STOICHIOMETRY

Greek words: stoicheion (meaning ‘element’) and metron (meaning to ‘measure’).

Chemists use chemical equation
✓ to describe reactions observed in the laboratory or in nature
✓ need to calculate the amount of substance that is either produced from or need to react with a given
quantity of other substance

STOICHIOMETRY
The study of the quantitative relationships implied by a chemical reaction
2.1 MEASURABLE STANDARD VARIABLE

❖ Chemistry is a quantitative science.

❖ Measure a property of a substance and compare it with a standard having a known value of
that property

❖ Express the measurement as the product of a number and a unit.

❖ Unit indicates the standard against which the measured quantity is being compared.
The international System of Units or SI system is the preferred method of
measurement in [Link] has a base unit for every type of measurement.
The seven base SI Unit are : [physical Quantity: unit symbol (unit name)]

• Length: m (meter)
• Mass : kg (kilogram)
• Time : s (second)
• Electric current: A (ampere)
• Thermodynamic Temperature: K (degrees Kelvin)
• Amount of Substance: mol (mole)
• Luminous intensity: cd (candela)
SI Prefix Multiplier Power of Ten
exa (E) 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 1018
peta (P) 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015
tera (T) 1,000,000,000,000 1012
giga (G) 1,000,000,000 109
mega (M) 1,000,000 106
kilo (k) 1,000 103
hecto (h) 100 102
deca (da) 10 101
deci (d) 0.1 10-1
centi (c) 0.01 10-2
milli (m) 0.001 10-3
micro (μ) 0.000,001 10-6
nano (n) 0.000,000,001 10-9
pico (p) 0.000,000,000,001 10-12
femto (f) 0.000,000,000,000,001 10-15
atto (a) 0.000,000,000,000,000,001 10-18
(A) SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

• Significant figures in a measurement consist of all the certain digits in that

measurement plus one uncertain or estimate digit.

• Significant figures of a number in positional notation are digits in the number that are
reliable and necessary to indicate the quantity of something.
 No. Rule Example

1 All nonzero digits in a measurement are significant ➢ 612 has three significant figures
➢ 1975 has four significant figures

2 Zeros that appear between other nonzero digits are ➢ 20019 has five significant figures
always significant. ➢ 109 has three significant figures

3 Zeros that appear in front of all of the nonzero digits are ➢ 0.006 has one significant figures
called left end zeros. ➢ 0.000513 has three significant figures
Left end zeros are never significant.

4 Zeros that appear after all nonzero digits are right end zeros. ➢ 210 has two significant figures
Right end zeros in a number that lacks a decimal point are ➢ 352200 has four significant figures
not significant.

5 Right end zeros in a number with a decimal point are ➢ 820.0 has four significant figures
significant.
Example 1 :
Find significant figures in each of the following measurements:
(a) 19.5 m (b) 0.0051 L (c) 204.80 g (d) 700 kg (e) 1.90 x 105 s (f) 700.0 kg
(a) three significant figures
(b) two significant figures
(c) five significant figures
(d) one significant figures
(e) three significant figures
(f) four significant figures
Rounding off Numerical Results
▪ To get the specifics of the rule for determining the significant figures in a calculated the result, it is
needed to be round numbers correctly.
▪ If it is needed to drop just one digit to round off a number, the rule that must follow is to increase the
digit by one unit if the digit dropped is 5,6, 7,8 or 9 and leave the final unchanged if the digit dropped is
0, 1, 2, 3 or 4.
For example, three significant figures for 3.567 = 3.57 (rounded up)
three significant figures for 4.623 = 4.62 (rounded drop)
Example 2:
Consider the measurement of 207.518 m. Right now, the measurement contains six significant figures. How would
you successively round it to fewer and fewer significant figures?
Significant figures and rounding off numerical results of 207.518 m are:
Number of significant figuresRounded value Reason
6 207.518 All digits are significant
5 207.52 8 rounds the 1 up to 2
4 207.5 2 is dropped
3 208 5 rounds the 7 up to 8
2 210 8 is replaced by a 0 and rounds the 0 up to 1
1 200 1 is replaced by a 0
Review Questions
1. How many significant figures are there in each of the following measurements?
(a) 0.00090 L (b) 255 g (c) 1435210 m (d) 40.1 kg (e) 9.0026 x 10-4 mm
Ans: (a) two (b) three (c) six (d) three (e) five
2. Round off the measured quantity of 31.0753 g according to each of the following significant figures:
(a) five (b) four (c) three (d) two (e) one
Ans: (a) 31.075 g (b) 31.08 g (c) 31.1 g (d) 31 g (e) 30 g
3. Students A, B and C had done an experiment of weighting the salt and the resultant values were
8.3421 g, 8.3681 g and 8.4078 g, respectively. Round off the resultant values with three significant
figures.
Ans: Student A = 8.34 g
Student B = 8.37 g
Student C = 8.41 g
 Key Terms

