CHAPTER 2

COORDINATE SYSTEMS
AND TRANSFORMATION
History teaches us that man learns nothing from history.
—HEGEL

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In general, the physical quantities we shall be dealing with in EM are functions of space
and time. In order to describe the spatial variations of the quantities, we must be able to
­define all points uniquely in space in a suitable manner. This requires using an appropriate
coordinate system.
A point or vector can be represented in any curvilinear coordinate system, which may
be orthogonal or nonorthogonal.

An orthogonal system is one in which the coordinate surfaces are mutually perpendicular.

Nonorthogonal systems are hard to work with, and they are of little or no practical use.
Examples of orthogonal coordinate systems include the Cartesian (or rectangular), the cir-
cular cylindrical, the spherical, the elliptic cylindrical, the parabolic cylindrical, the conical,
the prolate spheroidal, the oblate spheroidal, and the ellipsoidal.1 A considerable amount of
work and time may be saved by choosing a coordinate system that best fits a given problem.
A hard problem in one coordinate system may turn out to be easy in another system.
In this text, we shall restrict ourselves to the three best-known coordinate systems:
the Cartesian, the circular cylindrical, and the spherical. Although we have considered the
Cartesian system in Chapter 1, we shall consider it in detail in this chapter. We should bear
in mind that the concepts covered in Chapter 1 and demonstrated in Cartesian coordinates
are equally applicable to other systems of coordinates. For example, the procedure for find-
ing the dot or cross product of two vectors in a cylindrical system is the same as that used
in the Cartesian system in Chapter 1.

1
For an introductory treatment of these coordinate systems, see M. R. Spiegel and J. Liu, Mathematical Handbook
of Formulas and Tables. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2nd ed., 1999, pp. 126–130.

31

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 32 CHAPTER 2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION

Sometimes, it is necessary to transform points and vectors from one coordinate

system to another. The techniques for doing this will be presented and illustrated with
examples.

2.2 CARTESIAN COORDINATES ( x, y, z)

As mentioned in Chapter 1, a point P can be represented as 1 x, y, z 2 as illustrated in

Figure 1.1. The ranges of the coordinate variables x, y, and z are
2` , x , `
2` , y , `(2.1)
2` , z , `
A vector A in Cartesian (otherwise known as rectangular) coordinates can be written as

1 Ax, Ay, Az 2 or Axax 1 Ayay 1 Azaz(2.2)

where ax, ay, and az are unit vectors along the x-, y-, and z-directions as shown in Figure 1.1.
The coordinate system may be either right-handed or left-handed. See Figure 1.13. It is cus-
tomary to use the right-handed system.

2.3 CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES (r, f, z)

The circular cylindrical coordinate system is very convenient whenever we are dealing with
problems having cylindrical symmetry, such as dealing with a coaxial transmission line.
A point P in cylindrical coordinates is represented as 1 r, f, z 2 and is as shown in
­Figure 2.1. Observe Figure 2.1 closely and note how we define each space variable: r is the

z FIGURE 2.1 Point P and unit vectors in the

cylindrical coordinate system.

az
ρ P aφ

aρ

y
φ

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 2.3 Circular Cylindrical Coordinates (r, , z) 33

radius of the cylinder passing through P or the radial distance from the z-axis; f, called the
azimuthal angle, is measured from the x-axis in the xy-plane; and z is the same as in the
Cartesian system. The ranges of the variables are

0#r,`
0 # f , 2p(2.3)
2` , z , `

A vector A in cylindrical coordinates can be written as

1 Ar, Af, Az 2 or Arar 1 Afaf 1 Azaz(2.4)

where ar, af, and az are unit vectors in the r-, f-, and z-directions as illustrated in
Figure 2.1. Note that af is not in degrees; it assumes the units of A. For example, if a
force of 10 N acts on a particle in a circular motion, the force may be represented as
F 5 10af N. In this case, af is in newtons.
The magnitude of A is

0 A 0 5 1 A2r 1 A2f 1 A2z 2 1/2 (2.5)

Notice that the unit vectors ar, af, and az are mutually perpendicular because our coor-
dinate system is orthogonal; ar points in the direction of increasing r, af in the direction
of increasing f, and az in the positive z-direction. Thus,

ar # ar 5 af # af 5 az # az 5 1(2.6a)
ar # af 5 af # az 5 az # ar 5 0(2.6b)
ar 3 af 5 az (2.6c)
af 3 az 5 ar (2.6d)
az 3 ar 5 af (2.6e)

where eqs. (2.6c) to (2.6e) are obtained in cyclic permutation (see Figure 1.9). They also show
that the system is right-handed, following the cyclic ordering r S f S z S r S f S . . . .
The relationships between the variables 1 x, y, z 2 of the Cartesian coordinate system
and those of the cylindrical system 1 r, f, z 2 are easily obtained from Figure 2.2 as

y
r 5 "x2 1 y2, f 5 tan21 , z 5 z(2.7)
x

or

x 5 r cos f, y 5 r sin f, z 5 z(2.8)

Whereas eq. (2.7) is for transforming a point from Cartesian 1 x, y, z 2 to cylindrical

1 r, f, z 2 coordinates, eq. (2.8) is for 1 r, f, z 2 S 1 x, y, z 2 transformation.

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 34 CHAPTER 2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION

FIGURE 2.2 Relationship between (x, y, z) and

(r, f, z).

The relationships between 1 ax, ay, az 2 and 1 ar, af, az 2 are obtained geometrically from
Figure 2.3:
ax 5 cos f ar 2 sin f af
ay 5 sin f ar 1 cos f af (2.9)
az 5 az

or

ar 5 cos f ax 1 sin f ay
af 5 2sin f ax 1 cos f ay (2.10)
az 5 az

Finally, the relationships between 1 Ax, Ay, Az 2 and 1 Ar, Af, Az 2 are obtained by simply
substituting eq. (2.9) into eq. (2.2) and collecting terms. Thus,

FIGURE 2.3 Unit vector transformation: (a) cylindrical components of ax,

(b) cylindrical components of ay.

