WEEK 7: UTILITARIANISM  Government should base all laws on the happiness

principle.
 An ethical theory that argues for the goodness of pleasure
 The greatest happiness for the greatest number.
and the determination of right behavior based on the
 Bentham’s theory is both empirical (how much pain
usefulness of actions and consequences.
or pleasure is caused by the act or policy) and
 Means that pleasure is good that the goodness of action
democratic (each individual’s happiness is as
is determined by its usefulness.
important as any other.)
 Some individual rights can be sacrificed for the sake of the
greater happiness of the many. Social Hedonism

 Ethics as Greatest Happiness.

a. Their system of ethics emphasizes the consequences of
 Moral worth judged by presumed effect.
actions. The goodness or badness of an action is based on
 Action guided by pleasure/pain.
whether it is useful in contributing to a specific purpose
for the greatest number of people. C. Felicific Calculus
b. Utilitarianism is consequentialist. The moral value of
actions and decisions is based on the usefulness of their  Common currency framework that calculates the pleasure
consequences; usefulness of results that determines that some actions can produce.
whether the action or behavior is good or bad.  In this framework, an action can be evaluated on the basis
c. Utilitarian value pleasure and happiness. Usefulness of of intensity or strength of pleasure:
actions is based on its promotion of happiness as the  DURATION – length of experience of pleasure.
experience of pleasure for the greatest number of  CERTAINTY or UNCERTAINTY – likelihood that
persons. pleasure will occur.
 PROPINQUITY or REMOTENESS – how soon there will
I. Jeremy Bentham be pleasure.
 Born on February 15, 1748 in London, England. Died on  These indicators allow us to measure and pain in actions,
June 6, 1832. we need to consider 3 MORE DIMENSION:
 He was the teacher of James Mill, father of John Stuart a. FECUNDITY – chance it has of being followed by
Mill. sensations of the same kind.
b. PURITY – chance it has of not being followed by
 Bentham first wrote about the greatest happiness
sensations of the opposite kind.
principle of ethics and was known for a system of penal
c. EXTENT – number of persons who are affected by
management called PANOPTICON.
pleasure or pain.
 Intellectual inheritor of David Hume.
 Pleasure and pain can only quantitatively differ but not
 Recognized as ‘Act Utilitarian’.
qualitatively differ from other experiences of pleasure and
 Right actions result in ‘good or pleasure’. Wrong actions
pain accordingly.
result in ‘pain or absence of pleasure’.
 His works: II. John Stuart Mill
a. The Principle of Utility
b. Law and Social Hedonism  Born on May 20, 1806 in Penton Ville, London. Died on
c. Felicific Calculus May 8, 1873.
 He studied Greek at the age of 3 and Latin at the age of 8.
A. The Principle of Utility  His ethical theory and his defense utilitarian views are
found in his long essay entitled UTILITARIANISM (1861).
 In the book An Introduction to Principles of Morals and
 A more sophisticated form of Utilitarianism.
Legislation (1789). Bentham begins by aguing that our
action are governed by two “sovereign master” — which  Concerned with quality of pleasure and quantity of people
he calls PLEASURE and PAIN. who enjoy it.
 Actions that lead to pleasure are RIGHT, ones that  Recognized higher and lower types of human pleasure.
produce pain are WRONG.  His works:
a. Principle of Greatest Number
B. Law and Social Hedonism b. Justice and Moral Rights
 He thinks that principle of utility must distinguish
Law
qualitatively and not merely quantitatively.
 Government should not pass laws that protect tradition,  Utilitarianism cannot promote the kind of pleasure
custom, or rights. appropriate to pigs or to any other animals. He thinks that
 there are HIGHER INTELLECTUAL and LOWER BASE B. Rationality
PLEASURES.
 Lower pleasure: eating, drinking, sexuality, etc.  Aquinas as influenced by early Greek thinker (Aristotle)
 Higher pleasure: intellectuality, creativity, and believe that rationality in ethics and are inherently
spirituality. needed.
 “It is better to be human being dissatisfied than a pig Nature of Rationality
satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool
satisfied” Human Acts Acts of Man
Action that proceeds from Actions that does not
A. Principle of Greatest Number the will. proceeds from the will.
 Utilitarianism cannot lead to selfish acts. It is not
What is LAW? It refers to all instances wherein human beings
dismissive of sacrifices that procure more happiness for
construct and enforce rules in their community.
others.
 Utilitarianism is interested with the best consequence for What is NATURAL LAW? A system in which actions are seen as
the highest number of people. It is not interested with the morally and ethically correct if It accords with the end purpose
intention of the agent. of human nature and human goals.