❑ The significant figures of a number are digits that carry meaningful contribution to its
measurement resolution.
Quantitative relationship between elements in compound.
Expressed as
- Molecular mass or formula mass
- Percentage composition

One mole of substance

The amount of substance that contains the same number of particles ( atoms, molecules, or other

particles) as there are atoms in exactly 12g of pure carbon 12 atom.

One mole = 6.02214179 1023 particles ( Avogadro’s number )

unit of molar mass= gmol−1 or mg mmol−1

 Formula Masses (Formula Weights)
The formula is used to express the composition of a substance and it denotes the relative numbers of atom of the
respective elements in a molecule or formula unit of the substance.
If the formula of a compound is known, the percent composition of the element present in the compound may be
calculated.
The Mole and the Millimole
A chemical formula may be used to refer to one atom, one molecule, one formula unit or to a mole of atoms, molecules or
formula units.

1 mole of the substance = Relative molecular mass expressed in grams

1 mole = 1000 millimoles
Molar mass = mass in grams per mole of a substance
1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
= relative molecular mass expressed in gmol-1

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠

𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 =
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Number of
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 moles
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 =
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Molar mass = mass in milligrams per millimole of a substance Relative
Mass (g) molecular
= relative molecular mass expressed in mgmmol -1
mass
Dimensional analysis is a method for solving problems that involves canceling out the
same units to multiply by a factor of 1

The mole= Avogadroʼs number = 6.021023 molecules

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 6.02×1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 A

=1 =1
6.02×1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 conversion
factor is
also known
our Goal : convert 0.43 mol of H2O to molecules as RATIO

6.02×1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
molecules of water = 0.43mol of H2O× = 2.6×1023 molecules
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓𝐻2 𝑂

A CONCERSION FACTOR is the relationship between the two unit

 Water of crystallisation
Water that occurs as a constituent of crystalline substances in a definite
stoichiometric ratio.

Example 3: Calculate the mass of water that is contained in 5.24 g of Zn(NO3)2. 6H2O. (Zn = 65, N = 14, O = 16, H= 1)
molar mass of Zn(NO3)2. 6H2O= 65+(2x14)+(6x16)+6[(2x1)+16]=297 gmol -1
mass of water in Zn(NO3)2. 6H2O= 6[(2x1)+16]=108 g

108 g of 6H2O
g of water = 5.24 g of Zn(NO3)2. 6H2O x
297 gof Zn(NO3)2. 6H2O
= 1.91 g of water

Zn(NO3)2. 6H2O(s) → Zn(NO3)2(s) + 6H2O(l)

1 mol 6 mol
molar mass of Zn(NO3)2. 6H2O= 65+(2x14)+(6x16)+6[(2x1)+16]=297 gmol -1
molar mass of H2O=(2x1)+16= 18 gmol-1
1 mol ofZn(NO3)2. 6H2O 6 mol of H2O 18 g of H2O
g of water = 5.24 g of Zn(NO3)2. 6H2O x x x
297 g of Zn(NO3)2. 6H2O 1 mol of Zn(NO3)2. 6H2O 1 mol of H2O
= 1.91 g of water
Example 4: When 6.41 g of blue copper(II) sulphate crystals, CuSO 4.nH2O, was heated until mass of white
anhydrous copper(II) sulphate, CuSO 4, remained constant, 4.11 g of anhydrous salt was
obtained. Calculate the number of moles of water (n) in the formula of CuSO 4.nH2O.
(Cu = 63.5, S = 32, H = 1, O = 16)
mass of CuSO4.nH2O = 6.41 g
mass of CuSO4 = 4.11 g
mass of water = 6.41 g- 4.11 g = 2.3 g
molar mass of water = (2x1) + 16 = 18 gmol-1

1 mole of water
mole of water = 2.3 g x = 0.1278 mol
18 g of water
molar mass of CuSO4 = 63.5 + 32 + ( 4x 16) = 159.5 gmol-1

