Lecture Series in Aerospace Technology

Space Systems
Juan Pedro Mellado
Contents

1. Introduction

2. Keplerian Orbits
Kepler’s Laws
Orbits

3. Rocket Propulsion

4. Launch Vehicles
 We Want to Answer Questions Like:

How are orbits characterized?

Introduction 2.49
 We Want to Answer Questions Like:

How are orbits characterized?

How does rocket propulsion work?

Introduction 2.49
 We Want to Answer Questions Like:

How are orbits characterized?

How does rocket propulsion work?

Why are launch vehicles multistaged?

Introduction 2.49
 Space Applications

Earth Observation
For environmental monitoring and meteorology.
Examples: Meteosat series, Sentinels (ESA); GOES family, EOS program (NASA).

Navigation
To provide autonomous spatial positioning on Earth.
Examples: Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), e.g., US GPS, Russian GLONASS, EU Galileo.

Communication
For telephone, television, radio, internet, military communication.
Examples: US Iridium constellation, European ERDS.

Research
Astronomy, planetology, material and life sciences (micro-g, radiation).
Examples: Voyagers, International Space Station, Hubble, SOHO, Exomars, ...
Introduction https: // www. ucsusa. org/ resources/ satellite- database 3.49
 Aims of the Lecture

1. Introduce the topic with an organized synthesis of fundamental aspects.

2. Familiarize yourself with the jargon.
3. Understand the physics of orbital motion and learn about orbital elements.
4. Understand working principles of rocket propulsion, familiarize yourself with relevant performance
parameters and types of rocket engines.
5. Learn about launch vehicles and the reason to use multi-staged vehicles.

Introduction 4.49
Contents

1. Introduction

2. Keplerian Orbits
Kepler’s Laws
Orbits

3. Rocket Propulsion

4. Launch Vehicles
Outline

1. Introduction

2. Keplerian Orbits
Kepler’s Laws
Orbits

3. Rocket Propulsion

4. Launch Vehicles
 Simplified Two-Body Problem

• Newton’s second law of motion, m r̈ = F, and

• Newton’s law of gravitation, F = −GM m r/r3 ,
lead to
µ
r̈ = − r, (1)
r3
where µ ≡ GM is the gravitational parameter of the central body:
• For the Sun, one finds µ = 1.327 × 1020 m3 s−2 .
• For the Earth, one finds µ⊕ = 3.986 × 1014 m3 s−2 .

Assumptions:
• No external forces apart from the mutual gravitational attraction.
• Spherical symmetry.
• Mass of the central body is much larger than the orbiting body, M  m.
Good enough for satellites orbiting planets, and planets orbiting the Sun, except Earth-Moon system
(M/m ≈ 81.3) or Pluto-Charon system (M/m ≈ 8.9).

Keplerian Orbits 5.49

 Constants of the Motion

Specific (per unit mass) angular momentum

h≡r×V , (2)

where V ≡ ṙ is the velocity. From the equation of motion, we find ḣ = 0, i.e., h is constant. Hence,
the orbiting body moves in a plane, defined by the r and V, that remains fixed in an inertial frame.
Specific (per unit mass) mechanical energy

V2 µ
ε≡ − . (3)
2 r
Multiplying the equation of motion by V, we find ε̇ = 0, i.e., ε is constant. The second term is the
potential energy due to the gravitational force:
 µ
m−1 F = −∇ − . (4)
r
Without loss of generality, we choose the zero potential energy at infinity.

Keplerian Orbits 6.49

Mathematical Solution: Conic Section in Polar Coordinates

p
r= (5)
1 + e cos ν
• p ≡ h2 /µ is the parameter or semi-latus rectum.
• e is the eccentricity and determines the type of conic section.
• ν is the polar angle or true anomaly measured from the periapsis.
• The end-points of the major axis are the "apses":

periapsis, nearest to prime focus: rp = p/(1 + e) , (6a)

apoapsis, farthest from prime focus: ra = p/(1 − e) . (6b)

• a is called the semimajor axis:

±a = (rp + ra )/2 = p/(1 − e2 ) . (7)

±2a is the length of the chord passing through the foci.

