea level rise and its impacts on coastal zone in Vietnam remain limited.
To cope with consequences of increasing sea level on coastal zone, Vietnam need to carry

out researches to evaluate more comprehensively influence of sea level rise; to orient ability

of coastal zone vulnerability to give a protection strategy against lm sea level rise scienario
in the near future. Furthermore, Vietnam must work with relevant bodies to monitor,
update and timely deal with information about climate change and sea level rise and cooperate

with international organizations involved in climate changes to research and develop

an appropriate action programme to climate change and sea level rise. It's sound

good that Vietnam would have an official forecast about sea level rise at the end of this year.
58 Pham Thi Thuy Hanh and Masahide Furukawa

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