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 2.4 Spherical Coordinates (r, , ) 35

A 5 1 Ax cos f 1 Ay sin f 2 ar 1 1 2Ax sin f 1 Ay cos f 2 af 1 Azaz(2.11)

or
Ar 5 Ax cos f 1 Ay sin f
Af 5 2Ax sin f 1 Ay cos f(2.12)
Az 5 Az

In matrix form, we write the transformation of vector A from 1 Ax, Ay, Az 2 to

1 Ar, Af, Az 2 as

Ar cos f sin f 0 Ax
£ Af § 5 £ 2sin f cos f 0 § £ Ay § (2.13)
Az 0 0 1 Az

The inverse of the transformation 1 Ar, Af, Az 2 S 1 Ax, Ay, Az 2 is obtained as

Ax cos f sin f 0 21 Ar
£ Ay § 5 £ 2sin f cos f 0 § £ Af § (2.14)
Az 0 0 1 Az

or directly from eqs. (2.4) and (2.10). Thus,

Ax cos f 2sin f 0 Ar
£ Ay § 5 £ sin f cos f 0 § £ Af § (2.15)
Az 0 0 1 Az

An alternative way of obtaining eq. (2.13) or (2.15) is by using the dot product. For
example,
Ax ax # a r a x # a f a x # a z Ar
£ A y § 5 £ ay # ar ay # af ay # az § £ Af § (2.16)
Az az # ar az # af az # az A z

The derivation of this is left as an exercise.

Keep in mind that eqs. (2.7) and (2.8) are for point-to-point transformation, while eqs.
(2.13) and (2.15) are for vector-to-vector transformation.

2.4 SPHERICAL COORDINATES (r, , f)

Although cylindrical coordinates are covered in calculus texts, the spherical coordinates
are rarely covered. The spherical coordinate system is most appropriate when one is deal-
ing with problems having a degree of spherical symmetry. A point P can be represented

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 36 CHAPTER 2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION

as 1 r, u, f 2 and is illustrated in Figure 2.4. From Figure 2.4, we notice that r is defined as
the distance from the origin to point P or the radius of a sphere centered at the origin and
passing through P;  (called the colatitude) is the angle between the z-axis and the position
vector of P; and f is measured from the x-axis (the same azimuthal angle in cylindrical
coordinates). According to these definitions, the ranges of the variables are

0#r,`
0 # u # p (2.17)
0 # f , 2p

A vector A in spherical coordinates may be written as

1 Ar, Au, Af 2 or Arar 1 Auau 1 Afaf(2.18)

where ar, a, and af are unit vectors along the r-, -, and f-directions. The magnitude of
A is

0 A 0 5 1 A2r 1 A2u 1 A2f 2 1/2(2.19)

The unit vectors ar, a, and af are mutually orthogonal, ar being directed along the
r­ adius or in the direction of increasing r, a in the direction of increasing , and af in the
­direction of increasing f. Thus,

ar # ar 5 au # au 5 af # af 5 1
ar # au 5 au # af 5 af # ar 5 0
ar 3 au 5 af (2.20)
au 3 af 5 ar
af 3 ar 5 au

FIGURE 2.4 Point P and unit

vectors in spherical coordinates.

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 2.4 Spherical Coordinates (r, , ) 37

Equation (2.20) shows that the coordinate system is orthogonal and right-handed.
The space variables 1 x, y, z 2 in Cartesian coordinates can be related to variables
1 r, u, f 2 of a spherical coordinate system. From Figure 2.5 it is easy to notice that

"x2 1 y2 y
r 5 "x2 1 y2 1 z2, u 5 tan21 , f 5 tan21 (2.21)
z x
or

x 5 r sin u cos f, y 5 r sin u sin f, z 5 r cos u(2.22)

In eq. (2.21), we have 1 x, y, z 2 S 1 r, u, f 2 point transformation and in eq. (2.22), it

is r, u, f 2 S 1 x, y, z 2 point transformation.
1
The unit vectors ax, ay, az and ar, a, af are related as follows:

ax 5 sin u cos f ar 1 cos u cos f au 2 sin f af

ay 5 sin u sin f ar 1 cos u sin f au 1 cos f af (2.23)
az 5 cos u ar 2 sin u au

or

ar 5 sin u cos f ax 1 sin u sin f ay 1 cos u az

au 5 cos u cos f ax 1 cos u sin f ay 2 sin u az(2.24)
af 5 2sin f ax 1 cos f ay

The components of vector A 5 1 Ax, Ay, Az 2 and A 5 1 Ar, Au, Af 2 are related by s­ ubstituting
eq. (2.23) into eq. (2.2) and collecting terms. Thus,

ρ = r sin θ

P (x, y, z) = P (r, θ, φ) = P (ρ, φ, z)

z = r cos θ
r

θ z

y
ρ x = ρ cos φ
φ
y = ρ sin φ

FIGURE 2.5 Relationships between space variables (x, y, z),

(r, , f), and (, f, z,).

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 38 CHAPTER 2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION

A 5 1 Ax sin u cos f 1 Ay sin u sin f 1 Az cos u 2 ar 1 1 Ax cos u cos f

1 Ay cos u sin f 2 Az sin u 2 au 1 1 2Ax sin f 1 Ay cos f 2 af (2.25)

and from this, we obtain

Ar 5 Ax sin u cos f 1 Ay sin u sin f 1 Az cos u

Au 5 Ax cos u cos f 1 Ay cos u sin f 2 Az sin u(2.26)
Af 5 2Ax sin f 1 Ay cos f

In matrix form, the 1 Ax, Ay, Az 2 S 1 Ar, Au, Af 2 vector transformation is performed
according to

Ar sin u cos f sin u sin f cos u Ax

£ Au § 5 £ cos u cos f cos u sin f 2sin u § £ Ay § (2.27)
Af 2sin f cos f 0 Az

The inverse transformation 1 Ar, Au, Af 2 S 1 Ax, Ay, Az 2 is similarly obtained, or we obtain
it from eq. (2.23). Thus,

