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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Soils (Part 02)

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Soils (Part 02)

WHAT IS SOIL PROFILE?

❖ A soil profile, comprising distinct horizontal layers (horizons), is a three-dimensional

representation of the soil.

❖ The soil's physical, chemical, and biological

attributes can undergo significant variations

throughout the soil profile due to different

factors such as soil formation, drainage

patterns, and management practices.

❖ The diverse horizons within the profile result

from these influencing factors, contributing

to a wide range of soil appearances. Describing the features of a soil profile is essential

for distinguishing one soil type from another.

❖ The examination of a soil profile holds significance as it serves as a historical record

documenting all soil-forming processes.

❖ The soil profile is instrumental in soil classification, playing a pivotal role in categorizing

different types of soils.

❖ In essence, a comprehensive study of soil profiles is essential for understanding the

historical evolution of soils, facilitating academic research, and informing practical

applications in diverse contexts.

Soil Horizons:

❖ The horizons can be broadly categorized as topsoil, subsoil, and rock.

❖ The 'A' horizon(s) constitute the topsoil, the 'B' horizon(s) make up the subsoil, and the

'C' horizon and/or 'R' horizon form the rock category. Within these broad groups, sub-

horizons may also be present.

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O Horizons:(Organic)

❖ The O-Horizon soil contains organic materials such as dried leaves, small rocks, fallen

trees, and other decomposable organic matter.

❖ It comprises approximately 20 to 30 percent organic content.

❖ The soil typically exhibits a color ranging from black-brown to dark brown, attributed

to the presence of organic matter.

❖ They Result from litter derived from dead plants and animals. ‘O’ horizons usually

occur in forested areas and are generally absent in grassland regions

Topsoil

A Horizon:

❖ The A-Horizon Layer, commonly referred to as the humus layer, is composed of organic

material.

❖ Positioned at the topmost layer of the soil, it is composed of dark, decomposed matter

known as humus.
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❖ Humus plays a crucial role in enriching the soil by providing essential nutrients, thereby

enhancing its fertility.

❖ Additionally, it supports the soil's vitality. Due to its ability to increase water retention,

this layer possesses a soft texture and can hold more water than any other soil layer.

❖ Numerous living organisms, such as beetles and worms, thrive in this layer.

❖ A0 Horizon: Comprising decomposing crop and pasture stubble.

❖ A1 Horizon: Characterized as the most organic horizon, usually darker than the lower

part of the profile, and represents the zone of maximum biological activity.

❖ A2 Horizon: Exhibiting a similar texture to A1 but lighter in color (often referred to

as 'bleached'), with less organic matter and reduced biological activity. This horizon is

not always present.

Subsoil

B1 Horizon: Serving as a transition between the A horizon and the B2 horizon, with

characteristics more akin to the B2 horizon than the A horizon. This horizon may not

always be present.

B2 Horizon: Typically characterized by the highest clay accumulation and intense

coloration, possibly featuring mottles (bright color splashes).

C Horizon: Beneath the B-Horizon lies another soil layer, which comprises less weathered

rocks or parent rocks. This layer is devoid of any organic substances and is commonly

referred to as [Link] weathered parent material (rock or unconsolidated

material), exhibiting limited soil development and occasionally located too deep to

observe.

The R-Horizon is characterized by partially weathered rocks or unweathered rocks and

serves as the foundational or base layer of the soil. In this layer, one can encounter minerals
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such as manganese, granite, limestone, and [Link] rock that varies in depth,

potentially existing close to the surface or too deep to be observed.

Classification of Soil:

❖ In the latter part of the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century,

Dokuchaiev (1900), Joffey (1912), and Marbut (1935) categorized soil by considering

factors such as zonality, inherent properties, and morphology. They underscored the

importance of examining actual soils to understand characteristics like soil color,

texture, structure, consistency, drainage conditions, and more.

❖ Marbut, in particular, introduced the concepts of pedalfers and pedocals.

