Research Article Vol. 3, No.

9 / 15 Sep 2024 / Optics Continuum 1782

Dual channel D-shaped SPR sensor for efficient

detection of change in refractive index of
analytes
E LORA N AHID , 1,2,4 M D R EJVI K AYSIR , 1,2,5
M D J AHIRUL I SLAM , 1,2,6 S HEIKH S HAHRIAR H OSSAIN , 2,3,7 AND
M OHAMMAD S HAIFUR R AHMAN 1,8
1 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE), Khulna University of Engineering &
Technology (KUET), Khulna- 9203, Bangladesh
2 Photonics Research Group, Department of EEE, KUET, Khulna-9203, Bangladesh
3 Institute of Information and Communication Technology (IICT), KUET, Khulna-9203, Bangladesh
4 nahid1603702@[Link]
5 rejvi@[Link]
6 jahirul@[Link]
7 hossain2371504@[Link]
8 shaifur@[Link]

Abstract: Over the past ten years, significant advancements have been made in the field of
D-shaped Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)-based optical fiber refractive index (RI) sensors
which can be effectively used in chemical, biological, and health monitoring applications. Among
single and dual/multi-channel SPR sensors, single-channel SPR sensors require analyte filling,
emptying, and cleaning stages which is time-consuming and expensive. This work focuses on the
design and performance investigation of a dual-channel D-shaped SPR sensor that can be used for
the efficient detection of changes in the RI of analytes between two channels. The finite element
method is used for the performance evaluation of the designed sensor, where the RI of the analyte
of one channel is kept constant and that of the other channel is varied to observe the effect of
change in RI difference from the known value. The proposed sensor can effectively detect the RI
of analytes in the range of 1.33–1.40. The maximum wavelength and amplitude sensitivities are
found to be 46000 nm/RIU and 6.96 RIU−1 , respectively. In addition, it exhibits comparable
wavelength and amplitude resolutions of 1.30 × 10−05 RIU and 1.75 × 10−08 RIU, respectively
with asymmetrical RIs in two channels. Besides, the single-channel D-shaped SPR sensor having
the same design parameters as the dual channel shows the maximum wavelength and amplitude
sensitivities of 44000 nm/RIU and -59.22 RIU−1 , with wavelength and amplitude resolutions of
2.27 × 10−6 RIU and 1.01 × 10−09 RIU, respectively. Thus, the designed dual-channel D-shaped
SPR sensor has the provision for determining the RI differences of analytes, which could be used
to check the consistency of RI among different batches of analytes for the same biological sample.

© 2024 Optica Publishing Group under the terms of the Optica Open Access Publishing Agreement

1. Introduction
Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensors have emerged as pivotal tools for discovering a mystery
of a wide array of interactions, spanning biomolecular to environmental applications [1]. By
exploiting the SPR phenomenon, these sensors detect minute changes in refractive index (RI) with
high sensitivity, facilitating real-time analysis of analytes such as DNA, proteins, and pollutants
[2–4]. Initially observed by Wood in 1902 [5] and further developed by Kretschmann and
Raether in 1968 [6], SPR sensors traditionally included prism-based configurations for plasmonic
resonance, albeit limited by bulkiness and impracticality for remote sensing [7].

#532535 [Link]
Journal © 2024 Received 11 Jun 2024; revised 24 Jul 2024; accepted 20 Aug 2024; published 13 Sep 2024
 Research Article Vol. 3, No. 9 / 15 Sep 2024 / Optics Continuum 1783