Ax sin u cos f cos u cos f 2sin f Ar

£ Ay § 5 £ sin u sin f cos u sin f cos f § £ Au § (2.28)
Az cos u 2sin u 0 Af

Alternatively, we may obtain eqs. (2.27) and (2.28) by using the dot product. For
example,

Ar ar # a x a r # a y a r # a z Ax
£ A u § 5 £ au # ax au # ay au # az § £ Ay § (2.29)
Af af # ax af # ay af # az A z

For the sake of completeness, it may be instructive to obtain the point or vector
transformation relationships between cylindrical and spherical coordinates. We shall use
Figures 2.5 and 2.6 (where f is held constant, since it is common to both systems). This
will be left as an exercise (see Problem 2.16). Note that in a point or vector transformation,
the point or vector has not changed; it is only expressed differently. Thus, for example, the
magnitude of a vector will remain the same after the transformation, and this may serve as
a way of checking the result of the transformation.
The distance between two points is usually necessary in EM theory. The distance d
­between two points with position vectors r1 and r2 is generally given by

d 5 0 r2 2 r1 0 (2.30)

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 2.4 Spherical Coordinates (r, , ) 39

FIGURE 2.6 Unit vector transformations for

­cylindrical and spherical coordinates.

or

d2 5 1 x2 2 x1 2 2 1 1 y2 2 y1 2 2 1 1 z2 2 z1 2 2 1 Cartesian 2 (2.31)
2
d 5 r22 1 r21 2
2 2r1r2 cos 1 f2 2 f1 2 1 1 z2 2 z1 2 1 cylindrical 2 (2.32)
d2 5 r22 1 r21 2 2r1r2 cos u 2 cos u 1
(2.33)
2 2r1r2 sin u 2 sin u 1 cos 1 f2 2 f1 2 1 spherical 2 

Given point P 1 22, 6, 3 2 and vector A 5 yax 1 1 x 1 z 2 ay, express P and A in cylindrical
EXAMPLE 2.1
and spherical coordinates. Evaluate A at P in the Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical s­ ystems.
Solution:
At point P: x 5 22, y 5 6, z 5 3. Hence,

r 5 "x2 1 y2 5 "4 1 36 5 6.32

y 6
f 5 tan21 5 tan21 5 108.43º
x 22
z53

r 5 "x2 1 y2 1 z2 5 "4 1 36 1 9 5 7

"x2 1 y2 "40
u 5 tan21 5 tan21 5 64.628
z 3

Thus,

P 1 22, 6, 3 2 5 P 1 6.32, 108.438, 3 2 5 P 1 7, 64.628, 108.438 2

In the Cartesian system, A at P is

A 5 6ax 1 ay

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 40 CHAPTER 2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION

For vector A, Ax 5 y, Ay 5 x 1 z, Az 5 0. Hence, in the cylindrical system

Ar cos f sin f 0 y
£ Af § 5 £ 2sin f cos f 0§ £x 1 z§
Az 0 0 1 0

or

Ar 5 y cos f 1 1 x 1 z 2 sin f
Af 5 2y sin f 1 1 x 1 z 2 cos f
Az 5 0

But x 5 r cos f, y 5 r sin f, and substituting these yields

A 5 1 Ar, Af, Az 2 5 3 r cos f sin f 1 1 r cos f 1 z 2 sin f 4 ar

              1 3 2r sin2f 1 1 r cos f 1 z 2 cos f 4 af

At P

6
r 5 "40, tan f 5
22

Hence,
22 6
cos f 5 , sin f 5
"40 "40
22 # 6 22 6
A 5 c"40 # 1 a"40 # 1 3b # d ar
"40 "40 "40 "40
36 22 22
1 c 2"40 # 1 a"40 # 1 3b # d af
40 "40 "40
26 38
5 ar 2 af 5 20.9487ar 2 6.008af
"40 "40

Similarly, in the spherical system

Ar sin u cos f sin u sin f cos u y

£ Au § 5 £ cos u cos f cos u sin f 2sin u § £ x 1 z §
Af 2sin f cos f 0 0

or

Ar 5 y sin u cos f 1 1 x 1 z 2 sin u sin f

Au 5 y cos u cos f 1 1 x 1 z 2 cos u sin f

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 2.4 Spherical Coordinates (r, , ) 41

A 5 2y sin  1 (x 1 z) cos 

But x 5 r sin u cos f, y 5 r sin u sin f, and z 5 r cos u. Substituting these yields

A 5 1 Ar, Au, Af 2
5 r 3 sin2 u cos f sin f 1 1 sin u cos f 1 cos u 2 sin u sin f 4 ar
1 r 3 sin u cos u sin f cos f 1 1 sin u cos f 1 cos u 2 cos u sin f 4 au
1 r 3 2sin u sin2 f 1 1 sin u cos f 1 cos u 2 cos f 4 af
At P
6 "40
r 5 7, tan f 5 , tan u 5
22 3
Hence,
22 6 3 "40
cos f 5 , sin f 5 , cos u 5 , sin u 5
"40 "40 7 7
40 22 # 6 "40 # 22 3 "40 # 6
A57# c # 1a 1 b# d ar
49 "40 "40 7 "40 7 7 "40
"40 # 3 # 6 # 22 "40 # 22 3 3 6
17 # c 1 a 1 b# # d au
7 7 "40 "40 7 "40 7 7 "40
2"40 # 36 "40 # 22 3 22
17 # c 1a 1 b# d af
7 40 7 "40 7 "40
26 18 38
5 a 2 a 2 a
7 r 7"40 u "40 f
5 20.8571ar 2 0.4066au 2 6.008af

Note that 0 A 0 is the same in the three systems; that is,

0 A 1 x, y, z 2 0 5 0 A 1 r, f, z 2 0 5 0 A 1 r, u, f 2 0 5 6.083

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.1

Convert points P 1 1, 3, 5 2 , T 1 0, 24, 3 2 , and S 1 23, 24, 210 2 from Cartesian to

(a) 
cylindrical and spherical coordinates.

(b) Transform vector

"x2 1 y2ax yzaz

Q5 2
2 2 2
"x 1 y 1 z 2
"x 1 y2 1 z2

to cylindrical and spherical coordinates.