❖ However, a significant drawback of Marbut's Morphogenetic soil classification was its

reliance, to some extent, on assumptions about soil genesis.

❖ Consequently, many soil series recognized in the United States (U.S.) did not align with

Marbut's soil classification system.

Pedalfer:

Pedalfer, a dense forest of tall and slender trees, is depicted as a dark and fertile soil type

that develops in wooded regions.

Deciduous trees, shedding their leaves annually, thrive in environments with a minimum

of 65 cm of annual rainfall.

These forests give rise to pedalfers, prevalent in various temperate, eastern parts of the

United States.

The term 'pedalfer' is derived from elements commonly present in the soil. 'Al' in pedalfer

represents the chemical symbol for aluminum, while 'Fe' stands for iron.

Typically, pedalfers exhibit rich, dark brown, or black soil, owing to their abundance in

aluminum clays and iron oxides.

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Given the ample rainfall in this climate, soluble minerals tend to dissolve and be washed

away, leaving behind the less soluble clays and iron oxides.

Pedocal:

❖ Pedocal, as depicted, is the alkaline soil variety that emerges in grassland regions.

❖ These soils develop in drier, temperate zones where grasslands and brush serve as the

predominant vegetation.

❖ The climates conducive to pedocal formation receive less than 65 cm of annual rainfall.

❖ In comparison to pedalfers, the lower precipitation results in reduced chemical

weathering and less water available to dissolve soluble minerals, leading to a higher

concentration of soluble minerals and fewer clay minerals.

❖ The region, being arid with sparse vegetation, exhibits lower organic material content,

resulting in less fertile soils.

❖ The term 'pedocal' originates from the distinctive calcite-enriched layer that forms

within.

❖ As water percolates through the soil layers, evaporation occurs before it can penetrate

deeply.

❖ Soluble minerals, such as calcium carbonate, concentrate in a layer known as caliche,

marking the lowest point reached by water.

Genetic Classification of Soil:

Baldwin, Kellogg, and Thorp (1938) undertook a revision and expansion of Marbut's

morphogenetic soil classification system. The key features of this revised system included:

(i) A reversion to the zonality concept from the Russian school.

(ii) A diminished emphasis on the pedocal–pedalfer concept.

(iii) Heightened focus on viewing soil as a three-dimensional entity and its associated

characteristics.
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Notably, a novel category known as the soil family was introduced between the great soil

group and soil series. However, neither the Family nor the higher category was clearly

defined in relation to soil properties. This approach led to challenges, particularly when

certain soil series did not align with any existing great soil groups, while others could

fittingly belong to two distinct great soil groups.

Following the modification, soils can be categorized into three orders: zonal, intra-zonal,

and azonal, based on the zonality concept developed by the Russian soil scientist

Dokuchaiev.

Zonal Soils:

Zonal soils constitute groups developed under similar climate conditions and are distributed

in climatic belts. These soils exhibit well-developed profiles, showcasing the predominant

influence of climate and vegetation. Any variations arising from parent material are

secondary to the overriding effects of climate. Examples include laterite soil, podzol soil,

and chernozem soil.

Intra-Zonal Soils:

Intra-zonal soils occur within a specific zone but bear the imprint of local conditions such

as topography or parent material. Characteristics of these soils are influenced by local

conditions, such as an excess of water, salt, or calcium carbonate. Examples include saline

sodic and saline sodic soil.

Azonal Soils:

Azonal soils have poorly developed profiles due to time limitations. This group encompasses

young soils lacking horizon differentiation, preventing their classification into either zonal

or intra-zonal orders. Azonal soils are placed in a distinct order. An example of this

category is alluvial soils.

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These three orders are further subdivided into nine suborders based on specific climatic

and vegetative regions. Each suborder, in turn, is divided into great soil groups that express

more specific conditions. The great soil groups undergo further subdivision into numerous

soil series and soil types.

Detailed notes will be continued..

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