The shape of the orbit is determined by a and e.
Keplerian Orbits Bate et al. [1971] 7.49
 Characteristic Velocities

From the definitions of rp , ra and a, one finds

rp = a(1 − e) , ra = a(1 + e) . (8)

From the energy equation applied at the periapsis point, using the relationship h = rp Vp , and expressing
the result in terms of a, e, and µ, one finds

V2 µ µ
ε= − =− , (9)
2 r 2a
which gives the velocity V at a distance r. Parabola for ε = 0, elipse for ε < 0, hyperbola for ε > 0.
Escape velocity is the velocity to reach infinity with zero speed, a = ∞ and
p
Vesc = 2µ/r . (10)

When V < Vesc , we have elliptical orbits. For a circular orbit a = r, we need V ⊥ r and
p
Vcirc = µ/r . (11)

Keplerian Orbits 8.49

 Physical Interpretation: Newton’s Cannonball Thought Experiment

Take a fixed altitude above Earth’s surface,

and shoot an object parallel to the Earth’s
surface. As V increases, the angular
momentum increases and p increases, and ε
increases and a increases.
For small values, the object will hit the
Earth’s surface somewhere else
(intercontinental ballistic missile, ICBM).
Beyond some critical value, the object
remains in orbit.

Keplerian Orbits Bate et al. [1971] 9.49

 Orbital Period

From the conservation of angular momentum, one finds

h = r2 ν̇ ⇒ dt = h−1 r2 dν . (12)

From elementary calculus, we know that

dA = (1/2)r2 dν . (13)
Both equations lead to

dt = 2h−1 dA ⇒ T = 2h−1 AT , (14)

having used that h is a constant of the motion.

The area of an ellipse is AT = πab. Hence, for an elliptical orbit, one
finds p
T = 2π a3 /µ , (15)
√ √ √
having used h = µp and b = a2 − c2 = ap.

Keplerian Orbits 10.49

 Kepler’s Laws

We have obtained Kepler’s laws of planetary motion:

1. The orbit of each planet is an ellipse, with the sun at a focus.
2. The line joining the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3. The square of the period of a planet is proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the sun.

Published in 1609 and 1619, Kepler deduced them from Brahe’s observations. They improved the
heliocentric theory published in 1543 by Copernicus. Isaac Newton published his Principia in 1687.

Nicolaus Copernicus Tycho Brahe Johannes Kepler Isaac Newton

Keplerian Orbits 11.49

 Typical Values of Velocities and Periods

Motion height velocity period

km km s−1
Circular orbit of ISS 340 7.7 91 min
Circular orbit of Aqua satellite 702 7.5 99 min
Circular orbit of Meteosat 35, 786 3.1 1 siderial day
Escape trajectory from Earth’s surface 6, 378 11.2 -
Circular orbit of Earth around the Sun 149.6 × 106 29.7 1 siderial year
Escape trajectory from the Sun 149.6 × 106 42.1 -
= 1.327 × 1020 m3 s−2 and µ⊕ = 3.986 × 1014 m3 s−2 .
p p
From Vcirc = µ/r and Vesc = 2µ/r using µ

Keplerian Orbits 12.49

Outline

1. Introduction

2. Keplerian Orbits
Kepler’s Laws
Orbits

3. Rocket Propulsion

4. Launch Vehicles
 Orbital Elements

The motion is defined by the position r0 and velocity V0 at a given time t0 : 6 degrees of freedom.

Elements defining the orbital plane:

• i, the inclination measured at the ascending
node.
• Ω, the longitude of the ascending node with
respect to vernal point.
Elements inside orbital plane:
• e, the shape
• a, the size
Elements for position inside the orbit:
• ω, argument of the periapsis measured from
the ascending node.
• ν, the true anomaly at epoch t0 .

Keplerian Orbits 13.49

 Heliocentric-Ecliptic Coordinate System

One choice of an approximately inertial frame of reference to represent the orbit.

For orbits around the Sun.

Properties:
• Origin at Suns’s center.
• Fundamental plane XY coincides with ecliptic
plane.
• Positive X-axis points to the vernal equinox.

(Note: The vernal equinox direction is the

line-of-intersection of the ecliptic plane and the
earth’s equatorial plane.)

Keplerian Orbits 14.49

 Geocentric-Equatorial Coordinate System

Another choice of an approximately inertial frame of reference to represent the orbit.