Optical fiber-based SPR sensors offer a compact alternative, overcoming drawbacks like
bulkiness and portability with added benefits like high sensitivity, immunity to electromagnetic
interference, and suitability for harsh environments [8]. Many fiber structures can be used to excite
SPR sensors, such as hetero-core structures [9], D-shape fibers [10–12], tapered fibers [13–15],
U-shaped fibers [16], fiber gratings [17,18] and photonic crystal fibers [19–21]. Among them,
the utilization of SPR excited by a D-shape optical fiber has been investigated and implemented
on a broader scale. This particular type of optical fiber SPR sensor is characterized by its
increased sensitivity and resolution; however, the fabrication process is quite complicated and
time-consuming [22]. G. Stepniewski et al. created a D-shape sensor utilizing SPR with ITO
deposition and found a sensitivity of 550 nm/RIU [23]. N. A. M. Zainuddin, et al. designed a
D-shape SPR sensor with silver coating and found a sensitivity of 2166 nm/RIU and 208.333
nm/RIU for distilled water and alcohol, respectively [24]. Hai-Tao Yan et al. found a D-shaped
SPR sensor for RI sensing pure water and isopropanol with metallic grating incorporating gold
deposition with a sensitivity of 917 nm/RIU [25]. Despite advancements, existing SPR sensors
primarily focus on single-analyte detection, necessitating extensive recalibration and analyte
management [26].
The concept of dual-channel SPR sensors has thus garnered interest for their potential in
simultaneous multi-analyte detection, promising efficiency gains in sensor deployment and
operation [27]. Previous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of dual-channel configurations
in enhancing sensitivity and enabling multiplexed sensing capabilities [26]. These sensors
utilize two channels to monitor RI changes independently, with applications ranging from
biomedical diagnostics to environmental monitoring [22]. A dual-channel SPR sensor was
proposed by Haoran Wang et al. [28], where they discovered that the wavelength sensitivity
for x-polarization was 6800 nm/RIU in the RI range of 1.25 to 1.43, and for y-polarization,
it was 13200 nm/RIU in the RI range of 1.39 to 1.43. In another experiment, Pibin Bing et
al. proposed Au-coated dual-channel D-shaped photonic crystal fiber and found wavelength
sensitivities of 11600 nm/RIU and 10600 nm/RIU [29]. Hairui Fang et al. used symmetrical
dual-channel D-type photonic crystal fiber and found that the maximum wavelength sensitivity is
14000 nm/RIU for both channels with an RI range from 1.33 to 1.40 [30]. In 2023, Liet et al.
proposed [31] a dual-channel fiber-optic SPR sensor that uses a cascaded coaxial dual-waveguide
D-type structure and microsphere structure and has the two channels’ respective RI measurement
ranges are 1.333–1.365 and 1.375–1.405, and their corresponding detection sensitivities are
981.56 nm/RIU and 4138 nm/RIU, respectively.
This paper investigates a dual-channel D-shaped SPR sensor designed to effectively detect RI
differences between two channels, leveraging one as a stable reference and the other for sensitive
RI monitoring. By focusing on comparative analyses with single-channel counterparts, our study
aims to elucidate the advantages and feasibility of such sensors in practical applications. This
work aims to design and investigate a dual-channel D-shaped SPR sensor that can effectively
detect the change in RI between two channels, which could be effectively used to detect the
dissimilarity of RI between different batches of biological samples. For ease of investigation,
we mainly focus on the performance of a dual-channel D-shape SPR sensor with the same and
different refractive indices in two channels and compare it with the single-channel D-shaped
sensor for the same design parameters. That means the RI value of one channel is kept fixed
allowing the other channel to function as a sensor capable of monitoring changes in RI from the
known value. This way the channel with the fixed RI can serve as an internal reference, enabling
continuous monitoring and calibration of the system. The organization of the paper is as follows.
Section 2 outlines the sensor’s design principles, optimized parameters, and modeling strategies.
Section 3 presents simulation results and discussions, comparing our sensor’s performance
with existing designs. Section 4 discusses fabrication strategies based on current technologies.
 Research Article Vol. 3, No. 9 / 15 Sep 2024 / Optics Continuum 1784

Finally, Section 5 concludes with implications and future directions for dual-channel SPR sensor
development.

2. System modelling
2.1. Operating principle of the proposed dual-channel D-shaped SPR sensor
The schematic of the experimental setup used for the proposed dual-channel D-shaped SPR
sensor is shown in Fig. 1. The light from a broadband source is transmitted into the sensor
through a single-mode fiber (SMF) so that efficient coupling is achieved. A second SMF is used
to couple the sensing head to a small spectrometer that records the spectral information change
in the loss spectrum affected by changes in the RI of the analyte. The light incident on the input
of the fiber gets guided through the fiber due to total internal reflection at the core-cladding
interface, excites surface plasmons in both the sensing regions, and is collected at the output end.
The measured data is then collected and analyzed by a computer for further processing. First,
channel-1 is filled with a liquid sample of known RI and then the RI of the channel-2 is varied to
observe the loss spectrum. The resonance wavelength of the loss spectrum is shifted with the
change in RI between two analyte’s channels. This way the output loss characteristics can be
correlated with the RI difference between these two channels.

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the operating principle of the proposed dual-channel D-

shaped SPR sensor.