(c) Evaluate Q at T in the three coordinate systems.

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 42 CHAPTER 2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION

P 1 3.162, 71.56°, 5 2 , P 1 5.916, 32.31°, 71.56° 2 , T 1 4, 270°, 3 2 ,

Answer: (a) 
T 1 5, 53.13°, 270° 2 , S 1 5, 233.1°, 210 2 , S 1 11.18, 153.43°, 233.1° 2 .
r
(b)  1 cos f ar 2 sin f af 2 z sin f az 2 , sin u 1 sin u cos f 2
"r 1 z2
2

r cos2 u sin f 2 ar 1 sin u cos u 1 cos f 1 r sin u sin f 2 au 2 sin u sin f af.

(c) 0.8ax 1 2.4az, 0.8af 1 2.4az, 1.44ar 2 1.92au 1 0.8af.

EXAMPLE 2.2 Express the vector

10
B5 a 1 r cos u au 1 af
r r
in Cartesian and cylindrical coordinates. Find B 1 23, 4, 0 2 and B 1 5, p/2, 22 2 .
Solution:
Using eq. (2.28):

10
Bx sin u cos f cos u cos f 2sin f r
D T
£ By § 5 £ sin u sin f cos u sin f cos f § r cos u
Bz cos u 2sin u 0 1

or

10
Bx 5 sin u cos f 1 r cos2 u cos f 2 sin f
r
10
By 5 sin u sin f 1 r cos2 u sin f 1 cos f
r
10
Bz 5 cos u 2 r cos u sin u
r

"x2 1 y2 y
But r 5 "x2 1 y2 1 z2, u 5 tan21 , and f 5 tan21
z x
Hence,

r "x2 1 y2 z z
sin u 5 5 , cos u 5 5
r "x2 1 y2 1 z2 r "x 1 y2 1 z2
2

y y x x
sin f 5 5 , cos f 5 5
r "x 1 y2
2 r "x 1 y2
2

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 2.4 Spherical Coordinates (r, , ) 43

Substituting all these gives

10"x2 1 y2 x "x2 1 y2 1 z2 z2x y

Bx 5 # 1 # 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 x 1 y 1 z 2 "x2 1 y2 1 x 1 y 1 z 2 "x2 1 y2 "x2 1 y2
10x xz 2 y
5 2 1 2
x 1 y2 1 z2 " 1 x 1 y 2 1 x2 1 y2 1 z2 2
2 2
" 1 x2 1 y2 2

10"x2 1 y2 y "x2 1 y2 1 z2 z2y x

By 5 # 1 # 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 x 1 y 1 z 2 "x 1 y 2 x 1y 1z
2
"x 1 y 2 2
"x 1 y2
2

2
10y yz x
5 2 2 2 1 1
x 1y 1z 2 2 2 2 2
"1x 1 y 2 1x 1 y 1 z 2 "x 1 y2
2

10z z"x2 1 y2
Bz 5 2
x2 1 y2 1 z2 "x2 1 y2 1 z2
B 5 Bx ax 1 By ay 1 Bz az

where Bx, By, and Bz are as just given.

At 1 23, 4, 0 2 , x 5 23, y 5 4, and z 5 0, so
30 4
Bx 5 2 1 0 2 5 22
25 5
40 3
By 5 102 51
25 5
Bz 5 0 2 0 5 0
Thus,

B 5 22ax 1 ay

For spherical to cylindrical vector transformation (see Problem 2.16),

10
Br sin u cos u 0 r
D T
£ Bf § 5 £ 0 0 1 § r cos u
Bz cos u 2sin u 0 1

or
10
sin u 1 r cos2 u
Br 5
r
Bf 5 1
10
Bz 5 cos u 2 r sin u cos u
r
r
But r 5 "r2 1 z2 and u 5 tan21
z

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 44 CHAPTER 2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION

Thus,
r z
sin u 5 , cos u 5
2 2
"r 1 z "r 1 z2 2

10r 2 2 # z2
Br 5 2 2 1 "r 1 z
r 1z r 1 z2
2

10z 2 2 #
rz
Bz 5 2 2 2 "r 1 z
r 1z r 1 z2
2

Hence,
10r z2 10z rz
B5a 2 2 1 b ar 1 af 1 a 2 2 2 b az
r 1z "r2 1 z2 r 1z "r2 1 z2
At 1 5, p/2, 22 2 , r 5 5, f 5 p/2, and z 5 22, so

50 4 220 10
B5a 1 b ar 1 af 1 a 1 b az
29 "29 29 "29
5 2.467ar 1 af 1 1.167az

Note that at 1 23, 4, 0 2 ,

0 B 1 x, y, z 2 0 5 0 B 1 r, f, z 2 0 5 0 B 1 r, u, f 2 0 5 2.907

This may be used to check the correctness of the result whenever possible.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.2

Express the following vectors in Cartesian coordinates:

(a) A 5 rz sin f ar 1 3r cos f af 1 r cos f sin f az
(b) B 5 r2 ar 1 sin u af
1
Answer: (a) A 5 3 1 xyz 2 3xy 2 ax 1 1 zy2 1 3x2 2 ay 1 xyaz 4 .
2 2
"x 1 y
1
(b) B 5 5 3 x 1 x2 1 y2 1 z2 2 2 y 4 ax 1
2 2 2
"x 1 y 1 z
3 y 1 x2 1 y2 1 z2 2 1 x 4 ay 1 z 1 x2 1 y2 1 z2 2 az 6 .

