Rocket

Propellants
New Series!
@spacetechie
Introduction
Rocket Propellants are
the reaction mass
ejected at high velocity
to provide thrust.

The energy can be

provided by the
propellant itself
(chemical rockets) or an
external source (ion
engines)
Chemical Rockets
Chemical rockets can be
grouped by phases
depending on the
phase of propellants

Solid Rocket,
Liquid Fuel Rocket,
Gas Fuel Rocket,
Hybrid Rocket
Energy Sources -1
Decomposition
Reactions

Breaking of unstable
molecular bonds in
presence of catalyst.

Commonly used in
monopropellant
rockets.
Energy Sources -2
Redox Reactions or
Combustion.

This requires an
oxidizing agent and a
reducing agent (fuel).

Commonly used in
bipropellant rockets
and Solid propellant
rockets.
Energy Sources -3
Stored Pressure

This uses expansion of

pressurized gas.

Commonly used in
cold gas thrusters and
also in water rockets.
Solid Propellants
One of the earliest forms
of propellants.

Used as Gunpowder by
Chinese and Indians in
13th Century AD

It found extensive usage in

military, with most missiles
and ICBMs, using it.
Solid Propellants
Advantages —

Easier to store and handle

Compact size due to high
propellant density
Simple and easy to
manufacture
Low cost
Can provide very large
amount of thrust
Solid Propellants
Disadvantages —

Lower specific impulse

Can't be throttled actively.
Can't be stopped and
restarted.

Note —
Passive control of thrust can
be achieved by adjusting the
internal propellant geometry.
Solid Propellants
Working — Ignition happens
on top.
Solid Propellants
Working — different grain
geometries to control thrust
Solid Propellants
There are two types —
Homogeneous Mixtures
Composite Based

Homogeneous propellants
are either simple base or double
base. A simple base consists of a
single compound like nitrocellulose,
which has both an oxidation a
reduction capacity.
Solid Propellants
Double base propellants usually
consist of nitrocellulose and
nitroglycerine, to which a plasticiser
and binder is added.

Limitation: Low ISP

Advantage: Non-traceable fumes

Usage: Tactical weapons, Stage

jettisioning mechanisms
Solid Propellants

Composites are made of adding

oxidizer, fuel and binding agent
along with plasticizers. The entire
composite is casted in the casing.

Composite propellants are often

identified by the type of polymeric
binder used. Common ones are —
PBAN and HTPB
Solid Propellants
PBAN v/s HTPB

PBAN formulations give a slightly

higher specific impulse, density, and
burn rate.

HTPB is easier to mix and process

and requires an lesser curing
temperature.

Often both are used together.

Solid Propellants
Oxidizers are usually ammonium
nitrate, potassium chlorate, or
ammonium chlorate, and often
comprises as much as 80% or more
of the whole mix.

The fuels used are hydrocarbons,

such as asphaltic-type compounds,
or plastics or even simple Aluminum
powder.
Solid Propellants
Rocket

Rockets using this —

The Titan, Delta, PSLV, Ariane V,

Space Shuttle launch vehicles etc.

The Space Shuttle uses the

largest solid rocket motors ever
built and flown.
Solid Propellants
for hobby rockets

— @spacetechie
Solid Propellants
for hobby rockets

Broadly two types —

Compressed —
Zinc-Sulfur
Black Powder
Sugar-KNO3

Composites —
Oxidizer: Ammonium
Nitate or Perchlorate.
Fuel: Al/Mg powder
Solid Propellants
for hobby rockets

Zinc-Sulfur

Zinc and Sulfur in ratio of

2:1 by weight
Needs to be compressed to
right amount
Maintaining consistency is
difficult.
Not much in current usage
Solid Propellants
for hobby rockets

Black Powder

Potassium Nitrate (KNO3),

Charcoal and Sulfur
Common ratio is 75:15:10
Burn rates can be
controlled by adding
various fillers.
Little mixing with water &
drying is recommended
Solid Propellants
for hobby rockets

Sugar-KNO3

Uses Sugar in form of

Sucrose, glucose or fructose
Oxidizer is KNO3 and
additives are added to
control the burn rate
Significantly cheaper
propellants with ISP >100s
Solid Propellants
for hobby rockets