2.2. Sensor design and performance parameters

Figure 2(a) illustrates a schematic representation of the dual-channel D-shaped SPR sensor
design, which comprises two D-shaped optical fibers accompanied by two spacious microfluidic
channels. It has two-sided D-shaped analyte channels, a germanium-doped silica (GeSi) core,
and two Au-strips. SiO2, having a lower refractive index (RI) than (GeSi), is placed around the
core to maintain the guiding mechanism as total internal reflection (TIR). The core and cladding
diameters of the proposed fiber are chosen to be 9 µm and 125 µm, respectively. It is noted that,
 Research Article Vol. 3, No. 9 / 15 Sep 2024 / Optics Continuum 1785

similar to the single-channel D-shaped SPR sensor reported in Ref. [32], these parameters for
the dual-channel sensor have been optimized to achieve maximum sensitivity.

(c)
Fig. 2. (a).Schematic representation of the 3D model of the dual-channel D-shape SPR
sensor. Here, the silica-enclosed Ge-doped core, which has two large microfluidic channels
for the bio-specimens, supports the single mode. (b) 2D model view of dual-channel D-shape
SPR sensor, and (c) 2D view of single-channel D-shape sensor.

First, a thorough investigation was made for the dual-channel D-shaped SPR sensors, where
we investigated the sensor characteristics by subjecting the two channels to the same RI analytes.
Then, we fixed the RI of one channel and changed the RI of other analytes to sense the change in
RI between two analytes. Finally, the performance of the proposed sensor is compared with the
single-channel sensor. Figure 2(b) shows a 2D model view of the dual-channel D-shape SPR
sensor, and Fig. 2(c) shows the 2D view of the single-channel D-shape sensor for comparison.
The Au-strip is positioned D = 1.15 µm away from the core for each of the two designs. The
thickness (t) and width (w) of the Au-strip are considered to be 0.035 µm and 9 µm, respectively.
The structural parameters that are chosen in this are optimized to get the maximum sensitivity.
The proposed D-shaped sensor’s single-mode operation is aided by the aforementioned
structural characteristics. COMSOL Multiphysics has been employed for the numerical simulation
of the performance characteristics of the sensor under consideration. We have chosen a triangular
mesh size that is computationally precise and fine enough to accurately represent the details of
the sensor geometry and the plasmonic interactions between the metal film and its surroundings.
For the modeling purpose, a perfectly matched layer (PML) is used around the fiber structure as
shown in Fig. 2.
The detection mechanism of a dual-channel D-shaped SPR sensor depends on the coupling
between surface plasmon polariton (SPP) mode and core mode. Fused silica, also known as fused
quartz, is a high-purity form of glass composed of silicon dioxide (SiO2). It is transparent to a
wide range of wavelengths, particularly in the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Fused silica is prized for its excellent optical properties, including low
 Research Article Vol. 3, No. 9 / 15 Sep 2024 / Optics Continuum 1786

refractive index, high thermal stability, and resistance to thermal shock. These characteristics
make it an ideal material for the outer layer or clad of optical fibers and sensors, as it ensures
efficient transmission of light and protection of the core material. Germanium-doped silica
refers to silica glass that has been intentionally infused or doped with germanium atoms. This
doping process alters the optical properties of the silica, particularly its RI. Germanium-doped
silica typically exhibits a higher RI compared to pure silica, making it suitable for serving as the
core material in optical fibers and sensors. This higher refractive index allows for efficient light
guidance within the core while maintaining a lower RI contrast with the clad, which is crucial for
minimizing optical losses at the core-clad interface. For this reason, we have used fused silica as
the core material and germanium-doped silica as the cladding material. Sellmeier equation [3] is
used to calculate the RIs of fused and germanium-doped silica as a function of the wavelength of
light.
B1 λ2 B2 λ2 B3 λ2
n2 (λ) = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 (1)
λ − C1 λ − C2 λ − C3
where λ is the wavelength in µm and n is the wavelength-based refractive index of germanium-
doped silica and fused silica. The parameters for the Sellmeier constants of Ge and Si are given
in Ref. [33]. The Drude-Lorentz model was used to compute the dielectric constant of gold [34].