1 mole of CuSO4
mole of CuSO4 = 4.11 g x = 0.0258 mol
159.5 g ofCuSO4
mole ratio of CuSO4 to water in CuSO4.nH2O = 0.0258 : 0.1278 = 1 : 5
Thus the number of moles of water (n) in the hydrated crystal = 5
Review Questions
(1) Calculate mass in kilograms of 5 moles of aluminium sulphate, Al2(SO4)3. (Al=27, S=32, O=16)
molar mass of Al2(SO4)3 = (2x27) + (3x32) + (12x16) =342 gmol-1

342 g of Al2(SO4)3 1 kg of Al2(SO4)3

kg of Al2(SO4)3 = 5 mol of Al2(SO4)3 x x = 1.71 kg
1 mol of Al2(SO4)3 1000 g of Al2(SO4)3
mass of Al2(SO4)3 = 1.71 kg
(2) How many moles are there in 250 g of barium chloride? (Ba=137, Cl=35.5)
molecular formula of barium chloride = BaCl 2
molar mass of BaCl2 = 137 + (2x35.5) =208 gmol-1

1 mol of BaCl2
mol of BaCl2 = 250 g of BaCl2 x = 1.20 mol of BaCl2
208 g of BaCl2
(3) Calculate the masses of magnesium, sulphur and water in 1 mole of Epsom salt, MgSO 4.7H2O.
1 mol of Epsom salt contains 1 mol of Mg, 1 mol of S and 7 mol of H 2O
mass of Mg in 1 mol of MgSO 4.7H2O = 24 g
mass of S in 1 mol of MgSO 4.7H2O = 32 g
mass of H2O in 1 mol of MgSO4.7H2O = 7[(2x1) + 16] = 7x 18 =126 g
 Key Terms

❑ Stoichiometry is a part of chemistry which deal with the quantities of substances

taking part in a chemical reaction.
❑ Water of crystallization is defined as water that occurs as a constituent of crystalline
substances in a definite stoichiometric ratio.
 The field of chemistry that is concerned with the relative quantities of reactants and
products in chemical reaction.
There are three laws of matter concerning chemical reactions
❖ Law of Conservation of Mass
❖ Law of Definite Proportions
❖ Law of Multiple Proportions
some common types of chemical reactions are :
 A substance that stoichiometrically limits the amount of product (s) that can be formed in
a reaction.
(Or)
the reactant that is used up first in a chemical reaction
Magnesium + sulphuric acid (dil) → magnesium sulphate + hydrogen
Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

The reaction will stop when all amount of limiting reactant is used up.
Excess Reactant
Reactants that are left over the limiting reagent is gone
Limiting Reagent
Reactants that is used up first in the reaction
Example 5: When gaseous ammonia is passed over solid copper (II) oxide at high
temperature, nitrogen gas, solid copper and water vapor are produced. Which is the
limiting reactant when 18.5 g of NH3 react with 96.5 g of CuO?
( Cu=63.5, O=16, N=14, H=1)

2NH3 (g) + 3CuO (s) → N2 (g) + 3Cu(s) + 3H2O (g) ←write B/eq:
2mol 3mol

molar mass of CuO = 63.5+ 16 = 79.5 gmol−1

molar mass of NH3 = 14+ 3 = 17 gmol−1

convert to mole amount of each reactants ← using factor ratio

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓𝑁𝐻3
mol of NH3 = 18.5 g of NH3  17𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻3
= 1.09 mol of NH3

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑂
mol of CuO = 96.5g of CuO  79.5 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑂
=1.21 mol of CuO
required amount of mole ratio from the equation 2mol of NH3 = 3 mol of CuO

2𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓𝑁𝐻3
mol of NH3 required = 1.21 mol of CuO  = 0.81 mol of NH3
3𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑂

3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑂
mol of CuO required = 1.09 mol of NH3  = 1.64 mol of CuO
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓𝑁𝐻3

0.81 mol of NH3 is required and we have 1.09 mol of NH 3 ,  NH3 is an

excess amount .
1.64 mol of CuO required, but we have only 1.21 mol of CuO.
CuO is a limiting reactant.
 In the laboratory, a little of the chemical is always lost by evaporation into the air or is remaining in the
solution. Some of the reactant may not react and lose. Therefore, the amount of chemical produced is always
less than the maximum amount that is expected. This is expressed by the percentage yield.

experimental or actual yield of product

The percentage yield = x 100%
Theoretical yield of product
In some cases, chemicals are not pure and it is needed to calculate the percentage purity of the
substance.

mass of pure substance present

The percentage purity = x 100%
mass of sample
Example 6: If 128 g of sulphur dioxide reacts with oxygen, 140 g of sulphur trioxide will be produced according to the
chemical equation: 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2 SO3 (g). Calculate the percentage yield of the sulphur trioxide.
(S=32, O=16)
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2 SO3 (g) Balanced equation

