Surface Texture

Contents
 Introduction
 Definitions
 Symbols used in surfacefinish
 Analysis of traces
 Taylor – Hobson “Talysurf”
 simple numerical on surfaceroughness
 Introduction
• The control of surface texture together with dimensional accuracy has become more important
with the more precise demands of modern engineering products.

• The surface texture greatly influences the functions of the machined parts.

• The properties such as appearance, corrosion resistance, wear resistance, fatigue resistance,
lubrication, initial tolerance, ability to hold pressure, load carrying capacity, noise reduction in
case of gears are influenced by the surface texture
• Whatever may be the manufacturing process used, it is not possible to produce perfectly
smooth surface. The imperfections and irregularities bound to occur.

• The irregularities on the surface are in the form of succession of hills and valleys varying in
height and spacing.

• These irregularities are usually termed as surface roughness, surface finish, surface texture or
surface quality.

• These irregularities are responsible to a great extent for the appearance of a surface of a
component and its suitability for an intended application.
 Factors affecting surface roughness

The following factors affect the surface roughness:

1. Vibrations
2. Material of the work piece
3. Type of machining
4. Rigidity of the system consisting of machine tool, fixture cutting tool and work
5. Type, form, material and sharpness of cutting tool
6. Cutting conditions i.e., feed, speed and depth of cut
7. Type of coolant used
 Reasons for controlling surface texture
Different requirements demand different surface texture. For example
1) Heat exchanger tubes transfer heat better when their surfaces are
slightly rough rather then highly finished.
2) Brake drums and clutch plates etc..work best with some degree of
surface roughness
3) The surface of the parts which are subjected to high stresses and
load reversals are finished highly smooth
4) For quieter operations, the surfaces should be smooth
The principal reasons for controlling the surface texture are:
1. To improve the service life of the components
2. To improve the fatigue resistance
3. To reduce initial wear of parts
4. To have a close dimensional tolerance on the parts
5. To reduce frictional wear
6. To reduce corrosion by minimizing depth of irregularities
7. For good appearance
8. If the surface is not smooth, a turning shaft may act like a reamer
and the piston rod like a broach. The moving parts can heat up, bind
and freeze.
Excessive surface roughness on shafts and bearings say in an electrical
household appliances require more power
Perfectly smooth surface is not always required, the requirement of
surface texture depends upon the specific application of the part.
 Orders of Geometrical Irregularities
Geometrical irregularities can be classified into four categories

 First Order. This includes the irregularities arising out of inaccuracies

in the machine tool itself
 (i)e.g. lack of straightness of guide-ways on which tool post must
move.
 (ii) Surface irregularities arising due to deformation of work under
the action of cutting forces, and
 (iii) due to the weight of the material itself.

 Second Order. Some irregularities are caused due to vibrations of

any kind such as chatter marks on the surface of the parts.
 Third Order. Even if the machine were perfect and completely free of vibrations, some
irregularities are caused by machining itself due to characteristic of theprocess. This
includes:
 Feed mark of the cutting tool.

 Fourth Order. This includes the irregularities arisingfrom the rupture of the material
during the separation of the chip.
 Further these irregularities of four orders can be grouped under twogroups: (i)
Roughness or Primary texture, (ii) Waviness or secondary texture.

(i) Primary Texture (Roughness)

 The surface irregularities of small wavelength are called primary texture or
roughness.
 These are caused by direct action of the cutting elements on the material i.e.,
cutting tool shape, tool feed rate or by some other disturbances such as friction,
wear or corrosion.
 These include irregularities of third and fourth order and constitute the micro-
geometrical errors.
(ii) Secondary texture (Waviness)

 The surface irregularities of considerable wavelength of a periodic character are called

secondary texture or waviness. These irregularities result due to inaccuracies of slides,
wear of guides, misalignment of centers, non – linear feed motion, deformation of work
under the action of cutting forces, vibrations of any kind etc.

 These errors include irregularities of first and second order and constitute the macro-
geometrical errors.