ωp 2 ∆ε Ω2L
εAu = 5.9675 − − 2 (2)
ω(ω + iγD ) ω − Ω2L + iΓL ω

where, γ D = 2π×15.92 THz is the damping coefficient and ωp = 2π×2113.6 THz is the plasma
frequency. The oscillator strength and spectral width are ΩL = 2π × 650.07 THz and ΓL =
2π×104.86 THz, respectively [35]. The confinement loss (LC ) in dB/m is defined by the following
equation [36].
LC = 8.686 × K0 × Im (neff ) (3)
where K0 = (2π⁄λ); is the free-space wave vector, Im (neff ) is the imaginary part of the effective
refractive index, and λ is the wavelength of the incident light. Amplitude and wavelength are the
two distinct types of sensitivities for the analyte’s RI variation in SPR sensing. The mathematical
definition of wavelength sensitivity (Sλ ) is the shift in resonance wavelength peak (∆λpeak ) per
unit change in the analyte’s refractive index (∆na ): [37]

∆λpeak
Sλ = (4)
∆na
The amplitude sensitivity SA , is defined as [33]

1 ∂LC (λ, na )
SA (RIU −1 ) = − (5)
LC (λ, na ) ∂na

Here, LC (λ, na ) the confinement loss (CL) when the analyte’s refractive index is na . The
change in LC is represented by ∂LC (λ, na ). The resolution (R) of the sensor is the minimum
change in refractive index that the sensor can detect, and it is expressed as: [38]

R = ∆na × ∆λmin /∆λpeak (6)

where, ∆na and ∆λpeak is the maximum resonant wavelength shift results from ∆na . In this case,
the minimum spectral resolution is indicated by ∆λmin .
 Research Article Vol. 3, No. 9 / 15 Sep 2024 / Optics Continuum 1787

The figure of merit (FOM) of the proposed sensor relies on both the amplitude sensitivity (SA )
and full width at half maximum (FWHM) and is defined as [39]

FOM = SA /FWHM (7)

The detection accuracy (DA) can also be represented as [30]

DA = 1/FWHM (8)

It is noted that the depth and width of the confinement loss trajectory determine the sensing
and detection performances of the SPR sensors. The depth of the SPR curves demonstrates a
direct correlation with sensitivity, while its breadth exhibits an inverse relationship with detection
accuracy. A reduced FWHM value leads to significantly improved results in terms of detection
accuracy.

3. Results and discussion

This section focuses on the interpretation of the simulation results found in this work, which
are organized in the following subsections. First, we describe the dispersion relationship of the
proposed dual channel sensors, which show two distinctive loss peaks. The performance of a
single-channel SPR sensor will then be evaluated for comparison purposes. Finally, dual-channel
RI sensors are analyzed considering both channels having (a) the same RI, and (b) different
RI, which will be helpful for the illustration of the data from the simulation results. Finally, a
comparison is made with the existing dual/multichannel design in the literature.

3.1. Dispersion curve of dual channel sensor

Figure 3 illustrates the loss curve and dispersion relationship between the core-guided and the
plasmon modes of the dual-channel sensor where channels 1 and 2 exhibit RIs of 1.33 and 1.38,
respectively. The peaks in the loss curve (black curve) indicate losses of the core mode that were
then coupled to the plasmon modes. At the wavelength 2.28 µm the two modes couple to one
another because they have nearly equal refractive indices of 1.4553 for both Core and SPP(01)
modes. Similarly, both Core and SPP (02) modes exhibit refractive indices of 1.4387 at the
wavelength of 3.06 µm. Hence, the core mode couples and resonates with the plasmon mode.
The intersections of the SPP (01) (purple line) and SPP (02) (skyline) plasmon modes with the
core mode (red line) are shown in Fig. 3, which is situated at approximately 2.28 and 3.06 µm,
suggest the phase-matching condition.

3.2. Performance of single channel D-shaped sensor

The performance of a single-channel D-shape SPR sensor having the same design parameters as
in dual channels is evaluated by varying the RI from 1.33 to 1.40. Figure 4(a) represents the
confinement loss spectra of a single-channel D-shape SPR sensor for different refractive indices
as a function of wavelength, where the resonance peak wavelength shifts to the higher wavelength
with the increase in RI. Figure 4(b) shows the linear relationship between resonance peak
wavelength and analyte RI with an excellent linear correlation of R2 = 0.94. In addition, Fig. 4(c)
exhibits the linear relationship between peak confinement loss and analyte RI with a linear
correlation of R2 = 0.87. Hence, it is seen that both the resonance wavelength and confinement
loss vary with RIs and maintain a linear relationship with RI changes. This single-channel
D-shaped sensor shows the maximum wavelength and amplitude sensitivities of 44000 nm/RIU
and -59.22 RIU−1 , respectively. It also exhibits a maximum wavelength and amplitude resolution
of 2.27 × 10−06 RIU and 1.01 × 10−09 RIU, respectively.
Research Article Vol. 3, No. 9 / 15 Sep 2024 / Optics Continuum 1788

Fig. 3. Dispersion relation between the real and imaginary components of effective refractive
index as a function of wavelength of dual-channel D-shape SPR sensors with RIs 1.33 and
1.38 for ch-1 and ch-2, respectively.