B. Justice and Moral Rights a. Human Nature: is what is naturally—Human.

b. Human Goals: it is to do good and avoid evil.
 Mill’s moral rights and considerations of justice are not
absolute, but are only justified by their consequences to What is Good in Natural Theory?
promote the greatest good of the greatest number.
 It comes naturally God has imbued everyone the moral
Bethamite Millsian compass to do what is right or wrong—no bible required.
Democratic Utilitarianism Elite Utilitarianism  Ex: Animals know what is good for them even though they
No one pleasure is inherently Some pleasure are better haven’t read the bible, they need to eat, sleep, and sex.
better than any other. than others.
What is Good Natural Law Theory?
If drunken parties make you If you party and get drunk
happy, then go for it. every day. Then you won’t be  The goal of man is to exercise the nature of being “Good”
as happy as you otherwise by following his nature.
might be.
Reading poetry isn’t better Enjoying poetry is better What is Bad Natural Law Theory?
than watching The Bachelor, than watching bad TV. And if
it just different. you disagree, it is because  Evil deeds are unnatural and immoral.
you don’t understand
Basic Goods – are fundamental aspects of human well-being
quality.
and flourishing that are considered inherently valuable and
“Create all the happiness you “The only purpose for which
are able to create; remove all power can be rightfully essential to human nature.
the misery you are able to exercised over any member
 Life, reproductive, educating offspring, seek god, live in
remove” of a civilized community,
society, avoid offense, shun ignorance
against his will, is to prevent
harm to others”  Basic goods with reason leads to:
a. Prohibition (negative injunction)
b. Positive injunction
WEEK 8: NATURAL LAW

 Natural law was coined by St. Thomas Aquinas known as

Doctor Angelicus and Doctor Communis.

Why was the Natural Law developed?

A. Universality

 There is a problem with the bible that it is limited only to

where it can reach.
 And also subjective moral opinion of the interpretation of
its contents is also contentious.
A. The Healer’s Dilemma  Rational Will – capacity to act according to principles
that we determine for ourselves.
 Imagine a scenario in which you are a skilled medical 2. Sentience – organism has the ability to perceive and
doctor who subscribes to the principles of natural law navigate its external environment.
theory, which includes the primary precept of "Preserve 3. Rationality – humans are rational because they have the
life" as a fundamental moral principle. You find yourself in ability to stop and think about what they are doing.
a small, impoverished village in a remote part of the world,
providing medical care to the local community. A. Immanuel Kant
 One day, you encounter a gravely ill patient, a middle-
 Herald the “Copernican Revolution in Philosophy”
aged woman, who is suffering from a highly contagious
 Developed revolutionary insights concerning the human
and deadly disease. Without immediate medical
kind and the conditions for the possibility of knowledge
intervention, she will almost certainly die. However, you
similar to Copernicus.
also know that treating her and attempting to save her life
will put the entire village at risk of contracting the disease,  Intends to develop “Supreme Principle of Morality”
potentially causing a widespread outbreak that could  A key thinker in moral reflection.
claim many lives. B. Nicolaus Copernicus
B. Principle of Double Effect  A 15th century mathematician and astronomer who
 Wherein there is the conflicting issues as to what course proposed that the sun was stationary in the center of the
of action will prevail. universe and the earth revolved around it.
1. The Act-Effect Principle: the action is good in itself or at  Proposed the Heliocentric model of the universe in his
least indifferent. book De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium.
2. The Intention Principle: the good must be intended.  Heralded a radical paradigm shift in the way humans
3. The Means-End Proportionality Principle: There must be considered their place in the universe.
a proportionately grave reason for the evil effect to
Rational Will – ability to enact our thoughts.
happen.
4. The Right Order Principle: the good effect must come first Agency – ability of a person to act based on her intentions and
before the evil effect or at least simultaneously. mental states.