2 mol 1 mol 2mol

molar mass of SO2 =32 + (216) =64 gmol−1 To calculate molar mass
from periodic table
molar mass of SO3 = 32+ (3 16) =80 gmol−1
g of SO2→ mol of SO2→ mol of SO3→ g of SO3 Conversion factor

𝟏𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐎𝟐 𝟐 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐎𝟑 𝟖𝟎 𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐎𝟑

mass of 𝐒𝐎𝟑 = 128 g of SO2 × × x = 160 g of 𝐒𝐎𝟑
𝟔𝟒 𝐠 𝐨𝐟𝐒𝐎𝟐 𝟐 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐎𝟐 𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐎𝟑

experimental mass of SO3

The percentage yield = x 100% Calculate the theoretical yield
Theoretical mass of SO3
140 g
= x 100 % = 87.50 %
160 g
7. When hydrochloric acid was added to 8g of impure calcium carbonate,1200 cm 3 of gas was
produced. This experiment was done at r.t.p. Find the percentage purity of the calcium
carbonate. (Ca=40, C=12, O=16)

Solution : CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

1mol 1mol
molar mass of CaCO3 =40+ 12+ (316) =100gmol−1
molar volume of gas at r.t.p =24000cm3

vol of CO2 → mol of CO2 → mol of CaCO3 → g of CaCO3

𝟏𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝑶𝟐 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈 𝒐𝒇𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑

𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑= 1200𝑪𝒎𝟑 × × × = 5g of CaCO3
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑪𝒎𝟑 𝒂𝒕 𝒓.𝒕.𝒑 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓𝑪𝑶𝟐 𝟏𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑 𝟓𝒈

percentage purity= 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆
×100% = 𝟖𝒈 × 100% =62.5%
(d) Sequential Reaction
Sequential reaction consists of links reactions in which the product of the first reaction
becomes the reactant of the second reaction.
(1) carbon + steam → carbon monoxide + hydrogen
C (s) + H2O (l) → CO (g) + H2 (g)
nickel + carbon monoxide → tetracarbonyl nickel
Ni (s) + 4CO (g) → Ni(CO)4 (s)
(2) phosphorus + oxygen → phosphorus(V) oxide
P4 (s) + 5 O2 (g) → P4O10 (s)
phosphorus(V) oxide + water → phosphoric acid
P4O10 (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 4 H3PO4 (aq)
Conversion factor:
Review Questions
(1) What will be the volume of ammonia gas when 100 cm 3 of nitrogen reacts with 150 cm3 of hydrogen? Which
is the limiting reactant? ( All gases are measured at the same temperature and pressure. )
Solution
volume of N2 = 100 cm3
volume of H2 = 150 cm3
volume of NH3 = ?
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g)
1 mol 3 mol 2 mol
1 volume 3 volumes 2 volumes
100 cm3 150 cm3
According to the chemical equation,
1 mol of N2 reacts with 3 mol of H 2
If 100 cm3 of N2 used, 300 cm3 of H2 is needed.
But 100 cm3 of N2 used, 150 cm3 of H2
∴H2 is in lesser amount.
∴H2 is in limiting reactant.
2 volume of NH3
volume of NH3 = 150 cm3 of H2 x
3 volume of H2
3
= 100 cm of NH3
(2) In the combustion of propane, C3H8,32 g of O2 is needed to form 10 g of H 2O. What are the theorical yield
and percentage yield of H2O ? ( C = 12, O = 16, H = 1 )
C3H8 (g) + 5 O2 (g) → 3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (l)
Solution
C3H8 (g) + 5 O2 (g) → 3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (l)
1 mol 5 mol 3 mol 4 mol
According to the chemical equation,
5 mol of O2 produces 4 mol of H2O
molar mass of O2 = 216 = 32 gmol−1
molar mass of H2O = (2 1) + 16 = 18 gmol−1
g of O2 → mol of O2 → mol of H2O → g of H2O
1mol of O2 4 mol of H2O 18 g of H2O
g of H2O = 32 g of O2 x x x = 1.44 g of H2O ( theoretical yield )
32 g of O2 5 mol of O2 1 mol of H2O

experimental mass of H2O

Percentage yield = x 100 %
theoretical mass of H2O
10 g
= x 100 % = 69.44 %
1.44 g
(3) Magnesium metal reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce magnesium chloride and hydrogen. The
chemical equation for the reaction is shown below.
Mg (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Starting the known mass, 12.0 g of Mg, calculate the following:
(a) The mass of HCl reacts; (b)The mass of MgCl2 produced. ( Mg = 24, Cl = 35.5, H = 1 )
Solution
Mg (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
1 mol 2 mol 1 mol
mass of Mg = 12.0 g
(a) mass of HCl reacts = ?
(b) mass of MgCl2 produced = ?
molar mass of HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5 gmol−1
molar mass of MgCl2 = 24 + (2 35.5) = 95 gmol−1