Fig. 4. (a). Confinement loss variation with analyte refractive index in single-channel D
Shape SPR sensor (b) wavelength Sensitivity curve of the single channel sensor, and (c)
amplitude sensitivity curve of the single channel sensor.
 Research Article Vol. 3, No. 9 / 15 Sep 2024 / Optics Continuum 1789

3.3. Dual-channel D-shaped sensor with the same RIs in both channels
The performance of the proposed dual-channel D-shape SPR sensor with the same RI is evaluated
by keeping initially the RI for both Ch1 and Ch2 set to 1.33. This serves as a baseline or
reference point for the analysis of the sensor. This procedure is then repeated to cover a wide
range of refractive indices from 1.34 to 1.40 for both channels. Figure 5(a) represents the
confinement loss spectra for a dual-channel D-shape SPR sensor with the same refractive indices,
where the resonance wavelength shifts to the higher wavelength. This behavior is similar to the
single-channel D-shaped sensor as described in section 3.2. It is observed that the peak loss gets
higher than the signal channel design (see Fig. 4(a)), which is understandable as more light is
escaped from the core mode and coupled to the SPP modes in two channels. However, both
the wavelength and amplitude sensitivities get lower values than the single channel as expected.
Figure 5(b) exhibits the linear relationship between resonance peak wavelength and the analyte’s
RI with a correlation of R2 = 0.91. Also, Fig. 5(c) shows the linear relationship between peak
confinement loss and analyte refractive index with a correlation of R2 = 0.96. Thus, it is seen that
both the resonance wavelength and peak confinement loss vary with RIs and maintain a linear
relationship with RI. The sensor shows wavelength and amplitude sensitivities of 36000 nm/RIU
and 27.25 RIU−1 respectively, with a maximum wavelength resolution of 2.78 × 10−06 RIU and a
maximum amplitude resolution of 1.55 × 10−09 RIU.

Fig. 5. (a). Confinement Loss variation with analyte refractive index in dual-channel
D-shape SPR sensor with same refractive index in both channels, (b) wavelength Sensitivity
curve of the designed sensor, and (c) amplitude sensitivity curve of the designed sensor.

3.4. Dual-channel D-shaped sensor with different refractive indices in two channels
As the main objective of this work is to investigate the incremental change in the RI of the
analytes, we have fixed the RI (na ) of ch1 at 1.33 and vary the RI of ch-2 (nb ) from 1.33 to 1.40
 Research Article Vol. 3, No. 9 / 15 Sep 2024 / Optics Continuum 1790

with increments of 0.01. It can be seen from Fig. 6(a) that the variation of the analyte RI in
ch-2 causes the peaks to shift toward longer wavelengths while no shifts are detected for ch-1
containing the fixed analyte. When na is fixed at 1.33 and nb is varied from 1.33 to 1.35, we only
got the first peak at the RI differences of 0.02. When nb was 1.36, a second peak started to appear
with a RI difference of 0.03. Hence, we got two resonance peaks from this loss variation with the
analyte refractive index variations. After a careful analysis, we got a good correlation between
amplitude sensitivity for the first peak and wavelength sensitivity of the second peak of the loss
spectrum. Figures 6(b) show the relationship between confinement loss and analyte refractive
index differences of dual-channel D-shape SPR sensor with a correlation of R2 = 0.94 for the first
peak. The large negative slope indicates a small change in the refractive index differences of
analytes between the two channels resulting in a significant change in the sensor response. An R2
value of 0.94 indicates that the sensor’s performance is strongly correlated with the changes in
refractive index or analyte concentration. Figure 6(c) show the relationship between resonance
peak shift for the 2nd peak and RI differences of dual-channel D-shaped SPR sensor with an
excellent correlation (R2 = 0.94). Meanwhile, an R2 value of 0.15 was found for the amplitude
sensitivity for the 2nd peak, which indicates a weak linear relationship between the refractive
index difference and the resonance frequency for the first peak. On the other hand, the second
peak of the loss spectrum’s amplitude indicates a very weak linear relationship (R2 = 0.0305) as
is shown in Fig. 6(d).