For orbits around the Earth.

Properties:
• Origin at Earth’s center.
• Fundamental plane XY coincides with Earth’s
equatorial plane.
• Positive X-axis points to the vernal equinox.

(Note: This system is not rotating; the Earth

rotates with respect to it.)

Keplerian Orbits 15.49

 Types of Earth Orbits According to Altitude

Low Earth Orbit 2, 000 km Mid Earth Orbit 35, 786 km High Earth Orbit
- LEO is affected by Earth’s atmosphere; below 180 km, disintegration occurs within hours.
- The height 35, 786 km corresponds to a geosynchronous orbit.
- In the range 100 − 180 km, one speaks of suborbital flights. The height 100 km is the Karman line, the point where, because of the
decrease of density with height, a vehicle flying fast enough to support itself with aerodynamic lift would be flying faster than Vcirc .
Keplerian Orbits Source: Wikipedia 16.49
 Geosynchronous Orbit (GSO) and Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

Geosynchronous Orbit (GSO)

At 42,164 kilometers from the center of the Earth (35,786 kilometers from Earth’s surface), the satellite’s
orbit matches Earth’s rotation. The satellite seems to stay in place over a single longitude, though it
may drift north to south.

Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

GSO directly over the equator (eccentricity and inclination at zero). The satellite is always directly over
the same place on the Earth’s surface. Examples: GOES, Meteosat.

Keplerian Orbits Source: NASA Earth Observatory 17.49

 Solar Day and Sidereal Day

Solar day
Time between two successive upper
transits of the sun across our local
meridian.

Sidereal day
Time required for the Earth to rotate
once on its axis relative to the starts.
This occurs in 23 h 56 m 4 s of ordinary
solar time, or 86164 s. This is the period
of GEO and GSO.

Keplerian Orbits Bate et al. [1971] 18.49

 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

Semi-Synchronous Orbit
Near-circular orbit at 26,560 km from Earth’s center (about 20,200 km above the surface), where the
period is 12 hours. In 24-hours, the satellite crosses over the same two spots on the equator every day.
Example: GPS satellites.

Highly Elliptical Orbits (HEO)

Highly eccentric. The satellite moves very quickly
when it is close to the Earth, and spends more
time at the top of its orbit farthest from the Earth.
Example: Molniya orbits, invented by the Russians
for communication and observation in high
latitudes. With a period of 12 hours, it spends
about two-thirds of that time over one hemisphere.

Keplerian Orbits Source: NASA Earth Observatory 19.49

 Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

Polar Orbits:
Highly inclined orbits from pole to pole with a period of about 99 minutes. During one half of the orbit,
the satellite views the daytime side of the Earth. At the pole, satellite crosses over to the nighttime side
of Earth. By the time the satellite crosses back into daylight, it is over the region adjacent to the area
seen in its last orbit. In a 24-hour period, polar orbiting satellites will view most of the Earth twice:
once in daylight and once in darkness.

Sun-Synchronous Orbits (SSO):

Polar orbit in which the local solar time whenever the satellite crosses the equator is always the same.

Keplerian Orbits Source: NASA Earth Observatory 20.49

 Correction Maneuvers

Orbital (trajectory) maneuvers to maintain orbital (trajectory) parameters.

Causes:
• Third-body perturbations.
For instance, influence of Moon or Sun on Earth’s satellites, or giant planets in interplanetary
missions.
• Spherical asymmetries of gravitational potential.
For instance, Earth’s oblateness causes a regression of the line of nodes (which is actually used for
Sun-synchronous orbits) and a rotation of the line of apsides.
• Atmospheric drag.
• Solar radiation.
• Inaccuracies during injection maneuvers.

It is quantified in terms of the necessary change in the velocity vector: the delta-v.
We need fuel and propulsion systems on-board (thrusters) to provide the required delta-v.

Keplerian Orbits 21.49

 Transfer Maneuvers

Orbital (trajectory) maneuvers to go from one

orbit (trajectory) to another.
It is quantified in terms of the necessary change in
the velocity vector: the delta-v.
For instance, a Hohmann transfer orbit between
two circular orbits uses two maneuvers, i.e., two
delta-vs.
We need fuel and propulsion systems on-board
(thrusters) to provide the required delta-v.