1 mol of Mg 2 mol of HCl 36.5 g of HCl

(a) g of HCl reacted = 12 g of Mg x x x = 36.5 g of HCl
24 g of Mg 1 mol of Mg 1 mol of HCl

1 mol of Mg 1 mol of MgCl2 95 g of MgCl2

(b) g of MgCl2 produced = 12 g of Mg x x x = 47.5 g of MgCl2
24 g of Mg 1 mol of Mg 1 mol of MgCl2
 Key Terms
o Law of Conservation of Mass states that the total mass of reactant(s) is equal to the total mass of the
product(s).
o Law of Definite Proportions states that every chemical compound contains fixed and constant proportions ( by
mass ) of its constituent elements.
o Law of Multiple of Proportions states that when two elements combine with each other to form more than one
compound, the different masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other are in a ratio of
small whole numbers.
o Limiting reactant is the reactant in a chemical reaction that limits the amount of product because the reaction
stops when the limiting reactant is completely consumed.
o Sequential reaction consists of links reactions in which the product of the first reaction becomes the reactant of
the second reaction.
 2.4 SOLUTIONS STOICHIOMETRY
Chemical Quantities & Aqueous Reactions Solution Stoichiometry
Concept: Solution Stoichiometry
• Solution stoichiometry deals with stoichiometric calculations in solutions that
involve volume and molarity.
• The Given quantity of a compound to determine Unknown quantity of another
compound.

V of M of Ions, atoms, formula

Jump
Given Units or molecules of
unknown
Mole
of Mole of Unknown
Given

Gram of Given Gram of Unknown

Mole to mole Comparison
Use the coefficient in the balanced
equation
 Concentration of Solutions
In chemical equation
❑ Required to know how much of the reactants are present in a
solution
❑ How to control the amount of reactants used to bring about a
reaction in aqueous solution
❑ The amount of solute in solution

𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒓 𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆

Molarity (M) =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝒅𝒎𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝒎𝟑 )

Molarity (M) of a solution is the quantity in moles of solute dissolved

in one dm3of the solution.
❑ The molarity of a solution can be used as a conversion factor to relate the
solution volume to the number of moles of solute present.
Amount A Amount B
Volume A Volume B
(in mole) (in mole)
.
Example 9: What is the molarity (M) of a solution that contains 7.3 g of HCl in 4.00L of
solution? ( H = 1, Cl = 35.5)

Solution:

molar mass of HCl= 1+ 35.5= 36.5 gmol −1

Conversion factor: g of HCL → mol of HCl

1 mol of HCl
mol of HCl = 7.3g of HCl  = 0.2 mol of HCl
36.5 g of HCl

0.2 mol of HCl

molarity of HCl = = 0.05M
4.00 l of solution
10. The concentration of NaCl in typical blood serum is about 0.14M. What volume of blood
contains 1.00 mg of NaCl? (Na=23, Cl=35.5)
Solution :
1
molar mass of NaCl =58.5gmol¯
mg of NaCl→ g of NaCl→ mol of NaCl

𝟏𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐥 𝟏𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐨𝐟 𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐥

mol of NaCl = 1.00mg of NaCl × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐦𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐋×𝟓𝟖.𝟓𝐠 𝐨𝐟𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐋 =1.71×𝟏𝟎−𝟓 mol of NaCl
mol of NaCl→ L of NaCl

𝟏 𝐋𝐨𝐟 𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐥
Volume of blood serum= 1.71×10−5 mol of NaCl ×𝟎.𝟏𝟒𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐨𝐟 𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐥
= 1.22×10−4 Lof blood serum
▪ Solution can also be prepared by diluting
a more concentrated solution.

Concentrated + solvent→ dilute solution

▪ The initial molarity (M1) and volume

(V1) of a concentrated solution are
related to the final molarity (M2)
and volume (V2) of a dilute solution
by the equation

M1V1 = M2V2
Example 11: Calculate the volume in milliliters of 18.0 M HNO 3 that is required to prepare 1.00 L of a 0.900 M
solution of HNO3.
Solution
Before dilution After dilution
M1 = 18.0 M M2 = 0.900 M
V1 = ? V2 = 1.00 L
M1V1 = M2V2
M2V2
V1 =
M1
0.900 M x1.00 L
= = 0.05 L = 50 ml
18.0 M
Note in a titration, a solution of accurately known concentration is added
gradually to another unknown concentration, until the chemical reaction
between the two solutions is complete.