Composites

Ammonium perchlorate
composite propellant (APCP)
acts as oxidizer.
Solves the problems of
brittleness and gives
uniform burning.
Finds usage in advanced
rockets as well.
Solid Propellants
Famous Orbital Rockets
using it
The Scout multistage rocket was the
first orbital launch vehicle to be
entirely composed of solid fuel stages.
Pegasus, an air-launched rocket, used 3
stages powered by solid propellants. It is
also the world's first privately developed
space launch vehicle
Some more orbital
Rockets

Athena
PSLV*
Mu
Shavit
Taurus
Vega
Minotaur
OmegA
Start-1

*It has alternating liquid

and solid stages
Orbital Rockets
with Boosters
Delta II
Atlas V*
Titan IV
Delta IV*
Space
H-IIA, H-IIB
Shuttle
GSLV Mk III
Ariane 5
PSLV*
Atlas II

*Optional Boosters
Solid propellants
in upper stages
Star 37 upper stage were used
for lifting Pioneer and Voyager
payloads.
Star 48 upper stage were used
for lifting Ulysses and New
Horizons payloads.
Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) used by
Space Shuttle for its payloads to
Jupiter and Venus
Liquid Propellants
What modern rockets use?
— spacetechie
Liquid Propellants
The highest specific
impulse chemical rockets
use liquid propellants.

About 170 different

propellants made of
liquid fuel have been
tested

No completely new
propellant has been used
for nearly 30 years.
Liquid Propellants
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
proposed the use of
liquid propellants in 1903.

Hermann Oberth
published a book in 1922
suggesting the use of
liquid propellants.

First usage by Robert H.

Goddard (LOX and
gasoline) i 1926.
 Liquid Propellants

Germany V-2 rocket used

an alcohol/LOX engine,
with hydrogen peroxide to
drive the fuel pumps.
Gee

Germany's Heinkel He 176

made the 1st manned
rocket flight using a liquid
rocket engine in 1939.
 Liquid Propellants

The usage of Liquid

propellants led to the
demand for efficient
pumps in Germany and US.
Gee

Very soon, the issue of

heating led to demand for
advanced materials and
cooling systems.
 Liquid Propellants
Fuels that burnt with
clean exhaust, provide
high ISP, requires lesser
storage space and didn't
corrode the containers
were being investigated.
Gee

A lots of chemicals were

discovered in the above
process which found
applications elsewhere.
Liquid Propellants
Different Types of Oxidizer
Liquid Propellants
Three Main Oxidizers

Liquid Oxygen
Dinitrogen tetroxide
Hydrogen peroxide

With right fuel combination, they

give better specific impulse than
Ammonium perchlorate (Solid
propellants)
Liquid Propellants
Liquid Oxygen

First used in 1926, by Robert

Goddard.

Being cryogenic, it can make

materials extremely brittle
upon contact.

Earlier Michael Faraday had

called it as a permanent gas
after several failed attempts
at liquefying it.
Liquid Propellants
Dinitrogen tetroxide

N2O4, also called amyl by

Russians and NTO by others.

It forms a hypergolic bi-

propellant (reacts on contact)
with Hydranzine.

Can be stored as liquid at

room temperature.
Liquid Propellants
Hydrogen peroxide

High-concentration H2O2 is
referred to as "high-test
peroxide" (HTP).

It was the first major

monopropellant later replaced
by Hydrazine.

It can be used as a
monopropellant or as an
oxidizer.
Liquid Propellants
USAGE

LOX: Most modern rockets,

Falcon 9, Electron, Atlas, Detla,
GSLV, Ariane, Soyuz family, etc.

NTO: Titan family, Apollo &

Gemini spacecraft, Space
shuttle, Proton, etc.

HTP: Torpedoes, missiles,

reaction control thrusters,
turbopumps, etc.
Hypergolic
Propellants

Spacetechie
Hypergolic Propellants

A hypergolic propellant
combination is one whose
components spontaneously
ignite when they come into
contact with each other.

The two propellant components

usually consist of a fuel and an
oxidizer.
Hypergolic Propellants

Main Advantages —

Can be stored as liquid at

room temperature.

Decreases complexity of
ignition systems.

Can be used to ignite engines

repeatedly.
 Hypergolic Propellants

Applications —
Early rockets used Hypergolic
propellants because of
simplicity and ease in
ignition.