Keplerian Orbits 22.49

 Typical Delta-V Requirements by Mission

Mission Time Ideal ∆V

km s−1
Launch into LEO at 270 km 7.6
From LEO to GEO 4.2
From LEO to Earth’s escape velocity 3.2
From LEO to Moon orbit 7 days 3.9
From LEO to Mars orbit 8 months 5.7
From LEO to Mars orbit 40 days 85
From LEO to Sun’s scape velocity 8.7
From LEO to Alpha Centauri 50 years 30, 000

Keplerian Orbits 23.49

 Delta-V Budget

The delta-v calculated so far is an ideal value. There are losses during ascending trajectory due to
aerodynamic drag or the required change in potential energy, and there are additional orbital maneuvers.
For instance, consider the injection of a satellite into LEO with the Space Shuttle:

Function ∆V
m s−1
Ideal velocity 7, 790
Gravitational losses 1, 220
Trajectory deviates from vertical 360
Aerodynamic drag 118
Orbit injection 145
Exit orbit 60
Correction maneuvers 62
Velocity at launch base −408
Total 9, 347

Keplerian Orbits 24.49

 Summary: Keplerian Orbits

1. Newton’s laws accurately describe orbital mechanics within the solar system.
2. 2 constants of motion: angular momentum, h; mechanical energy, ε. Parabola for ε = 0, elipse for
ε < 0, and hyperbola for ε > 0. h determines p = h2 /µ, ε determines a = −µ/(2ε).
3. Kepler’s laws:
• The orbit of each planet is an ellipse, with the sun at a focus.
• The line joining the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
• The square of the period of a planet is proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the sun.
4. There are 6 degrees of freedom, thus 6 orbital elements. The classical elements are: inclination,
longitude of ascending node, eccentricity, length of semimajor axis, argument of periapsis, true
anomaly at some epoch.
p
5. The escape velocity is Vesc = 2µ/r; 11.2 km s−1 for Earth’s surface.
6. Parabolic orbit for Vesc ; elliptic for smaller velocity, hyperbolic for larger.
p
7. The circular orbit is Vcirc = µ/r; 7.8 km s−1 for LEO at 200 km.
8. Orbital maneuvers are quantified in terms of required delta-v.

Keplerian Orbits 25.49

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Keplerian Orbits
Kepler’s Laws
Orbits

3. Rocket Propulsion

4. Launch Vehicles
Rocket Propulsion Source: European Space Agency 26.49
 General Characteristics
• Ariane 5 flight VA250
• Upper payload: TIBA-1 (5.6 tonnes)
• Lower payload: Inmarsat GX5 (4.7 tonnes)
• Orbit: GTO
• Launch: Nov 22, 2019 from Kourou, French Guiana
• Mass: 780 tonnes
P238 Solid Rocket Boosters
• Empty mass: 33 tonnes
• Gross mass: 273 tonnes
• Thrust: 7.1 MN
• Specific impulse: 250 s (sea level), 275 s (vacuum)
• Burn time: 140 s
Main Stage
• Empty mass: 14.7 tonnes
• Gross mass: 184.7 tonnes
• Thrust: 0.96 MN (sea level), 1.39 MN (vacuum)
• Specific impulse: 310 s (sea level), 432 s (vacuum)
• Burn time: 540 s
• Fuel: LH2/LOX
• Engine: Vulcain 2

Rocket Propulsion Source: European Space Agency 26.49

 Introduction

The working principle is that of a jet engine:

Propellant at high-pressure and high-temperature
is accelerated to supersonic speeds through a
convergent-divergent nozzle.
As opposed to air-breathing engines, the rocket
engine carries all propellant inside it. Thus, rocket
engines can operate in vacuum.

Historical remarks:
• Konstantin Tsiolkovski (Russia) did theoretical work in 1900’s
• Robert H. Goddard (USA) did experimental work in 1920’s to 1940’s
• Hermann Oberth (Germany) theoretical work in 1920’s; continued by Werner von Braun to develop
V-2 missile. After the war, von Braun went to USA and launch the American space program.