Fig. 6. (a) Confinement loss variation with analyte refractive index in dual-channel D-shaped
SPR sensors with different refractive indices. Relationship between confinement loss and
refractive index differences for the (b) First peak loss amplitude, (c) Second Peak Resonance
Frequency, and (d) Second peak loss amplitude.
 Research Article Vol. 3, No. 9 / 15 Sep 2024 / Optics Continuum 1791

The simulation was done by fixing the ch-2 RI to nb = 1.33 and varied na from 1.33 to
1.40 and found similar behaviors as discussed above. This is understandable as the channels
are symmetrical. It is also observed that simultaneous detection and discrimination of signals
from both channels becomes difficult when the differences in RIs of channel 1 and channel 2
are larger. As a result, the detection process lacks specificity since it is challenging to identify
the channel from which the detected signal is coming. Therefore, when the difference between
the microfluidic RIs in channel 1 and channel 2 is small (na = 1.33 and nb = 1.34), dual-channel
simultaneous detection is difficult to achieve [29]. When the resonances of the dual D-shape
structures are in phase, they reinforce each other, leading to enhanced sensitivity. However, when
they are out of phase, they can cancel each other out, resulting in reduced sensitivity or even
negative sensitivity in some cases.
Table 1 provides the summary of the simulation results that are discussed in the previous
sub-sections. The proposed dual-channel D-shaped optical fiber SPR sensor has a maximum
wavelength sensitivity of 46000 nm/RIU, with average sensitivities reaching up to 24333.33
nm/RIU for channel 1 and 23666.67 nm/RIU for channel 2 for the refractive index range of
1.36-1.39. The sensor’s Figure of merit (FOM) and detection accuracy (DA) are found to be 47.92
RIU−1 and 1.04 × 10−3 nm−1 , respectively. Therefore, compared to a single-channel D-shaped
sensor, a dual-channel D-shape SPR sensor with the same RI did not show high sensitivity.
Although it shows lower FOM and DA, however, a dual-channel D-shape SPR sensor with a
different RI can be potentially used to monitor refractive index differences instead of determining
the actual RI of the analytes.

Table 1. Performance comparison of the proposed single-channel D-shape and dual-channel

D-shape SPR sensors with the same and different refractive indices.
Sensor RI Range Max. Max. Max. Max. Figure Of Detection
Design [RIU] wavelength wavelength amplitude amplitude Merit (FOM) Accuracy
sensitivity resolution sensitivity resolution (RIU−1 ) (DA) (nm-1 )
(nm/RIU) (RIU) (RIU−1 ) (RIU)
Single 1.33- 1.40 44000 2.27 × 10−06 -59.22 1.01 × 10−09 122.22 2.78 × 10−03
D-Shape
Dual D 1.33- 1.40 36000 2.78 × 10−06 27.25 1.55 × 10−09 85.71 2.38 × 10−03
Shape with
the same RI
Dual D 1.33- 1.40 46000 1.30 × 10−05 6.96 1.75 × 10−08 47.92 1.04 × 10−03
Shape with
different RI

The proposed dual-channel D-shaped SPR sensor can be used for detecting analytes with
refractive indices ranging from 1.33 to 1.40. This range includes many common biological
and chemical analytes, making the sensor versatile for various applications. Specifically, it
can target analytes like glucose, proteins, and certain organic compounds, whose refractive
indices fall within this range [40–42]. By ensuring the sensor operates effectively within this
refractive index range, it can reliably detect and measure the presence and concentration of these
analytes, demonstrating its practical utility for diverse sensing applications. Table 2 provides
a comprehensive comparison of this work with the available dual/multichannel designs in the
literature.
 Research Article Vol. 3, No. 9 / 15 Sep 2024 / Optics Continuum 1792

Table 2. The performance comparison of other D-shaped sensors. [Here, PCF:

Photonic Crystal Fiber]
Particulars of the D-shaped RI range Performance/ Max wavelength Year Ref.
SPR sensors [RIU] sensitivity (nm/RIU)

