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2.9. Factor Groups 131
(¢) If H is « subgroup of G, show that 1V(H) is the largest subgroup of G in which
H is normal. That is, if H < K, and K is a subgroup of G, then KC N(H),
26. If H is a subgroup of G, define the core of H, denoted core H, to be the intersection
of all the conjugates of #7 in G; that is,
core H = {9 €G|9€ aa" for all a€G) = (Mata Ja € Gh.
() Show thet core H < G and core HC H.
(b) Show that core is the largest: normal subgroup of G that is contained in Hl;
that is, f K- 2, recall the construction of Z,, in Section 1.3. Given the subgroup nZ of
(Z,+), the set Z, consists of all “residue classes” @= {x € Z| x=a (mod n)}
where a € Z.. These classes are really cosets & = niZ-+a. Moreover, we defined ad-
dition in Z, by G+5=a+6; that is,
(nZ +0) + (nZ +8) =n. + (a+)
‘This suggests a general definition: If KC is a subgroup of a multiplicative group G,
wwe could define an analogous multiplication on the set of right cosets by
KaKb=Kab foralla,beG. “
However, this may not make sense for some subgroups K because cosets can have
different generators: Ka = Ka; can happen where a and a; may not be equal
More precisely, let = Ka = Ka; and y = Kb = Kb; be cosets. If we multiply
© = Kaand y = Kb using (*) we got zy = Kab, but if we view 2 and y as ¢ = Ka,
and y = Kb we obtain cy = Kab. Clearly, what is neodod is:
If Ka= Kay and Kb= Kb, then necessarily Kab = Kayby
In this case we say that the multiplication Ka Kb= Kab is well defined. This
condition on K is equivalent to 1 being normal in G.
Lemma, The following conditions are equivalent for a subgroup KC of G.
(1) K js normal in 6.
(2) KaKb= Kab is a well defined multiplication of right cosets. 132 2. Groups
Proof. (1) = (2). If K 4G, let Ke
bby) © K. We must show that Kab
)
because aka“! C.K. This is what we wanted.
(2) + (1). If aeG@ we must show that aka“! € K for all ke K. Clearly
Ka= Ka and Kk = K1, so applying (2) gives Kak = Kal, thot is Kak = Ka,
But then (ak)a~! € K, as required .
‘Theorem 1. Let K H. The first is
‘The image of a, defined by ima = a(G) = {a(9) |g €G}.
This is a subgroup of H as was shown in Corollary 2 of Theorem 1 §2.5. We now
turn to a subgroup of G determined by a: G+ H
‘The kernel of a, defined by kera = {k € G | a(k) = 1}.
‘Theorem 1. Let a: G+ HT be a group homomorphism.
(1) @(G) is a subgroup of H.
(2) kera: is a normal subgroup of G.
Proof. (1) This is Corollary 2 of Theorem 1 §2..
(2) We have 1 ¢ kere: because a(1) = 1. If, WC kere, then
a(kk) =a(k) a()=1-2=1 and afk!) = afk)”
Hence kk! € kera and k”! € ker a, s0 kere is a subgroup. If g € G and k € K then
a(gkg™*) = a(g) -a(k) - (9?) = ag) -1- (a)
‘This shows that 9(kera)g™! C ker for all. g € G, and so proves that kera <1 G.1B
Note that the image of a homomorphism a: G+ H need not be normal in H. For
example, if K is any subgroup of H, define the inclusion mapping +: K — H by
a(k) =k for all k € K.. This is a one-to-one homomorphism, but (A) = K need not
be normal in H.
‘Theorem 1 shows that kernels of homomorphisms from G are normal in G.
Conversely, every normal subgroup of a group @ arises as the kernel of some homo-
morphism with @ as domain:
‘Theorem 2. If K < G, then K = kery where y : G ~ G/K is the coset mapping. 1982. Groups
Proof. The coset map ¢ is defined by (9) = Kg for all 9 €G and is a homo-
‘morphism by Theorem 1 §2.9. Because K is the unity of the group G/K, we have
9 € kery if and only if Kg = K, if and only if g € K. Hence ker = K. 1
Many important subgroups are kernels of naturally occurring homomorphisms;
indeed, the easiest way to verify that a subgroup of a group G is normal in G is
offen to exhibit it as the kernel of a homomorphism with @ as domain.
Example 1. The absolute value homomorphism C* + R* given by z+ |2| has
kernel the circle group C? = {z € C* | |z| = 1}.
Example 2. The kernel of the determinant homomorphism A+ det A from
GLq(R) — R’ is the special linear group Sln(R) = {A € M,(I) | det A = 1}.
Example 3. If Gis a group and g € G has finite order n, let a: Z— G be the
exponent mapping given by a(k) = g*. ‘Chen ker a =n, by Theorem 2 §2.4.
Example 4. Show that Ay 4S, by exhibiting A, as a kernel
1 if iseven
=1 if is odd
‘Then the sign mapping a : Sy — {1, ~1} given by a(o) = sgn is a homomorphism
(see Exercise 29 §1.4), Clearly kera = An. o
Ezample 5. The trivial homomorphism G ~+ H is the only one with @ as kernel.
Solution, Define the sign of a permutation « € S, by sgna =
It is clear that a homomorphism a: G—+ H is onto if and only if a(G) = H,
that is, if and only if the image a(G) is as large a subgroup of Has possible. The
next theorem shows that a is one-to-one if and only if ker aris as small as possible.
Theorem 3. Ifa: G — H is a homomorphism, then a is one-to-one if and only if
kera= {1}.
Proof. If a is one-to-one, let g € kera, Thus a(g) (1), so g=1 because
a is one-to-one. Hence kera= {1}. Conversely, let ker a= {1} and suppose
that a(a) = a(b) where a and b are in G. Then a(ab-) = a(a)a(s)-! = 1, 0
ab"! € kera ~ {1}. This shows that ab“! —1 and hence that a—6. Thus a is
one-to-one, o
‘Theorem 3 is used frequently to test when a homomorphism is one-to-one.
‘We now come to one of the most useful theorems in group theory.
Theorem 4. Isomorphism Theorem®. Let a: G—> H be a group homomor-
phism and write K = kera. Then
o(G) © G/ kere
Proof. Write K = ker a for simplicity, and define
:G/K — a(G) by a(Kg) = a(g) for all Kg € G/K.
First is well defined; that is, Kg = Kg: implies that a(g) = a(9;). In fact,
Kg=Ko. & gg*€K & alggi*)=1 % a(g) = a(g1).
This result goes back to Camille Jordan (1888-1922) in his book Traité des Substitutions (1870),
where the concept of a homomorphism was introduced,