Rocket Propulsion 27.49

 Rocket Equation or Tsiolkovsky Equation

The momentum equation for a rocket-propelled vehicle can be written as

mV̇ = T . (16)

The thrust per unit flux rate of propellant weight at sea level,
T
Isp ≡ , (17)
g0 ṁp

is referred to as specific impulse, and it has dimensions of seconds.

The rate of change of mass of the vehicle, ṁ, is equal to −ṁp . Hence, assuming that Isp remains
constant during the propulsion interval, we obtain the rocket equation
mo
∆V = g0 Isp ln , (18)
mo − mp

where mo is the initial mass and mp the mass of propellant used. This equation relates the delta-v
required for the mission to the engine performance parameter and the mass budget of the vehicle.
Rocket Propulsion 28.49
 Thrust Equation

Thrust is the sum of pressure and friction

forces on the interior surface. Newton’s law can
be used to express it in terms of a change in
momentum flux:

T = ṁp Ve + (pe − p∞ )Ae , (19)

where ṁp is mass flow rate of propellant and the

subscript e indicate exit values.
For optimal performance, the gas pressure at the
end of the nozzle, pe , should equal the ambient
pressure, p∞ :
• If pe < p∞ (over-expanded), there is a pressure drag on the vehicle.
• If pe > p∞ (under-expanded), one could have reached higher Ve and hence higher thrust.
Since p∞ decreases with height, perfect expansion is only possible with variable-exit area. In practice,
most nozzles are over-expanded in the atmospheric flight (shock-diamonds in the jet).
Rocket Propulsion Sutton and Biblarz [2017] 29.49
 Specific Impulse
From the thrust equation and the definition
of specific impulse,
T
Isp ≡ ,
g0 ṁp

it can be shown that Isp depends on

• adiabatic flame temperature,
• molecular weight of the propellant.
It increases with the former and decreases
with the latter.

Recall that, for a given mass of propellant, the higher Isp the higher the delta-v: A propulsion
system with a higher specific impulse uses the mass of the propellant more efficiently.
Instead of Isp , the effective exhaust velocity, g0 Isp , is sometimes used.

Rocket Propulsion Anderson [2016], page 772 30.49

 Thrust-to-Weight Ratio

It indicates the efficiency of the engine

design. The less weight for a given thrust,
the greater the acceleration or the larger
the payload mass.
When considered for the whole vehicle, this
ratio indicates the vehicle acceleration,
usually calculated at sea-level on Earth.
For a takeoff from Earth’s surface using
thrust and no aerodynamic lift, the
thrust-to-weight ratio for the whole vehicle
must be more than one.
Different propulsion systems provide
different combinations of specific impulse
and thrust-to-weight ratio.

Rocket Propulsion Sutton and Biblarz [2017] 31.49

 Classification of Rocket Propulsion Systems

Cold-gas Thrusters
Expansion of pressurized gas at ambient temperature. Low performance (requires heavy tanks), but
simple and reliable. Examples: Roll and attitude control.

Chemical Propulsion
Transform chemical to thermal energy, and then expand. Higher performance. Since the energy source
and the propellant are together, the energy per unit mass of propellant is limited by its chemical
behavior. Examples: Launch vehicles.

Electric Propulsion
Energy source and propellant are separate, which allows for higher propellant energy; the limitation is
the size of the energy conversion system. Examples: Small trust (< 1 N) over long times (months),
such as for station-keeping, interplanetary and deep space probes. Two classes:
Electrothermal: Transform electrical to thermal energy, and then expand.
Electrostatic, Electromagnetic: Directly accelerate the propellant.
Rocket Propulsion 32.49
 Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines

Fuel and oxidizer are injected under pressure (> 400 atm) as a spray into the combustion chamber.
Two ways to create a high injection-pressure:

Pressure-fed engines
Simple but heavy tanks to withstand the high
pressure.
Small rocket engines (T < 4 − 5 kN) and short
duration, such as for attitude control.

Pump-fed engines
Complex but lighter tanks.
Various types of combustion cycles: Open cycle,
close cycle (staged cycle, full-flow staged cycle).
Large rocket engines, such as for launch vehicles.

Rocket Propulsion Anderson [2016] 33.49

 Fluid Propellants

Bipropellant
Liquid fuel and oxidizer are injected separately. A hypergolic combination self-ignites upon contact,
whereas a non-hypergolic combination needs an ignition system.
Examples: Liquid oxygen (LOX) as oxidizer; kerosene (RP-1), methane, liquid hydrogen as fuels.