 Any finished surface can be considered as the combination of two forms of wavelength
(large wavelength for waviness and smaller wavelength for roughness) superimposed
upon each other. These two forms of irregularities superimposed on each other tends to
form a pattern or texture on the surface.
Elements of surface texture
• Surface: The surface of part is confined by the boundary which separates that part from
another part, substance or space.
• Actual Surface: This refers to the surface of a part which is actually obtained after a
manufacturing process.
• Nominal Surface: it is a theoretical, geometrically perfect surface which does not exist in
practice, but it is an average of the irregularities that are superimposed on it.
• Profile: Profile is defined as the contour of any section through a surface.
• Roughness: it refers to relatively finely spaced micro geometrical irregularities. It is also
called as primary texture and constitutes third and fourth order irregularities.
• Roughness Height: this is rated as the arithmetical average deviation expressed in micro
meters normal to an imaginary center line, running through the roughness profile.
• Roughness width: it is the distance parallel to the normal surface between successive
peaks or ridges that constitutes the predominant pattern of the roughness.
• Roughness width cutoff: this is the maximum width of surface irregularities that is
included in the measurement of roughness height. This is always greater than roughness
width and is rated in centimeters.
• Waviness: already explained.
• Effective profile: it is the real contour of a surface obtained by using instrument.
• Flaws: Surface irregularities or imperfections which occur at infrequent intervals and at
random intervals. Ex: scratches, holes, cracks, porosity etc. these may be observed directly
with the aid of penetrating dye or other material which makes them visible for examination
and evaluation.
• Surface texture: Repetitive or random deviations from the nominal surface which forms
the pattern on the surface. Surface texture includes roughness, waviness, lays and flaws.
Dayananda Pai, Aero & Auto Engg., Dept. MIT,
Manipal
Lay:

• It is the direction of the predominant

surface pattern produced by tool marks
or scratches.

• It is determined by the method of

production used.

• Symbols used to indicate the direction of

lay are shown in Table.
• Sampling length: it is the length of the profile necessary for the evaluation of the
irregularities to be taken into account. It is also known as ‘cut-off’ length.
• It is measured in a direction parallel to the general direction of the profile.
• The required length can be related to the process employed for finishing and a series of
Indian Standard Sampling Lengths, or cut off values, have been evolved to cover the
majority of finishing processes normally used.
• These standard lengths are 0.08, 0.25, 0.8, 2.5 and 25 mm.
• When it is not specified it is considered to be 0.8 mm for majority of the finishing processes:
Recommended Sampling lenths
 Analysis of Surface Traces
• It is required to assign a numerical value to surface roughness in order to measure its
degree. This will enable the analyst to assess whether the surface quality meets the
functional requirements of a component.
• Various methodologies are employed to arrive at a representative parameter of
surface roughness. Some of these are

1. 10 – point height average (Rz),

2. Root mean square (RMS) value, and
3. the center line average height (Ra)
 Ten point height Average Value(Rz) is defined as the average
difference between the five highest peaks and the five deepest valleys
within the sampling length measured from a line, parallel to the mean
line and not crossing the profile.

𝑅1+𝑅3+𝑅5+𝑅7+𝑅9 −(𝑅2+𝑅4+𝑅6+𝑅8+𝑅10)
Rz = μ𝑚
5
 Root Mean Square (R.M.S) (Rq)Value
 R.M.S. value is defined as the square root of the mean of the
squares of the ordinates of the surface measured from a mean
line.

h12  h22  ......... h2n

hrms 
n
  Centre Line Average (C.L.A) value(Ra).

 This is defined as the average height from a mean line

of all ordinates of thesurface regardless of the sign
h1  h2  .......  hn
C.L.A (Ra) 
n
 Analysis of Surface Traces

 Things can be much simplified

by using a planimeter which
can find out the area of any
curve. Then C.L.A. value

A1 A2  .......  An
C.L.A 
L
Problem1: In the measurement of surface roughness, heights of successive 10
peaks and troughs were measured from a datum and were 33, 25, 30, 19, 22, 18,
27, 29 and 20 microns. If these measurements were obtained on 10 mm length,
determine CLA and RMS values of surface roughness.

𝑦1+𝑦2+𝑦3+⋯+𝑦𝑛
• CLA value or Ra value =
𝑛
33+25+30+19+22+18+27+29+20
• = = 25.5 microns
10

𝑦12 +𝑦22 +𝑦32 + ⋯𝑦𝑛2

• RMS Value =
𝑛
• = 26.03 microns
Problem2: Calculate the C.L.A value of a surface for the following data:
The sampling length is 0.8 mm, the graph is drawn to a vertical magnification of
15000 and horizontal magnification of 100 and the areas above and below the
datum line are 160, 90, 180, 50 mm2 and 95, 65, 170, 150 mm2 respectively.