2.5 CONSTANT-COORDINATE SURFACES

Surfaces in Cartesian, cylindrical, or spherical coordinate systems are easily generated by

keeping one of the coordinate variables constant and allowing the other two to vary. In the

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 2.5 Constant-Coordinate Surfaces 45

Cartesian system, if we keep x constant and allow y and z to vary, an infinite plane is gener-
ated. Thus we could have infinite planes

x 5 constant
y 5 constant (2.34)
z 5 constant

which are perpendicular to the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively, as shown in Figure 2.7. The
intersection of two planes is a line. For example,

x 5 constant, y 5 constant (2.35)

is the line RPQ parallel to the z-axis. The intersection of three planes is a point. For e­ xample,

x 5 constant, y 5 constant, z 5 constant (2.36)

is the point P 1 x, y, z 2 . Thus we may define point P as the intersection of three orthogonal
infinite planes. If P is 1 1, 25, 3 2 , then P is the intersection of planes x 5 1, y 5 25, and
z 5 3.
Orthogonal surfaces in cylindrical coordinates can likewise be generated. The
­surfaces

r 5 constant
f 5 constant (2.37)
z 5 constant

are illustrated in Figure 2.8, where it is easy to observe that r 5 constant is a circular cylin-
der, f 5 constant is a semi-infinite plane with its edge along the z-axis, and z 5 constant
is the same infinite plane as in a Cartesian system. Where two surfaces meet is either a line
or a circle. Thus,

z 5 constant, r 5 constant (2.38)

FIGURE 2.7 Constant x, y, and z surfaces.

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 46 CHAPTER 2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION

FIGURE 2.8 Constant r, f, and z surfaces.

is a circle QPR of radius r, whereas z 5 constant, f 5 constant is a semi-infinite line. A

point is an intersection of the three surfaces in eq. (2.37). Thus,

r 5 2, f 5 608, z 5 5(2.39)

is the point P 1 2, 608, 5 2 .

The orthogonal nature of the spherical coordinate system is evident by considering
the three surfaces

r 5 constant
u 5 constant(2.40)
f 5 constant

which are shown in Figure 2.9, where we notice that r 5 constant is a sphere of radius r
with its center at the origin; u 5 constant is a circular cone with the z-axis as its axis and
the origin as its vertex; f 5 constant is the semi-infinite plane as in a cylindrical system.
A line is formed by the intersection of two surfaces. For example,

r 5 constant, f 5 constant (2.41)

FIGURE 2.9 Constant r, , and f surfaces.

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 2.5 Constant-Coordinate Surfaces 47

is a semicircle passing through Q and P. The intersection of three surfaces gives a point.
Thus,

r 5 5, u 5 308, f 5 608(2.42)

is the point P 1 5, 30°, 60° 2 . We notice that in general, a point in three-dimensional space can be
identified as the intersection of three mutually orthogonal surfaces. Also, a unit normal vector
to the surface n 5 constant is 6an, where n is x, y, z, r, f, r, or . For example, to the plane
x 5 5, a unit normal vector is 6ax and to the plane f 5 20°, a unit normal vector is af.

Two uniform vector fields are given by E 5 25ar 1 10af 1 3az and F 5 ar1
EXAMPLE 2.3
2af 2 6az. Calculate
(a) 0 E 3 F 0
(b) The vector component of E at P 1 5, p/2, 3 2 parallel to the line x 5 2, z 5 3
(c) The angle that E makes with the surface z 5 3 at P
Solution:
ar af az
(a) E 3 F 5 † 25 10 3†
1 2 26
5 1 260 2 6 2 ar 1 1 3 2 30 2 af 1 1 210 2 10 2 az
5 1 266, 227, 220 2
0 E 3 F 0 5 "662 1 272 1 202 5 74.06
(b) Line x 5 2, z 5 3 is parallel to the y-axis, so the component of E parallel to the given
line is

1 E # ay 2 ay

But at P 1 5, p/2, 3 2

ay 5 sin f ar 1 cos f af
5 sin p/2 ar 1 cos p/2 af 5 ar

Therefore,

1 E # ay 2 ay 5 1 E # ar 2 ar 5 25ar 1 or 25ay 2

(c) Since the z-axis is normal to the surface z 5 3, we can use the dot product to find the
angle between the z-axis and E, as shown in Figure 2.10:

E # az 5 0 E 0 1 1 2 cos u Ez S 3 5 "134 cos u Ez

3
cos u Ez 5 5 0.2592 S u Ez 5 74.98°
"134

02_Sadiku_Ch02.indd 47 01/11/17 1:50 PM

 48 CHAPTER 2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION

FIGURE 2.10 For Example 2.3(c).

Hence, the angle between z 5 3 and E is

908 2 u Ez 5 15.028

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.3

Given the vector field

f
H 5 rz cos f ar 1 e22 sin a 1 r2az
2 f
at point 1 1, p/3, 0 2 , find

(a) H # ax
(b) H 3 au
(c) The vector component of H normal to surface r 5 1
(d) The scalar component of H tangential to the plane z 5 0

Answer: (a) 20.0586, (b) 20.06767 ar, (c) 0 ar, (d) 0.06767.

EXAMPLE 2.4 Given a vector field

1
D 5 r sin f ar 2 sin u cos f au 1 r2af
r
determine
(a) D at P 1 10, 1508, 3308 2
(b) The component of D tangential to the spherical surface r 5 10 at P
(c) A unit vector at P perpendicular to D and tangential to the cone u 5 1508

02_Sadiku_Ch02.indd 48 01/11/17 1:50 PM

 2.5 Constant-Coordinate Surfaces 49

Solution:
(a) At P, r 5 10, u 5 1508, and f 5 3308. Hence,
1
D 5 10 sin 3308 ar 2 sin 1508 cos 3308 au 1 100 af 5 1 25, 20.043, 100 2
10
(b) Any vector D can always be resolved into two orthogonal components:

D 5 Dt 1 D n

where Dt is tangential to a given surface and Dn is normal to it. In our case, since ar is
­normal to the surface r  10,

Dn 5 r sin f ar 5 25ar

Hence,

Dt 5 D 2 Dn 5 20.043au 1 100af

(c) A vector at P perpendicular to D and tangential to the cone u 5 1508 is the same as the
vector perpendicular to both D and au. Hence,

ar au af
D 3 au 5 † 25 20.043 100 †
0 1 0

5 2100ar 2 5af

A unit vector along this is

2100ar 2 5af
a5 5 20.9988ar 2 0.0499af
"1002 1 52

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.4

If A 5 3ar 1 2au 2 6af and B 5 4ar 1 3af, determine

(a) A # B
(b) 0 A 3 B 0
(c) The vector component of A along az at 1 1, p/3, 5p/4 2

Answer: (a) 26, (b) 34.48, (c) 20.116ar 1 0.201au.