Monopropellant
Oxidizing agent and combustible matter in a single liquid substance. Stable at ambient storage condi-
tions but decompose and yield hot combustion gases when heated or catalyzed in a chamber.
Example: Hydrazine (N2 H4 ).

Cold-gas propellant
A gas is stored at ambient temperatures but at relatively high pressures.
Examples: Inert gases such as helium, argon, or gaseous nitrogen.

Rocket Propulsion 34.49

 Comparison of US Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines

Rocket Propulsion https: // everydayastronaut. com/ News/ featured/ 35.49

 Solid-Propellant Rocket Motors

Fuel and oxidizer are premixed and cast in solid form.

Advantages:
• Engine is simpler, safer, and more reliable (no feed
system).
• Solid propellants are more storable and stable.
• They are dense. Larger thrust-to-volume ratios.

Disadvantages:
• Less specific impulse, Isp ≈ 200 − 300 s.
• One ignited, it cannot be turned off. Difficult to throttle.
The time variation of the thrust of a solid rocket engine
can be tailored via the shape of the solid propellant grain:

Rocket Propulsion Anderson [2016] 36.49

 Thermoelectrical Propulsion

Heat the propellant, and then

expand.

Resistojet
Use a resistor to dissipate power into
heat and heat up the propellant gas.
Material properties limits temperature to
less that 2, 700 K, and Isp < 300 s.

Arcjet
Use an electrical discharge to ionize the
propellant gas (like lightning in the
atmosphere). Removes material
limitations, reaching temperatures up to
20, 000 K.

Rocket Propulsion Sutton and Biblarz [2017] 37.49

 Nonthermal Electric Propulsion

Directly transform electrical energy into

thrust, without raising the propellant
temperatures.
This removes temperature limitations of solid
walls, which allows for higher specific impulse,
Isp ≈ 2000 − 6000 s, though with high power
consumptions.
Two classes depending on the forces used:
• Electrostatic (right figure).
• Electromagnetic.

Rocket Propulsion Sutton and Biblarz [2017] 38.49

 Summary: Rocket Propulsion

1. Rocket equation
mo
∆V = g0 Isp ln .
mo − mp
2. Thrust equation
T = ṁp Ve + (pe − p∞ )Ae .
3. Performance parameters:
• Specific impulse Isp ≡ T /(g0 ṁp ).
• Thrust-to-weight ratio.
4. Depending on applications
• Cold gas thrusters.
• Chemical rocket engines (liquid and solid propellant).
• Electric rocket engines (thermal and nonthermal).

Rocket Propulsion 39.49

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Keplerian Orbits
Kepler’s Laws
Orbits

3. Rocket Propulsion

4. Launch Vehicles
 Ariane 5

• Function: Heavy-lift launch vehicle

• Height: 46 − 52 m
• Diameter: 5.4 m
• Mass: 777 tonnes
• Stages: 2 cryogenic stages, 2 solid rocket boosters.
• Performance: 20 tonnes to LEO, 10 tonnes to GSO transfer orbit
(GTO).

Launch Vehicles Source: Arianespace 40.49

 Vega

• Function: Small-lift launch vehicle

• Height: 30 m
• Diameter: 3 m
• Mass: 137 tonnes
• Stages: 3 solid-propellant stages, upper stage for insertion, roll and
attitude control functions.
• Performance: 1.5 tonnes to a circular polar orbit at 700 km.

Launch Vehicles Source: Arianespace 41.49

 Falcon 9

• Function: Heavy-lift launch vehicle

• Height: 70 m
• Diameter: 3.7 m
• Mass: 549 tonnes
• Stages: 2 cryogenic stages
• Performance: 15 − 23 tonnes to LEO, 5.5 − 8.3 tonnes to GTO.

Launch Vehicles Source: SpaceX 42.49

 Introduction

The aim of the launch vehicle is to place the payload in a given orbit, i.e., at a given position and with
a given velocity vector.
The main question is one of economics: What is the cost per kilogram of payload?
• 50,000 EUR/kg to LEO, NASA’s space shuttle
• 2,500 EUR/kg to LEO, SpaceX’s Falcon 9.