Currently, due to lower

energy capacity, there usage
has been restricted to upper
stages, escape systems,
ignition systems.
Curre
 Hypergolic Propellants

Rockets/engines using it—

Apollo Lunar Module

Ariane 1 to 4
Titan II, III, IV
Proton
ISRO's Vikas Engine
Space Shuttle OMS and RCS
Draco thrusters
Curre
Hypergolic Propellants
TEA-TEB

Triethylborane-Triethylaluminium,
is a pyrophoric mixture (not
hypergolic). It ignites in presence
of oxygen/air.

It is used in engine starts in —

SR-71 Blackbird
F-1 Engine
Merlin Engines
Curre
Rocket Propellant

Hydrogen
V/s
RP-1
 Hydrogen
Is it really environment
friendly?

The exhaust is clean — agreed.

But what about the production
process?

95% of Hydrogen production is

by Steam forming process,
whose by-product is Carbon
Monoxide — a greenhouse gas.
 Hydrogen

Pros of Hydrogen

Very High Specific Impulse

Clean Exhaust
Accidental H2 fires are safer
due to lighter-than-air
property of H2 as well as
H2O.
Higher energy per unit
mass (~ 2.8 times)
 Hydrogen

Cons of Hydrogen

Very low density, leads to

much larger tanks
Expensive
Highly inflammable makes
it hard for storage
Strong constraints in
plumbing
 RP-1

Pros of RP-1

Cheaper
Highly dense, requires
much smaller tanks
Safe and stable storage
Has lubricating properties
 RP-1

Cons of RP-1

Exhaust is not eco-friendly

Very low ISP (than H2)
Comparatively toxic and
carcinogenic.
Being denser than air, RP-1
fires are harder to control.
The exhaust contains soot
which leads to choking of
orifices.
 Applications
Hydrogen
Commonly finds usage in
Upper stages, as the larger
specific impulse offsets the
disadvantage of lower density.

RP-1
It is the most commonly used
liquid propellant. Used in 1st
stages of Soyuz-FG, Delta I-III, Atlas,
Falcon 9, Antares, Energia, Titan I,
Saturn I and IB, and Saturn V.
Rocket Propellants

Methane
 Methane
PROS

Can pressurize itself by

autogenous pressurisation.
Burns with clean exhaust
Cheaper to produce
Higher ISP
Gives higher Chamber
pressure
Easy to produce on Mars
 Methane
CONS

Lower density, requires larger

tanks.
Lower specific heat capacity,
hence lower cooling power.
Being cryogenic, difficult to
store and handle.
Leads to lower thrust/weight
ratio
 Methane
Autogenous Pressurisation.
It is the use of self-generated
gaseous propellant to
pressurize liquid propellant in
rockets. A small amount of
propellant is heated to gas
which is then fed back into the
liquid tank.

This helps keep the liquid

propellant at the required
pressure necessary to feed a
rocket's engines.
Rocket Propellant

Hydrazine
N2H4
 Hydrazine
First used in WWII, with
Methanol (57%) and water (13%),
by Germans.

Often used as low-power

monopropellant for in thrusters
and was used in Space Shuttle's
auxiliary power units (APUs)

It is a hypergolic with (N2O4) and

that makes it a good choice for
places where re-ignition is
needed.
 Hydrazine

Also used in terminal descent

of spacecrafts.

Such engines were used on the

Viking program landers in the
1970s as well as the Phoenix
lander and Curiosity rover.

Currently also used for satellite

station-keeping motors.
 Hydrazine
The unstability and toxicity led to
it being replaced by MMH
(Monomethylhydrazine) or
UDMH (Unsymmetrical
dimethylhydrazine) in many
applications.

N2O4/UDMH is the main fuel for

the Proton rocket, older Long
March rockets (LM 1-4), PSLV,
Fregat, and Briz-M upper stages.
Hybrid-propellant
rocket

Are they the best??

Hybrid-propellant
It uses rocket propellants in
two different phases: one
solid and the other either gas
or liquid.

In its simplest form it

contains a LOX tank, the
combustion chamber
containing the solid
propellant, and a mechanical
device separating the two.
Hybrid-propellant
When thrust is desired, a
suitable ignition source is
introduced in the combustion
chamber and the valve is
opened.

The liquid oxidiser (or gas)

flows into the combustion
chamber where it is
vaporized and then reacted
with the solid propellant.
Hybrid-propellant

It looks like Hybrid rocket

engines offers best of both
worlds of Liquid and solid
propellants.