σ𝐴
Sol: C.L.A =
𝐿
160+95+90+65+180+170+50+150 1 1
= x x
0.8 15000 100
= 0.8 μm
Problem3: In the measurement of surface roughness, heights of 20 successive
peaks and valleys measured from a datum are as follows:
• 45, 25, 40, 25, 35, 16, 40, 22, 25, 34, 25, 40, 20, 36, 28, 18, 20, 25, 30, 38. if
these measurements were made over a length of 20 mm, determine the C.L.A
and RMS values of the surface.

• C.L.A Value?
• (45+25+………..+30+38)/20= 29.35
• RMS Value?
• Sqrt[(45^2+25^2+…………+30^2+38^2)/20]= 30.51
 Statement of Surface Roughness
The following information shall be given in statements relating to surface roughness:
• Surface roughness value: it is expressed as Ra value in microns (μ𝑚). If a single Ra value is
stated it is understood that any Ra value from zero to that stated is acceptable.
• Limiting values: when both minimum and maximum Ra values needed to be specified these
shall be expressed as follows:
𝟖.𝟎
Ra 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦, 𝑹𝒂 𝟖. 𝟎 − 𝟏𝟔. 𝟎
𝟏𝟔.𝟎
• Sampling length (Instrument cut off): the sampling length is indicated in parenthesis
following the roughness value as follows: Ra 8.0 (2.5)
• Here, Ra value is 8.0 microns and sampling length 2.5 mm
• Lay: it is sometimes necessary to specify the direction of Lay. For ex: Ra 1.5 lay parallel
• Process: when it is necessary to limit the production of a surface to the use of one particular
process, the process shall be stated.
 Conventional Method for Designing Surface finish

As per IS:696 Surface texture specified by indicating the following main characteristics in the
symbols:

a) Roughness value i.e., Ra value in μ𝑚

b) Machining allowance in mm
c) Sampling length or instrument cut-off length in mm
d) Machining/production method, and
e) Direction of lay in the symbol form as =, ⊥ , X, M, C, R
• For example a milled surface with 1.2 mm machining allowance
having Ra value 6.3 μ𝑚, with cut-off length 2.5 mm and direction of
lay parallel will be represented as shown in Fig.
 Preferred Values of Ra and Rz

• Preferred values for C.L.A or arithmetical mean deviation Ra in µm are selected

from: 0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6, 3.2, 6.3, 12.5 and 25

• The preferred values for ten point height irregularities Rz in µm are selected
from: 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6, 3.2, 6.3, 12.5, 25, 50 and 100.
 Measurement of Surface finish/Surface texture
There are two methods used for measuring the finish of machined part :
1) Inspection by comparison
2) Direct instrument measurement.

Surface Inspection by Comparison Methods.

The texture of the surface to be tested is compared with that of a specimen of known roughness
value and finished by similar machining process.

1) Visual Inspection
2) Touch Inspection
3) Scratch Inspection
4) Microscopic Inspection
5) Surface Photographs
6) Micro-Interferometer
7) Wallace Surface Dynamometer
8) Reflected Light Intensity
 Visual Inspection
Visual inspection by naked eye is always likely to be
misleading particularly when surfaces having high
degree of finish are inspected. The method is,
therefore, limited to rougher surfaces and results vary
from person to person.
 Touch Inspection
 This method can simply tell which surface is more rough.
 It cannot give the degree of surface roughness and minute flaws can’t be detected.
 In this method, the finger-tip is moved along the surface at a speed of about 25 mm per
second and the irregularities as small as 0.0125 mm can be easily detected.

 A modification of it is possible by using a table tennis ball, which is rubbed over the surface
and vibrations from the ball transmitted to hand and surface roughness judged thereby.
 Scratch Inspection
 In this method, a softer material like lead, babbit or plastic
is rubbed over the surface to be inspected. By doing so it
carries the impression of the scratches on the surfaces
which can be easily visualised.
 Microscopic Inspection

 In this method, a master finished surface is placed under the microscope and
compared with the surface under inspection.
 This is probably the best method for examining the surface finish but suffers due to
limitation that only a small portion of the surface can be inspected at a time. Thus
several readings are required to get an average value.