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 50 CHAPTER 2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION

MATLAB 2.1 % This script allows the user to input a coordinate in either
% rectangular, cylindrical, or spherical coordinates and
% retrieve the answer in the other coordinate systems
clear
% prompt the user for the coordinate system
disp(‘Enter the coordinate system of the input coordinate’);
coord_sys = input(‘ (r, c, or s)... \n > ‘,’s’);
% if user entered something other than “r” “c” or “s”
% set default as “r”
if isempty(coord_sys); coord_sys = ‘r’; end
if coord_sys == ‘r’;
% prompt the user for the coordinate
disp(‘Enter the rectangular coordinate in the ‘);
crd = input(‘format [x y z]... \n > ‘);
% check input to see if empty and set to 0 if so
if isempty(crd); crd = [0 0 0]; end
disp(‘Cylindrical coordinates [rho phi(rad) z]:’)
% display the result... the [ ] and enclose a
% three-dimensional vector
disp([sqrt(crd(1)^2+crd(2)^2) atan2(crd(2),crd(1)) crd(3)])
disp(‘Spherical coordinates [r phi(rad) theta(rad]:’)
disp([norm(crd) atan2(crd(2),crd(1)) acos(crd(3)/

norm(crd))])
elseif coord_sys == ‘c’; % if not r but c execute this block
disp(‘Enter the cylindrical coordinate in the format’);
crd = input(‘ [\rho \phi z]... \n > ‘);
% check input to see if empty and set to 0 if so
if isempty(crd); crd = [0 0 0]; end
disp(‘Rectangular coordinates [x y z]:’)
disp([crd(1)*cos(crd(2)) crd(1)*sin(crd(2)) crd(3)])
disp(‘Spherical coordinates [r phi(rad) theta(rad]:’)
disp([sqrt(crd(1)^2+crd(3)^2) crd(2) crd(3)*cos(crd(3))])
else coord_sys == ‘s’; % if not r nor c but s execute this block
disp(‘Enter the spherical coordinate in the’);
crd = input(‘format [\rho \phi \theta]... \n > ‘);
if isempty(crd); crd = [0 0 0]; end
disp(‘Rectangular coordinates [x y z]:’)
disp([crd(1)*cos(crd(2))*sin(crd(3)) ...
crd(1)*sin(crd(2))*sin(crd(3)) crd(1)*cos(crd(3))])
disp(‘Cylindrical coordinates [r phi(rad) theta(rad]:’)
disp([crd(1)*sin(crd(3)) crd(2) crd(1)*cos(crd(3))])
end

MATLAB 2.1 % This script allows the user to input a non-variable vector
% in rectangular coordinates and obtain the cylindrical, or
% spherical components. The user must also enter the point
% location where this transformation occurs; the result

02_Sadiku_Ch02.indd 50 01/11/17 1:51 PM

 Summary 51

% depends on the vector’s observation point

clear
% prompt the user for the vectors and check to see if entered
% properly, else set to 0
disp(‘Enter the rectangular vector (in the ‘);
v = input(‘ format [x y z])... \n > ‘);
if isempty(v); v = [0 0 0]; end
disp(‘Enter the location of the vector (in the ‘);
p = input(‘ format [x y z])... \n > ‘);
if isempty(p); p = [0 0 0]; end
disp(‘Cylindrical components [rho phi(rad) z]:’)
phi = atan2(p(2),p(1));
% Create the transformation matrix
cyl_p=[cos(phi) sin(phi) 0; ... % The ellipses allow a single
  
% command over multiple lines
-sin(phi) cos(phi) 0; ...
0 0 1];
disp((cyl_p*v’)’) % the ’ denotes a transpose from a row
% vector to a column vector
% The second transpose converts the column
  % vector back to a row vector
disp(‘Spherical components [r phi(rad) theta(rad]:’)
phi = atan2(p(3),sqrt(p(1)^2+p(2)^2));
theta = atan2(p(2),p(1));
% Create the transformation matrix
sph_p=[sin(theta)*cos(phi) sin(theta)*sin(phi) cos(theta); ...
cos(theta)*cos(phi) cos(theta)*sin(phi) -sin(theta);...
-sin(phi) cos(phi) 0];
disp((sph_p*v’)’)

SUMMARY
1. The three common coordinate systems we shall use throughout the text are the
­Cartesian (or rectangular), the circular cylindrical, and the spherical.
2. A point P is represented as P 1 x, y, z 2 , P 1 r, f, z 2 , and P 1 r, u, f 2 in the Cartesian, cylin-
drical, and spherical systems, respectively. A vector field A is represented as 1 Ax, Ay, Az 2
or Axax 1 Ayay 1 Azaz in the Cartesian system, as 1 Ar, Af, Az 2 or Arar 1 Afaf 1 Azaz
in the cylindrical system, and as 1 Ar, Au, Af 2 or Arar 1 Auau 1 Afaf in the spherical
system. It is preferable that mathematical operations (addition, subtraction, product,
etc.) be performed in the same coordinate system. Thus, point and vector transforma-
tions should be performed whenever necessary. A summary of point and vector trans-
formations is given in Table 2.1.
3. Fixing one space variable defines a surface; fixing two defines a line; fixing three defines
a point.
4. A unit normal vector to surface n 5 constant is 6an.