Or is it??

To be continued…
 Hybrid Rockets
Pros w.r.t Liquid propellants
Mechanically simpler.
Takes lesser volume
Addition of Metal additives
can increase ISP significantly
Stable combustion
Propellant pressurisation is
simpler to achieve
Simpler cooling systems
 Hybrid Rockets
Pros w.r.t Solid propellants

Higher ISP.
Less explosion hazard
Fewer handling and storage
issues.
Can be restarted
Throttle-able.
Hybrid propellant
Rockets

Part-3

Disadvantages
Hybrid propellant

Almost all of the

disadvantages of Hybrids
come from one simple
reason —

Lack of experience, data

and knowledge.
Hybrid propellant

Some of the currently

known issues are —

Combustion inefficiency due to

lack of uniformity in burning
Hard to control O/F ratio.
Difficult to refuel
Mass manufacturing methods
have not yet been formulated
Hybrid propellant

Due to lack of knowledge,

experience and data,
Hybrids currently appear
of being worst of both
worlds (Liquid & Solid).

We hope with time it can

become best of both worlds,
in future.
Rocket Propellants
Ion Thrusters
Part-1
 Ion Thrusters
How it works?

Shoot Electrons over the

atoms of an inert gas and
knock off more electrons from
it, there by creating positive
ions. Then, accelerate those
ions out.

Finally, again shoot electrons

over the exiting ions to
neutralize it.
 Ion Thrusters

Ion thrusters are classified

in 2 types on method used
for accelerating the ions—

Electrostatic ion thrusters

use the Coulomb force.
Electromagnetic ion
thrusters use the Lorentz
force.
Ion Thrusters
 Ion Thrusters
Ion thrust engines are practical
only in the vacuum of space and
cannot take vehicles through the
atmosphere because ion engines
do not work in the presence of
ions outside the engine.

Additionally, the engine's

minuscule thrust cannot
overcome any significant air
resistance.
Ion Thrusters

Part - 2
 Ion Thrusters

Ion thrusters in
operational use have an
input power need of 1–7
kW, exhaust velocity 20–
50 km/s, thrust 25–250
millinewtons (mN) and
efficiency 65–80%
 Ion Thrusters

Applications include
control of the orientation
and position of orbiting
satellites and use as a
main propulsion engine
for low-mass robotic
space vehicles, such as
Deep Space 1 and Dawn.
 Ion Thrusters

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in
1911, was the first person to
introduce the idea publicly.
It was again advocated by
Hermann Oberth in 1923.
Immense mass savings and
application in spacecraft
propulsion and attitude
control were key points
made.
 Ion Thrusters

SERT-1 (Space Electric

Rocket Test) was the first
spacecraft to utilize ion
engine design.

It was a NASA probe used to

test electrostatic ion
thruster design and was
built by NASA's Lewis
Research Center (now NASA
Glenn).
 Ion Thrusters
Ion thrusters' low thrust
requires continuous
operation for a long time to
achieve the necessary
change in velocity (delta-v)
for a particular mission.
They are designed to
provide continuous
operation for intervals of
weeks to years.
Ion Thrusters

Part — 3
 Ion Thrusters
Ion thrusters tend to produce
low thrust, which results in low
acceleration.

Example: A typical Ion Thruster

produces 100 mN of force.
A satellite of mass 1000 kg, will
get acceleration of 0.0001 m/s/s

However, this acceleration can

be sustained for months or years.
 Ion Thrusters
Power supplies for ion thrusters
are usually electric solar panels,
but at sufficiently large distances
from the Sun, nuclear power can
be used.

Nuclear electric propulsion is a

system where thermal energy
from a nuclear reactor is
converted to electrical energy,
which is used to drive an ion
thruster.
 Ion Thrusters
Choosing the propellants

The ideal propellant is easy to

ionize and has a high
mass/ionization energy ratio.

Plus, the propellant should not

erode the thruster to any great
degree to permit long life; and
should not contaminate the
vehicle.
 Ion Thrusters
Choosing the propellants

Xenon — easy to ionize, high

mass, inert, less erosive, limited
supply.
Mercury & Cesium — used
earlier, now replaced by Xe due
to toxicity & corrosiveness.

Argon, Iodine, Krypton are found

to be cheaper alternatives.