Dual-channel PCF SPR Ch1-4600 nm/RIU

1.32-1.36 2015 [43]
sensor Ch2-4100 nm/RIU

Dual channel optical fiber RI 1.24-1.3 for Ch1-1200 nm/RIU

1st analyte 2019 [44]
sensor
1.3 -1.36 for Ch2-1650 nm/RIU
2nd analyte
Ch1-11,600 nm/RIU
Dual-channel PCF sensor 1.33 - 1.40 2020 [29]
Ch2-10,600 nm/RIU

Dual-channel SPR-based PCF Ch1-11,466 nm/RIU

1.41–1.44 2021 [45]
sensor Ch2 - 6833 nm/RIU
Dual-optofluidic-channel Ch1-1439.29 nm/RIU
microstructured Optical 1.33 - 1.39 2022 [46]
Fiber-based SPR Ch2-4003.57 nm/RIU
Ch1-1340 nm/RIU
Multi-channel Optical Fiber Ch2-1465 nm/RIU
1.33–1.43 2022 [47]
SPR Sensor Ch3-1590 nm/RIU
Ch4-1795nm/RIU
Dual-channel H-shaped for Ch1-4000.0 nm/RIU
multi-analyte detection 1.33 -1.40 2022 [48]
sensor Ch2-10000.5 nm/RIU
Ch1-49,800 nm/RIU
Four-channel PCF SPR Ch2-49,000 nm/RIU
1.34- 1.42 2023 [49]
sensor Ch3-35,900 nm/RIU
Ch4-36,800 nm/RIU
Ch1-7,611 nm/RIU
Gold-nanowires-based 1.33-1.41 2023 [50]
Ch2-5,128 nm/RIU
multi-channel SPR sensor
Ch3-12,974 nm/RIU
Dual-channel-shaped SPR Ch1- 46000 nm/RIU This
sensors with different 1.33-1.40 -
Ch2- 46000 nm/RIU work
refractive indices

4. Fabrication feasibility and practical prospects

Recent reports have indicated that the excellent sensitivity and manufacturing tolerance of
D-shaped SPR sensors provide flexible fabrication feasibility. In an Au-incorporated D-shaped
plasmonic sensor, an incredibly thin coating of Au is deposited on the PCF’s polished surface.
Additionally, this makes it easier to easily empty or reload the measured analytes [51]. Instead of
flat shapes, the desired shapes in the proposed designs can be created using microfabrication
techniques [52], and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or wet chemistry deposition can be used to
deposit the thin Au sheet. It was proposed to use a horizontal polishing arrangement to facilitate
simpler coating and avoid microfluidic filling by immersing the fiber directly in the liquid analyte.
References also contain the details of the tests performed on these sensors.
It is mentioned that before using the sensor surface must be cleaned to remove any contaminants
by rinsing with deionized water, followed by using a piranha and/or NaOH solutions for thorough
cleaning followed by rinsing with deionized water and then drying the sensor with nitrogen
gas. Then a micro-pipette or syringe pump is used to slowly inject the analyte solution into one
 Research Article Vol. 3, No. 9 / 15 Sep 2024 / Optics Continuum 1793

channel of the sensor and ensure there are no air bubbles in the tubing or channels, as they can
interfere with measurements. For the second channel, the procedure is repeated [46,47].

5. Conclusion
The performance of the dual-channel D-shape SPR sensor with different refractive indices with
two wider microfluidic channels has been carefully explored in this study. The loss spectra
of dual-channel D-shape with different RIs SPR sensors contain two loss peaks, which could
be effectively used to characterize it as an RI difference sensor. Due to the high sensitivity
with excellent correlation, both 1st and 2nd loss peaks can be simultaneously used for sensor
characterization purposes. The wavelength sensitivity of 46000 nm/RIU is found from the
second peak of the loss spectra of the proposed sensor. In addition, the 1st loss peak can be used
simultaneously for amplitude sensitivity. The provision of using a known RI channel can serve as
a reference, enabling the other channel to function effectively as a sensor capable of monitoring
changes in RI that differ from the fixed reference value. The use of self-referencing mode in
biosensors enables automatic calibration and error detection, ensuring the operational accuracy
of the sensor is maintained at a maximum.
Disclosures. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Author contributions:
Elora Nahid: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft. Md Rejvi Kaysir: Conceptualization,
Supervision, Writing – review and editing. Md Jahirul Islam: Conceptualization, Supervision. Sheikh Shahriar Hossain:
Methodology, Software, Visualization. Mohammad Shaifur Rahman: Supervision, Writing – review and editing.
Data availability. Data will be made available on request.
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