AUTONOMY
WEEK 9: DEONTOLOGY
 Immanuel Kant: claims that the property of rational will is
 “Duty-based” or “Obligation-based” ethics. autonomy which is the opposite of heteronomy.
 An approach to ethics that focuses on the rightness or
 Greek words: Autos - self, Hetero - other, Nomo - law
wrongness of an action itself; rather than on the rightness
or wrongness of the consequences or the character of the
 External author law – the will is subjected to an external
person.
authority, thus heteronomy will.
 What makes a choice RIGHT is its conformity to moral
 Internal author law – if the author was the will itself,
norms
imposing the law unto itself, then it is autonomous.
 Deontology may sometimes be consistent with Moral
 Ex: Reggie found a suitcase and she returned it to the
Absolution, the belief that certain actions are just wrong,
owner but what if Reggie did not return the suitcase,
no matter what follows.
destroyed the lock, then took and sold its valuable
 Ex: Suppose you’re a software engineer and you learned contents? Reggie may have concluded “I am entitled to
that a nuclear missile is about to launch that might start a benefit from this lost suitcase. I am the author of this
war. You can hack the network and cancel the launch, but principle. I am acting autonomously.” He may conclude
it is against your professional code of ethics to break into
this since no external authority is legislating laws for him
any software system without permission. by using rewards or punishments.
Duty and Agency
 Kant claims that there is difference between rational will
1. Deontology and animal pulse.
 Moral theory that evaluates the actions that are done  The choice can be determine by pure person is called free
because of duty. choice.
 Refers to the study and obligation.  Human choice – choice that may indeed be affected but
 Immanuel Kant is the main proponent. not determined by impulses.
 Sensible Impulse – usually bodily and emotional. adopted by everyone else. Foundational principle for
Ex: Jealously from seeing your gf make eyes at someone. deontological, or duty based, ethics.
The rage from being pushed foully by your opponent.
Paternalism – term used for actions we take or decisions we
 Pure reason – there is a choice or action. (free choice).
make for another person with the intention of benefiting that
person.
 Heteronomy – occurs when any foreign impulse, whether
it is external (as in other persons or institutions that Deontology – is the spirit of enlightenment of morality. Based
impose their will on the agent) or sensible (as in bodily on the light of one’s own reason when maturity and rational
instincts or base emotions) is what compels a person to capacity take hold of a person’s decision making.
act.
 Autonomy – property of the will in those instances when “DO WHAT IS RIGHT, THOUGH THE WORLD MAY PERISH.”
pure reason is the cause of the action.

WEEK 10: VIRTUE ETHICS

UNIVERSABILITY
 The goal of life is well-being (happiness) and the means to
Kinds of Moral Theories: attain it is by acquiring a virtuous character.
1. Substantive – immediately promulgates the specific  Virtue (arete) means ‘excellence’.
actions that comprise that theory. Virtue and Happiness:
Ex: ten commandments, “honor your father and mother”,
“you shall not kill”  For Greeks, the goal of action is the ultimate human good:
2. Formal Moral Theory – does not supply the rules or happiness (Eudaimonia)
commends straight away.  Human Happiness – understood as the highest
achievement of what it means to be human. It is a kind of
*Immanuel Kant embodies a formal moral theory in what he
flourishing, health, or well-being of the soul or mind.
calls the categorical imperative, which provides procedural
way of identifying the rightness or wrongness of an action. Socrates/Plato’s theory of virtue:

Kant divided categorical imperative in 3 ways:  Virtue is supposed to be a kind of knowledge.