Alternative method:
 A straight edge is placed on the surface to be inspected and a beam of light projected
at about 60o to the work.
 The shadow is cast into the surface, the scratches are magnified and the surface
irregularities can be studied.
 Surface Photographs
 In this method magnified photographs of thesurface are taken with different types of
illumination to reveal the irregularities.
 In case we use vertical illumination, then defects like irregularities and scratches
appear as dark spots and flat portion of the surface appears as bright area. In case of
oblique illumination, reverse is the case.
 Photographs with different illumination are compared and the result is assessed.
 Micro interferometer
 In this method, an optical flat is placed on the
surface to be inspected and illuminated by a
monochromatic source of light. Interference
bands are studied through a microscope.

 Defects, i.e. the scratches in the surface appear

as interference lines extending from the dark
bands into the bright bands.

 The depth of the defect is measured in terms of

the fraction of the interferenceband.
 Wallace Surface Dynamometer
• It is a sort of friction meter.
• It consists of a pendulum in which the testing shoes are damped to a bearing surface and a
predetermined spring pressure can be applied.
• The pendulum is lifted to its initial starting position and allowed to swing over the surface
to be tested.
• If the surface is smooth, then there will be less friction and pendulum swings for a longer
period.
• Thus, the time of swing is a direct measure of surface texture.
 Reflected light intensity

 In this method a beam of light of known quantity is projected upon the surface.

 This light is reflected in several directions as beams of lesser intensity and the change
in light intensity in different directions is measured by a photocell.

 The measured intensity changes are already calibrated by means of reading taken from
surface of known roughness by some other suitable method.
Direct Instrument Measurements
 Direct Instrument Measurements

• These methods enable to determine a

numerical value of the surface finish of any
surface by using instruments of stylus
probe type operating on electrical
principles.

• In these instruments the output has to be

amplified and the amplified output is used
to operate recording or indicating
instrument.
 Principle, Construction and operation of stylus
probe type surface texture measuring instruments.
• If a finely pointed probe or stylus be moved over the surface of a workpiece, the vertical
movement of the stylus caused due to the irregularities in the surface texture can be used to
assess the surface finish of the workpiece.

• Stylus which is a fine point made of diamond or any such hard material is drawn over the
surface to be tested.
 Stylus probe Instrument
This type of instrument generally consists of the following units

1. A skid or shoe which is drawn slowly over the surface either by

hand or by motor drive
2. A stylus or probe which moves over the surface with the skid
3. An amplifying device for magnifying thestylus movement
4. A recording device to produce a trace
5. A means for analysing thetrace
 Skid
 A skid or shoe which is drawn
slowly over the surface either by
hand or by motor drive.

 The skid when moved over the

surface, follows its general
contours and provides a datum
for the measurements.
 Stylus probe
 The stylus moves over the surface with the skid.
 It moves vertically up and down due to surface roughness and records the
micro-geometrical form of the surface.

 Stylus is a fine point made of diamond or any such hard material.

 Amplifying
 The stylus movements are magnified by an amplifying device and recorded to
produce a trace.

 The trace is then analyzed by some automatic device incorporated in the instrument.
 Electronic or optical magnification is employed.
 Recording

 A recording device to produce a

trace or record of the surface
profile.
 Usually the vertical movement
is magnified more in
comparison to horizontal
movement, thus the record will
not give the actual picture of
surface roughness, but a
distorted trace obtained.
 Advantages

• The main advantage of such instruments is that the electrical

signal available can be processed to obtain any desired roughness
parameter or can be recorded for display or subsequent analysis.