Standard Solution
The reagent of exactly known
concentration that is used in a titration.

Primary Standard
A highly pure and stable compound, used to
establish the concentration of the standard
solution.

Note the accuracy of a volumetric analysis depends upon the primary standard.
▪ Different indicator (organic dyes), methyl orange, phenolphthalein, etc are
used in Acid- Base titration.
 Example 12: A 2.792 g of sodium carbonate reacted with 0.324 M sulphuric acid solution. What volume in litre
and in millilitre of sulphuric acid was required to complete this reaction?
Solution
Na2CO3 (aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
1 mol 1 mol
molar mass of Na2CO3 = (2x23) + 12 + (3x16) = 106 gmol -1

Conversion factor : g of Na2CO3 → mol of Na2CO3 → mol of H2SO4 → L of H2SO4

1 mol of Na2CO3 1 mol of H2SO4 1 L of H2SO4

volume of H2SO4 = 2.792 g of Na2CO3 x x x
106 g of Na2CO3 1 mol of Na2CO3 0.324 mol of H2SO4
= 0.0813 L of H2SO4 solution
= 81.3 mL of H2SO4 solution
Conversion factor:
Review Question
1. Calculate the molarity of an acid solution containing 9.8 g of sulphuric acid in 10 dm3 of solution? (H=1, O=16,
S=32)
Solution
mass of H2SO4 = 9.8 g
molarity of H2SO4 = ?
molar mass of H2SO4 = (2x1) + 32 + (4x16)= 98 g mol −1

1 mol ofH2SO4
mol of H2SO4 = 9.8 g of H2SO4  = 0.1 mol of H2SO4
98 g of H2SO4
0.1 mol of H2SO4
molarity of H2SO4 = = 0.01 M of H2SO4
10 dm3 of solution
2. What volume is needed to dilute a molar hydrochloric acid solution to make 2 dm 3 of 0.25 M hydrochloric acid
solution?
Solution
Before dilution After dilution
M1 = 1 M M2 = 0.25 M
V1 = ? V2 = 2 dm3
M1V1 = M2V2
M2V2
V1 =
M1
0.25 M x 2 dm3
= = 0.5 dm3
1M
volume of water added= 2 dm3 – 0.5 dm3 = 1.5 dm3
3. A 10 cm3 of sulphuric acid required 20 cm3 of 0.2 M potassium hydroxide to neutralize it . Calculate
the molarity of an acid solution? (H=1, O=16, S=32)
Solution
H2SO4 (10 cm3)≡ KOH (20 cm3 , 0.2 M )
molarity of H2SO4 = ?
2 KOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → K2SO4 (aq) + 2 H2O (l)
2 mmol 1 mmol
0.2 mmol of KOH 1 mmol of H2SO4
mmol of H2SO4 = 20 cm3 of KOH  x = 2 mmol of H2SO4
1 cm3 of KOH 2 mmol of KOH
2 mmol of H2SO4
molarity of H2SO4 = = 0.2 M of H2SO4
10 cm3 of solution
 Key Terms
The molarity (M) of a solution is the quantity in moles of solute dissolved in one cubic decimetre of the solution.
A molar solution of a compound is a solution which contains one mole of the compound in one cubic decimetre
(1 dm3) of the solution.
Titration is the procedure in which a solution of a standard reagent (reactant) is added to a specific volume of a
solution of unknown molarity.
A standard Solution is a solution of accurately known concentration that is used in a titration.
The equivalent point of a chemical equation is the point at which chemically equivalent quantities of
reactants have been reacted.
End point is the point at which a titration is complete, usually marked by a change in color of an indicator.
Titration error is the different between end point and equivalence point of the titration.
 Chemistry in society

Stoichiometry is essential for the production of many things we use in our daily life.
Stoichiometry is needed to figure out exactly what quantities of reactants are required
in order to yield the product in industry.
Stoichiometry is used to get the certain taste of recipe for cooking.
Productions of soaps, tyres, fertilizers, gasoline, deodourants, medicines and chocolates
are the examples of the use of stoichiometry.
summery
 Calculations involving formulae and chemical equations
The simplest formula or the empirical formula gives us only the relative number of atoms of different elements in a compound.
The molecular formula tells us show many atoms of various elements exist in an individual molecule.
When empirical formula of a compound is known, the percentage by mass of each of the elements in a compound can be
calculate.