 It is identified with wisdom (sophia). Wisdom is both
1. “Act only according to such a maxim, by which you can at
necessary and sufficient for virtue.
once will that it becomes a universal law”
 Knowledge about virtue is somehow analogous to
 Universability – humanity as end, kingdom of ends.
mathematical knowledge.
 Maxim – subjective principle of action.
 Both kinds of knowledge are the result of a self-reflective
 In groundwork towards a metaphysics of morals, Kant
process called ‘recollection’.
takes up the issue of making false promises.
 MAXIM: I will borrow money even though I know that Practical Wisdom or Prudence
I will not be able to return it.
 UNIVERSAL LAW/UNIVERSABILITY: A world where  With Aristotle, we distinguish the kind of wisdom
everyone borrows money without the intention of necessary for ethical action from wisdom in the sciences.
returning it.  The wisdom necessary for action is “practical wisdom”
(phronêsis) or good moral judgment. Aquinas calls this
Two possibilities in hypothetical world: “prudence” (prudentia).
 Judgment applies to a range of different situations, which
1. Logical plausibility – by making sense.
is why it requires experience to acquire.
2. Logical impossibility – by not making sense.
 Good judgment enables a person to make the right sort of
Two ways which Kant rejects maxims: decision in the right kind of circumstances at the right
time.
a. Self-contradictory.
b. Act and its purpose become impossible Intellectual and Moral Virtues

Rational Permissibility – intrinsic quality of an action that is Aristotle and Aquinas distinguish between intellectual and
objectively and necessarily rational. moral virtues:

Universalizability Test – a form of a moral test that invites us  Intellectual virtues – can be taught formally. Involve
to imagine a world in which any proposed action is also knowledge and understanding of causes and ends.
 Ex: theoretical wisdom, scientific knowledge, insight or The Goal of Human Existence:
understanding, technical skill or art, and practical wisdom.
 Eudaimonia
 Moral virtues – can only be acquired through practice and
experience. Involve acquiring habits of character and have  Flourishing, Happiness
to do with the appropriate management of emotions.  A lifelong pursuit accomplished:
Ex: temperance or moderation, justice, courage or  Rationally, through theoretical wisdom and
fortitude, generosity, friendliness, wittiness, truthfulness contemplation.
 Functionally, through practical wisdom and politics
Virtues and Character  Aimed at the “perfect happiness” which is the perfect
activity.
 To be virtuous is to have a virtuous character.
 Character is an engrained habit or disposition to act in The Virtues
certain ways.
1. Intellectual Virtues
 Virtuous action must come from a virtuous character.
 Wisdom, understanding, prudence.
 The virtuous person wants to act virtuously and does so
 Taught through instruction
for that reason.
2. Moral Virtues
Character and Will:  Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, Temperance
 The result of habit
 For Aquinas, even if a person has the right characteristics  Not natural or inborn but acquired through practice
and is inclined by nature to do the right thing, that person  Habit or disposition of the soul (our fundamental
still has a choice either to follow commands of reason or character) which involves both feeling and action
not.  “Those strengths of character that enable us to
 The individual, human will is right when it conforms to flourish” (Hinman)
divine will.  Defined/understood in terms of spheres of human
 Divine will is the ultimate lawgiver: God ordained right experience
and wrong, good and bad, when God created the world.
So, failure to conform to God’s will is to violate the natural
law.

Supernatural Grace and Beatific Vision

 Aquinas recognizes Aristotle’s idea that virtue leads to

happiness, but he sees this as an imperfect, natural, or
human form of happiness.
 Complete and perfect happiness is not to be found in this
life, for Aquinas. It is the beatific vision: complete
intellectual union with the divine (seeing God in God’s The Doctrine of the Mean
essence).  Proper position between two extremes.
 This sort of blessed happiness is impossible as long as our  Vice of excess.
intellect is embodied and operates through the senses  Vice of deficiency.
(since God’s true essence is not perceivable by the  Not an arithmetic median
senses.)  Relative to us and not the thing.
 Additionally, human beings are unable to obtain this  Not the same for all of us, or
perfection without the grace of God. So, this ultimate end  Any of us, at various occasions.
or purpose of humanity is supernatural, it requires divine
intervention. The Mean