Typically multi-staged vehicles, i.e., two or more distinct rockets are placed on top of each other (or
besides each other).
Typically expendable, i.e., the rocket stages are sequentially separated from the space vehicle (the
payload) and are destroyed in the atmosphere while falling back to earth.
There is an increasing interest in partly or totally reusable launchers, where stages are recovered and
used again multiple times to reduce costs (e.g., SpaceX, Blue Origin).

Launch Vehicles [Jones, 2018] 43.49

 Vehicle’s Staging

1. Propellant is stored in smaller, separate tanks rather than a larger, single tank. Each tank is
discarded when empty, so that energy is not used to accelerate empty tanks.
2. For convenience, separate tanks are usually bundled to their own engines, and each discardable
unit is called a stage.
3. Each stage provides a velocity increment (∆V )i . The total velocity increment for the vehicle is the
sum of those for the individual stages
n
X
∆V = (∆V )i , (20)
i=1

where n is the number of stages.

4. In this way, a higher ∆V is obtained. Alternatively, a larger payload mass can be
accelerated to a given ∆V .
5. It also allows to optimize the rocket of each stage to different atmospheric conditions, e.g., the
nozzle exit pressure.

Launch Vehicles 44.49

 Vehicle’s Mass Budget

The gross mass of the vehicle when stage i ignites consists of

payload mass, empty mass, and propellant mass:

mo,i = mPL,i + mE,i + mp,i . (21)

We define
mPL,i
λi ≡ , (payload ratio)
mo,i − mPL,i
mE,i
i ≡ . (structural ratio)
mo,i − mPL,i

The payload of each stage is all subsequent stages:

mPL,i = mo,i+1 . (23)

With n stages, the overall payload fraction can be written as

mPL mo,i+1 λi
πPL ≡ = Πni=1 = Πni=1 . (24)
mo mo,i 1 + λi
Launch Vehicles Curtis [2014], Fig. 11-5. 45.49
 Analysis of Staging

According to the rocket equation,

mo,i mo,i 1 + λi
(∆V )i = g0 Isp,i ln = g0 Isp,i ln = g0 Isp,i ln , (25)
mo,i − mp,i mPL,i + mE,i i + λi
so that
n
X 1 + λi
∆V = g0 Isp,i ln . (26)
i=1
i + λ i

Restricted staging: (unrealistic) assumption that all stages have the same Isp ,  and λ. For a given
1/n 1/n
πPL , one finds λ = πPL /(1 − πPL ) and " #n
1
∆V = g0 Isp ln 1/n . (27)
πPL (1 − ) + 

For current materials technology,  & 0.1. Using Isp = 350 s,  = 0.15 and πPL = 0.05, one finds:
• 5.7 km s−1 for a single-stage vehicle (n = 1), smaller than LEO orbital velocity!
• 7.4 km s−1 for a two-stage vehicle (n = 2).

Launch Vehicles 46.49

Earth’s rotation provides an Eastward velocity 0.464 cos φ km s−1 , where φ is the latitude.
Launch Vehicles 47.49
 Summary: Launch Vehicles

1. Heavy-lift launch vehicle put 10 − 20 tonnes into LEO, and 5 − 10 tonnes into GTO.
2. Staging allows to reach a higher delta-v for a given payload fraction. Alternatively, a larger payload
fraction can accelerated to a given delta-v.
3. For current materials and technology, structural ratios are larger than 0.1 and payload ratios are
smaller than 0.1.
For current materials and technology, we cannot reach LEO with a single stage.
4. Earth’s rotation provides a velocity of 0.464 km s−1 towards the East at the equator.

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 References and Further Reading

J. D. (Jr.) Anderson. Introduction to Flight. Mc Graw Hill, eighth edition, 2016.

R. R. Bate, D. D. Mueller, and J. E. White. Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. Dover Publications, Inc., 1971.
H. D. Curtis. Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students. Elsevier, third edition, 2014.
H. W. Jones. The recent large reduction in space launch costla. In 48th International Conference on Environmental Systems, number ICES-2018-81, 2018.
G. P. Sutton and O. Biblarz. Rocket Propulsion Elements. Wiley, ninth edition, 2017.

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