Have fun with calculation

To calculate the percent THEORETICAL YIELD
yield of a reaction Amount of product that would
1. write the balanced equation be produced if the limiting
2. calculate the theoretical yield of the reagent completely reacted
product from the amount of the reactant
ACTUAL YIELD
If your are given the amount of each Amount of product actually
reactant, calculate the limiting reactant. produced in a reaction
Use that amount to calculate the
theoretical yield of the product PERCENT YIELD
Ratio of actual yield to
3. Use the actual yield given and the theoretical yield
theoretical yield that you calculate to
determine the percent yield.
2. (a) molar mass of C4H10 = (4x12) + (10x1) = 58 gmol-1
molar mass of O2 = 2x16 = 32 gmol-1
2 C4H10 (g) + 13 O2 (g) → 8 CO2(g) + 10 H2O(l)
2 mol 13 mol
1 mol of C4H10
mol of C4H10 = 11.6 g of C4H10 x =0.2 mol of C4H10
58 g of C4H10
1 mol of O2
mol of O2 = 11.6 g of O2 x =0.363 mol of O2
58 g of O2
By equation, 2 mol of C4H10 reacts with 13 mol of O 2
2 mol of C4H10
mol of C4H10 required = 0.363 mol of O 2 x = 0.06 mol of C4H10
13 mol of O2
13 mol of O2
mol of O2 required = 0.2 mol of C4H10 x = 1.3 mol of O2
2 mol of C4H10
0.06 mol of C4H10 is required and we have 0.2 mol of C4H10
∴ C4H10 is an excess amount
1.3 mol of O2 is required and we have 0.363 mol of O 2
∴ O2 is a limiting reactant.
Ans : (ii)
(b) (iii)
(c) Before dilution After dilution
M1 = 0.5 mol dm-3 M2 = ?
V1 = 200 cm3 V2 = 200 cm3 +300 cm3 =5 00 cm3
M1V1 = M2V2
M1V1
M2 =
V2
0.5 mol dm−3 x200 cm3
= 3 = 0.2 mol dm-3
500 cm
Ans: (ii)
(d) molar mass of glucose = 180 gmol -1

0.4 mmol of glucose

mol of glucose = 50 cm3 of glucose x = 20 mmol of glucose =0.02 mol of glucose
1 cm3 of glucose

180 g of glucose
g of glucose = 0.020 mol of glucose x = 3.6 g of glucose
1 mol of glucose
Ans: (i)
(e) Ans: (ii)
3. There are 0.5 mol of CH4 gas and 1.0 mol of HCl gas. ( C=14, H=1, Cl=35.5 )
(a) Which has more molecules?

6.02x 1023molecules of CH4

molecules of CH4 = 0.5 mol of CH4 x = 3.01x 1023 molecules of CH4
1 mol of CH4

6.02x 1023molecules of HCl

molecules of HCl = 1.0 mol of HCl x = 6.02x 1023 molecules of HCl
1 mol of HCl
HCl gas has more molecules.
(b) Which has the greater mass?
molar mass of CH4 = 12 + (4x1) = 16 gmol -1
molar mass of HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5 gmol -1

16g of CH4
mass of CH4 = 0.5 mol of CH4 x = 8 g of CH4
1 mol of CH4

36.5g of HCl
mass of HCl = 1.0 mol of HCl x = 36.5g of HCl
1 mol of HCl
HCl gas has greater mass.
(c) Which has the greater volume at STP?

22.4 dm3 at STP of CH4

volume of CH4 = 0.5 mol of CH4 x =11.2 dm3 at STP of CH4
1 mol of CH4

22.4 dm3 at STP of HCl

volume of HCl = 1.0 mol of HCl x =22.4 dm3 at STP of HCl
1 mol of HCl
HCl gas has greater volume at STP.
(d) Which has the greater percentage of hydrogen?
molar mass of CH4 = 12 + (4x1) = 16 gmol -1
mass of hydrogen 1 mol of CH4 = 4x1 = 4g
4
% of hydrogen = x 100 % = 25%
16
molar mass of HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5 gmol-1
mass of hydrogen 1 mol of HCl= 1g
1
% of hydrogen = x 100 % = 2.74%
36.5
CH4 has the greater percentage of hydrogen
4. g of CO(NH2)2 → mol of CO(NH2)2 → mol of H → atoms of H
mass of CO(NH2)2 =15 g
number of H atom =?
molar mass of CO(NH2)2 = 12 +16 + (2x14) + (4x1) = 60 gmol -1