Aristotle’s Ethics

 The Nicomachean Ethics

 Two kinds of person:
a. Continent: Do what is right, but not necessarily
because they want to.
b. Temperate: Do what is right because they want to;
the more holistic person.
Virtues and the Mean 6. Michael Stote
 Develops the feminist ‘ethics of care,’ and links it to
 Defined through reason:
a virtue ethics inspired more by Hume and
 Education, contemplation, reflection
Hutcheson’s moral sentimentalism than by Aristotle.
 Balanced with other virtues and applied using phronesis: 7. Martha Nussbaum
(To have any single strength of character in full measure,
 She interprets Aristotle’s views as absolutes… justice,
a person must have the other ones as well).
temperance, generosity etc. are essential to human
 Courage without good judgement is blind.
flourishing in all societies and in all times.
 Courage without perseverance is short-lived.
 Nussbaum sees a relativist approach as being
 Courage without a clear sense of your own abilities is
incompatible with Aristotle’s virtue theory.
foolhardy.
 The virtuous person has practical wisdom, the ability to Are the virtues the same for everyone?
know when and how best to apply these various moral
perspective.  People are very different.
 But we face the same basic problems and have the same
Virtues and Community basic needs.
 Everyone needs courage as danger can always arise.
 Virtues are defined and lived in community.
 Some people are less well off, so we will need generosity.
 Sharing a common identity and story.
 Everyone needs friends so we need loyalty.
 Modelling the Virtues
 Importance of Moral Exemplars (Saints and Heroes) Strengths of Virtue Ethics
 Practicing the virtues — HABIT IS CRUCIAL!
a. Importance of the Person, Motive, Heart, Conscience.
 Reinforcing the virtues
b. Connection to Community.
Other Virtue Ethicists c. Realization that morality is not defined by moments but
by a long-term process.
1. G.E.M (Elizabeth) Anscombe
d. Allowance for gray areas, varying contexts, different levels
 1958 she published an article called Modern Moral of moral maturity and life contexts.
Philosophy arguing that we should return to the
virtues, as the idea of a law without a lawgiver was Weakness of Virtue Ethics
incoherent.
a. Dependence on strong communities.
2. Alasdair MacIntyre
b. Not easily applied to ethical issues or to give us practical
 After Virtue (1981)
solutions.
 Modern moral philosophy is bankrupt; it must
c. Demands time.
recover the tradition of virtue.
d. Can be turned into a really poor duty-based ethics.
3. Philippa Foot
e. Might be taken as situational ethics.
 Tries to modernize Aristotle.
 Ethics should not be about dry theorizing, but about How do we acquire virtue?
making the world a better place.
 Virtues contributes to the good life.  Practical Wisdom
 Comes from observing human affairs carefully.
4. Rosalind Hurtshouse
 Comes from remembering how our actions & the
 A neo-aristotelian, Aristotle was wrong on women
actions of others have played out.
and slaves, and there is no need to be limited to his
list of virtues.  The more we develop a virtuous character & acquire
practical wisdom.
 We acquire virtues individually, and so flourish, but
we do so together and not at each other’s expense.  Good actions from good character.
5. Carol Gilligan  Good character is essential to human happiness.
 In a different voice (1982) Virtue and Habit
 Developmental theories have been built on
observations and assumptions about men’s lives and  For Aristotle, virtue is something that is practiced and
thereby distort views of female personality. thereby learned—it is habit (hexis).
 The kinds of virtues one honors depend on the power  This has clear implications for moral education, for
brokers of one’s society. Aristotle obviously thinks that you can teach people to be
 The Ethics of Care virtuous.
 Role models become very important.
Virtue as the Golden Mean

 Aristotle says virtue involves finding the proper balance

between two extremes.
 Excess: having too much of something.
 Deficiency: having too little of something.
 Not mediocrity, but harmony and balance.
 The Mean varies from person to person.
 There are many ways of behaving & thus many ways to be
happy.

A Virtuous Life Mean Balance

 Take one of the cardinal virtues away, then one happens?

 At school?
 Competence
 Teamwork
 Social justice
 Mellowness of heart