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 52 CHAPTER 2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION

TABLE 2.1 Relationships between Rectangular, Cylindrical, and Spherical Coordinates

Rectangular to Cylindrical Cylindrical to Rectangular

x 5 r cos f r 5 #x2 1 y2 y
Variable sin f 5
c y 5 r sin f y 2 2
change Variable d f 5 tan21 a b d #x 1 y
z5z change x x
cos f 5
Ap 5 Ax cos f 1 Ay sin f z 5z 2
#x 1 y
2
Component
change c A f 5 2Ax sin f 1 Ay cos f x y
Az 5 Az Ax 5 Ar 2 Af
2 2 2 2
#x 1 y #x 1 y
Component e A 5 A y x
y r 1 Af
change 2
#x 1 y
2 2
#x 1 y
2

Az 5 Az

Rectangular to Spherical Spherical to Rectangular

x 5 r sin u cos f r 5 #x2 1 y2 1 z2

Variable
change c y 5 r sin u sin f z
z 5 r cos u cos u 5
Variable 22 2
change z #x 1 y 1 z
u 5 cos 21
e
Ar 5 Ax sin u cos f 1 Ay sin u sin f 2 2
#x 1 y
2 2 2
#x 1 y 1 z
1 Az cos u sin u 5
Component e Au 5 Ax cos u cos f 1 Ay cos u sin f h 2 2
#x 1 y 1 z
2

change 2 Az sin u x
cos f 5
Af 5 2Ax sin f 1 Ay cos f y 22
f 5 tan21 a b d #x 1 y
x y
sin f 5
2 2
#x 1 y

Arx Auxz Afy

Ax 5 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
#x 1 y 1 z #1x 1 y 2 1x 1 y 1 z 2 #x 1 y
Component Ary Auyz Afx
change gAy 5 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
#x 1 y 1 z #1x 1 y 2 1x 1 y 1 z 2 #x 1 y
2 2
Arz Au#x 1 y
Az 5 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
#x 1 y 1 z #x 1 y 1 z

Adopted with permission from G. F. Miner, Lines and Electromagnetic Fields for Engineers. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1996, p. 263.

REVIEW
QUESTIONS 2.1 The ranges of  and f as given by eq. (2.17) are not the only possible ones. The following
are all alternative ranges of  and f, except
(a) 0 # u , 2p, 0 # f # p
(b) 0 # u , 2p, 0 # f , 2p
(c) 2p # u # p, 0 # f # p
(d) 2p/2 # u # p/2, 0 # f , 2p
(e) 0 # u # p, 2p # f , p
(f) 2p # u , p, 2p # f , p

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 Review Questions 53

2.2 At Cartesian point 1 23, 4, 21 2 , which of these is incorrect?

5
(a) r 5 25 (c) u 5 tan21
21
4
(b) r 5 !26 (d) f 5 tan21
23

2.3 Which of these is not valid at point 1 0, 4, 0 2 ?

(a) af 5 2ax (c) ar 5 4ay
(b) au 5 2az (d) ar 5 ay

2.4 A unit normal vector to the cone u 5 308 is:

(a) ar (c) af
(b) a (d) none of these

2.5 At every point in space, af # au 5 1.

(a) True (b) False

2.6 If H 5 4ar 2 3af 1 5az, at 1 1, p/2, 0 2 the component of H parallel to surface

r 5 1 is
(a) 4ar (d) 23af 1 5az
(b) 5az (e) 5af 1 3az
(c) 23af

2.7 Given G 5 20ar 1 50au 1 40af, at 1 1, p/2, p/6 2 the component of G perpendicular to
surface u 5 p/2 is
(a) 20ar (d) 20ar 1 40au
(b) 50a (e) 240ar 1 20af
(c) 40af

2.8 Where surfaces r 5 2 and z 5 1 intersect is

(a) an infinite plane (d) a cylinder
(b) a semi-infinite plane (e) a cone
(c) a circle

2.9 Match the items in the list at the left with those in the list at the right. Each answer can be
used once, more than once, or not at all.
(a) u 5 p/4 (i)    infinite plane
(b) f 5 2p/3 (ii)   semi-infinite plane
(c) x 5 210 (iii)  circle
(d) r 5 1, u 5 p/3, f 5 p/2 (iv)   semicircle
(e) r55 (v)   straight line
(f) r 5 3, f 5 5p/3 (vi)   cone
(g) r 5 10, z 5 1 (vii)   cylinder

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 54 CHAPTER 2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION

(h) r 5 4, f 5 p/6 (viii) sphere

(i) r 5 5, u 5 p/3 (ix) cube
(x)   point
2.10 A wedge is described by z 5 0, 308 , f , 608. Which of the following is
incorrect?
(a) The wedge lies in the xy-plane.
(b) It is infinitely long.
(c) On the wedge, 0 , r , `.
(d) A unit normal to the wedge is 6az.
(e) The wedge includes neither the x-axis nor the y-axis.
Answers: 2.1b,f, 2.2a, 2.3c, 2.4b, 2.5b, 2.6d, 2.7b, 2.8c, 2.9a-(vi), b-(ii), c-(i), d-(x), e-(vii), f-(v),
g-(iii), h-(iv), i-(iii), 2.10b.

PROBLEMS
Sections 2.3 and 2.4—Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates

2.1 Convert the following Cartesian points to cylindrical and spherical coordinates:
(a) P 1 2, 5, 1 2
(b) Q 1 23, 4, 0 2
(c) R 1 6, 2, 24 2

2.2 Express the following points in Cartesian coordinates:

(a) P1 1 2, 308, 5 2
(b) P2 1 1, 908, 23 2
(c) P3 1 10, p/4, p/3 2
(d) P4 1 4, 308, 608 2

2.3 The rectangular coordinates at point P are (x 5 2, y 5 6, z 5 24). (a) What are its
­cylindrical coordinates? (b) What are its spherical coordinates?

2.4 The cylindrical coordinates of point Q are r 5 5,  5 120°, z 5 1. Express Q as ­rectangular

and spherical coordinates.

2.5 Given point T(10, 60, 30) in spherical coordinates, express T in Cartesian and cylindrical
coordinates.

2.6 (a) If V 5 xz 2 xy 1 yz, express V in cylindrical coordinates.

(b) If U 5 x2 1 2y2 1 3z2, express U in spherical coordinates.