1 mol of CO(NH2)2 4 mol of H 6.02x 1023atoms

H atoms= 15 g of CO(NH2)2 x x x
60 g of CO(NH2)2 1 mol of CO(NH2)2 1 mol of H
= 6.02x 1023 H atoms

6. C2N2 (g) + 7F2 (g) → 2CF4 (g) + 2NF3 (g)

1 mol 7 mol 2 mol 2mol
(a) mol of F2 = ? , mol of C2N2 = 1.37 mol

7 mol of F2
mol of F2 = 1.37 mol of C2N2 x = 9.59 mol of F2
1 mol of C2N2
7. NaOH ( 0.250 mol dm-3 ) ≡ H2SO4 ( 25 cm3, 0.125 mol dm-3 )
H2SO4 (aq) + 2 NaOH (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2 H2O (l)
1 mol 2 mol
cm3 of H2SO4 → dm3 of H2SO4 → mol of H2SO4 →mol of NaOH→ cm3 of NaOH
8. mass of CH4= 32 g
mass of O2= 96 g
mass of CO2=?
CH4 (g) +2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) +2 H2 O (l)
1 mol 2 mol 1 mol
molar mass = ?
g of CH4 → mol of CH4 →mol of CO2 → g of CO2
g of O2 → mol of O2 →mol of CO2 → g of CO2
9. Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
1 mol 2mol

1 dm3 of HCl 0.1 mol of HCl 1 mol of Na2CO3

mol of Na2CO3 = 20cm3 of HCl x x x = 0.001mol of Na2CO3
1000 cm3 of HCl 1 dm3 of HCl 2 mol of HCl
25 cm3 of mixture contains 0.001 mol of Na2CO3
250 cm3 of mixture contains 0.01 mol of Na2CO3
molar mass of Na2CO3 = (2x23) + 12+ (3x16)= 106 gmol-1
106 g of Na CO
g of Na2CO3 = 0.01 mol of Na2CO3 x1 mol of Na2 CO3 =1.06 g of Na2CO3
2 3

g of NaCl = 2.5 g – 1.06 g = 1.44 g of NaCl

1.44 g of NaCl
% of NaCl = 2.5 g of mixture x100% = 57.6% of NaCl
(a) mol of MgCO3=?
1 dm3of HNO3 0.2 mol of HNO3 1mol of MgCO 3
mol of MgCO3 = 500 cm3 of HNO3 x x x = 0.05 mol of MgCO3
1000 cm3of NH3 1 dm3of HNO3 2 mol of HNO3
(b) g of Mg(NO3)2 =?
1 mol of Mg(NO3)2 148 g of Mg(NO3)2
Mass of Mg(NO3)2 = 0.05 mol of MgCO3 x x = 7.4 g of Mg(NO3)2
1 mol of of MgCO 3 1 mol of Mg(NO3)2
(c) volume of CO2=?
1 mol of CO2 22.4 dm3at 𝑆𝑇𝑃 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑂2
volume of CO2= 0.05 mol of MgCO3x x =1.12 dm3 at STP of CO2
1 mol of of MgCO3 1 mol of 𝐶𝑂2
= 1120 cm3 at STP of CO2
∆
12. FeCl3 (aq) + 3NH4OH (aq) → Fe(OH)3 (s) + 3NH4Cl (s)
1 mol 1 mol
∆
2Fe(OH)3 (s) → Fe2O3 (s) +3H2O (l)
2 mol 1 mol
Molar mass of Fe2O3 = 160 g mol-1
1 mol of Fe2O3 2 mol of Fe(OH)3
Mol of Fe(OH)3 = 0.36 g of Fe2O3 x 160 g ofFe2O3
x 1 mol of Fe O = 0.0045 mol of Fe(OH)3
2 3
1 mol of FeCl3
Mol of FeCl3 =0.0045 mol of Fe(OH)3x =0.0045 mol of FeCl3 x1000= 4.5 mmol of FeCl3
1 mol of Fe(OH)3
4.5 mmol of FeCl
Molarity of FeCl3 = 200 𝑐𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛3 =0.0225 M of FeCl3
12. Relative molecular mass of J =98
Molar mass of J = 98 gmol-1

1 mol of J
(a) Mol of J= 196 g of J x = 2 mol of J
98 g of J
2 mol of J
Molarity = = 10 mol dm-3
0.2 dm3 of solution
98 g of J
g dm-3 = 10 mol dm-3 x =980 g dm-3
1 mol of J

(b) Acid J is H2SO4

Ba(NO3)2 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq)→BaSO4 (s)↓+ HNO3(aq)
Precipitate K is barium sulphate ,BaSO 4