• Therefore, the stylus type instruments are widely used for surface
texture measurements
 Disadvantages
i. These instruments are bulky and complex.
ii. They are relatively fragile
iii. Initial cost is high
iv. Measurements are limited to a section of a surface
v. Needs skilled operators for measurements
vi. Distance between stylus and skid and the shape of the skid introduce errors in
measurement for wavy surfaces.
Stylus probe Instruments
(i) Profilometer
(ii) The Tomlinson surface meter
(iii) The Taylor Hobson Talysurf
(iv) The Rubert mecrin roughness indicator.
 Profilometer
 It is used measure roughness in microns.
 The principle of the instrument is similar to
gramophone pick up.
 It consists of two principal units: a tracer and an
amplifier.
 A finely pointed stylus (tracer) mounted in the pick-up
unit which consists of an induction coil located in the
field of permanent magnet.
 When the tracer is moved across the surface to be
tested, it is displaced vertically up and down due to the
surface irregularities.
 This causes the induction coil to move in the field of the
permanent magnet and induces a voltage. The induced
voltage is amplified and recorded.

 This instrument is best suited for measuring surface

finish of deep bores.
Tomlinson Surface meter
 The diamond stylus on the surface finish recorder is
held by spring pressure against the surface of a lapped
steel cylinder. The stylus is also attached to the body of
the instrument by a leaf spring and its height is
adjustable to enable the diamond to be positioned
conveniently. The stylus is restrained from all motios
except the vertical one by the tensions in coil and leaf
spring. A light spring steel arm is attached to the
horizontal lapped steel cylinder and it carries at its tip
a diamond scriber which bears against a smoked glass.
 When measuring surface
finish, body is traversed
across the surface by a
screw rotated by a
synchronous motor. Any
vertical movement of the
stylus caused by the
surface irregularities,
causes the horizontal
lapped steel cylinder to
roll.
 By its rolling, the lightarm
attached to its end
provides a magnified
movement on a smoked
glass plate. This vertical
movement coupled with
the horizontal movement
produces a trace on the
glass magnified in vertical
direction and there being
no magnification in
horizontal direction.
 Taylor-Hobson Talysurf
• As the stylus moves up and
down due to surface
irregularities, the armature is
also displaced.
• This causes variation in the air
gap, leading to an imbalance
in the bridge circuit.
• The resulting bridge circuit
output consists of only
modulation.
• This is fed to an amplifier and
a pen recorder is used to make
a permanent record.
 Working principle
• As the stylus moves up and down due to surface irregularities, the
armature is also displaced. This causes variation in the air gap, leading
to an imbalance in the bridge circuit. The resulting bridge circuit
output consists of only modulation. This is fed to an amplifier and a
pen recorder is used to make a permanent record.
 This instrument also gives the same information as the
previous instrument, but much more rapidly and
accurately.
 This instrument also as the previous one records the
static displacement of the stylus and is dynamic
instrument like profilometer.
 The measuring head of
this instrument consists
of a diamond stylus of
about 0.002 mm tip
radius and skid or shoe
which is drawn across
the surface by means ofa
motorised driving unit.
A neutral position in
which the pick-up canbe
traversed manually is
also provided.
 The arm carrying the
stylus forms anarmature
which pivots about the
centre piece of E-shaped
stamping. On two legsof
(outer pole pieces) theE-
shaped stamping there
are coils carrying an a.c.
current.
 These two coils with other
two resistances form an
oscillator. The amplitude
of the original a.c. current
flowing in the coils is
modulated because of air
gap between the armature
and E-shaped stamping.
This is further
demodulated so that the
current now is directly
proportional to thevertical
displacement of the stylus
only.
 The demodulated outputis
caused to operate a pen
recorder to produce a
permanent record and a
meter to give a numerical
assessment directly. In
recorder of this instrument
the marking medium is an
electric discharge through
a specially treated paper
which blackens at the
point of the stylus.
 Mecrin Gauge
(Mechanical Roughness Indicator)
Principle of the Mecrin gauge:
• Mecrin roughness instrument assesses the surface through its frictional properties and the
average slope of the irregularities.
• This gauge is suited for surfaces manufactured by processes such as grinding, honing, and
lapping, which have low Ra values in the range of 3 to 5 micrometer.
• A thin metallic blade when pushed against a surface at a certain angel will either slide or
buckle depending on two factors:
1. The surface roughness
2. The angle of attack i.e. the angle of the blade with the surface.
Mecrin Gauge
• It is good practice to take the average of at least five readings when using an electronic stylus
instrument.
• This is because of the fact that Ra values of each measuring traversing length on machined
surfaces scatter from 10% to 100% depending on the machining method.