2.7 Convert the following vectors to cylindrical and spherical systems:

xax 1 yay 1 4az

(a) F 5
"x2 1 y2 1 z2

02_Sadiku_Ch02.indd 54 01/11/17 1:51 PM

 Problems 55

xax yay zaz

(b) G 5 1 x2 1 y2 2 c 1 1 d
2 2 2 2 2 2
"x 1 y 1 z "x 1 y 1 z "x 1 y2 1 z2
2

y
2.8 Let B 5 "x2 1 y2 ax 1 ay 1 zaz . Transform B to cylindrical coordinates.
"x 1 y2 2

2.9 Given vector A 5 2ar 1 3a 1 4az, convert A into Cartesian coordinates at point
(2, /2, 21).

2.10 Express the following vectors in rectangular coordinates:

(a) A 5 r sin f ar 1 r cos f af 2 2z az
(b) B 5 4r cos f ar 1 r au
4ar
2.11 Given the vector field F 5 , express F in rectangular coordinates.
r2

2.12 If B 5 r sin ar 2 r2 cos faf, (a) find B at (2, p/2, 3p/2), (b) convert B to Cartersian coordi-
nates.

2.13 Let B 5 xaz. Express B in

(a) cylindrical coordinates,
(b) spherical coordinates.

2.14 Prove the following:

(a) ax 3 ar 5 cos f
ax 3 af 5 2sin f
ay 3 ar 5 sin f
ay 3 af 5 cosf
(b) ax 3 ar 5 sin u cos f
ax 3 au 5 cos u cos f
ay 3 ar 5 sin u sin f
(c) ay 3 au 5 cos u sin f
az 3 ar 5 cos u
az 3 au 5 2sin u

2.15 Prove the following expressions:

(a) ar 3 af 5 az
az 3 ar 5 af
af 3 az 5 ar
(b) 
ar 3 af 5 af
az 3 ar 5 au
au 3 af 5 ar

2.16 (a) Show that point transformation between cylindrical and spherical coordinates is
­obtained using
r
r 5 "r2 1 z2, u 5 tan21 , f5f
z

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 56 CHAPTER 2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION

or
r 5 r sin u, z 5 r cos u, f5f
(b) Show that vector transformation between cylindrical and spherical coordinates is
­obtained using

Ar sin u 0 cos u Ar
£ Au § 5 £ cos u 0 2sin u § £ Af §
Af 0 1 0 Az

or
Ar sin u cos u 0 Ar
£ Af § 5 £ 0 0 1 § £ Au §
Az cos u 2sin u 0 Af
(Hint: Make use of Figures 2.5 and 2.6.)

2.17 At point P(2,0,21), calculate the value of the following dot products:
(a) ar ? ax, (b)af ? ay, (c)ar ? az

2.18 Show that the vector fields

A 5 r sin  ar 1 r cos a 1 raz
B 5 r sin ar 1 r cos a 2 raz
are perpendicular to each other at any point.

2.19 Given that A 5 3ar 1 2a 1 az and B 5 5ar 2 8az , find:

(a) A 1 B, (b) A  B, (c) A 3 B, (d) the angle between A and B.

2.20 Given that G 5 3rar 1r cos a 2 z2az, find the component of G along ax at point
Q(3,24,6).

2.21 Let G 5 yzax 1 xzay 1 xyaz. Transform G to cylindrical coordinates.

2.22 The transformation 1 Ar, Af, Az 2 S 1 Ax, Ay, Az 2 in eq. (2.15) is not complete. Complete it
by expressing cos f and sin f in terms of x, y, and z. Do the same thing to the transforma-
tion 1 Ar, Au, Af 2 S 1 Ax, Ay, Az 2 in eq. (2.28).

2.23 In Practice Exercise 2.2, express A in spherical and B in cylindrical coordinates. Evaluate
A at 1 10, p/2, 3p/4 2 and B at 1 2, p/6, 1 2 .

2.24 Calculate the distance between the following pairs of points:

(a) 1 2, 1, 5 2 and 1 6, 21, 2 2
(b) 1 3, p/2, 21 2 and 1 5, 3p/2, 5 2
(c) 1 10, p/4, 3p/4 2 and 1 5, p/6, 7p/4 2

2.25 Calculate the distance between points P(4, 30, 0) and Q(6, 90, 180).

02_Sadiku_Ch02.indd 56 01/11/17 1:51 PM

 Problems 57

2.26 At point (0, 4, 21), express ar and a in Cartesian coordinates.

2.27 Let A 5 (2z 2 sin )ar 1 (4r 1 2 cos )a 2 3rzaz and B 5 r cos ar 1 sin a 1 az.
(a) Find the minimum angle between A and B at (1, 60, 21).
(b) Determine a unit vector normal to both A and B at (1, 90, 0).

2.28 Given vectors A 5 2ax 1 4ay 1 10az and B 5 25ar 1 af 2 3az, find
(a) A 1 B at P 1 0, 2, 25 2
(b) The angle between A and B at P
(c) The scalar component of A along B at P

2.29 Given that B 5 r2 sin ar 1 (z 2 1) cos a 1 z2az, find B  ax at (4, p/4, 21).

2.30 A vector field in “mixed” coordinate variables is given by

x cos f 2yz x2
G5 ax 1 2 ay 1 a1 2 2 b az
r r r
Express G completely in the spherical system.

Section 2.5—Constant-Coordinate Surfaces

2.31 Describe the intersection of the following surfaces:
(a) x 5 2, y 5 5
(b) x 5 2, y 5 21, z 5 10
(c) r 5 10, u 5 308
(d) r 5 5, f 5 408
(e) f 5 608, z 5 10
(f) r 5 5, f 5 908
u
2.32 If J 5 r sin u cos f ar 2 cos 2u sin f au 1 tan ln r af at T 1 2, p/2, 3p/2 2, determine the
vector component of J that is: 2

(a) Parallel to az
(b) Normal to surface f 5 3p/2
(c) Tangential to the spherical surface r 5 2
(d) Parallel to the line y 5 22, z 5 0

2.33 If H 5 r2 cos ar 2 r sin a, find H  ax at point P(2, 60°, 21).

2.34 If r 5 xax 1 yay 1 zaz, describe the surface defined by:

(a) r # ax 1 r # ay 5 5
(b) 0 r 3 az 0 5 10

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