CHAPTER -6

EVOLUTION

BY : NIDHI VERMA
 • Evolutionary biology is the study of history of life forms on earth. The origin of life is considered a
unique event in the history of universe.
• Universe is almost 20 billion years old
• Huge cluster of galaxy is comprise the universe and galaxy’s contance stars in clouds of gas and dust.
BIG BANG THEORY
The Big Bang theory attempts to explain the origin of the universe. according to this theory a singular huge
explosion ghost the infinitesimally small hot and dense universe to expand, which resulted in the lowering of
[Link] even states that the universe continues to expand even today .

HOW EARTH FORMED

• After big bang explosion and lowering of temperature after the passage of time gases such as hydrogen
and helium got formed. Stay condensed due to gravitation and gave rise to different galaxies in the
universe
• One of the Galaxy is known to us is the Milky Way which contains the solar system and the earth is one of
the planets in the system. At the time of its formation there was no atmosphere on the earth. Big surface
was covered by water vapour ,methane ,carbon dioxide and ammonia released from the motion mass.
• Gradually the ultraviolet rays of the sun split the wate,r which was in vapour state into hydrogen and
oxygen .Hydrogen being a lighter gas than oxygen escaped.
• There after oxygen combined with ammonia and methane which led to the formation of water carbon
dioxide and other gases.
• High energy ultraviolet rays of the sun struck the oxygen molecule and splitted into oxygen atoms .Which
in turn reacted with other oxygen molecules to form ozone and thus the ozone layer was formed .
• Some of the water vapours cooled and came down as rain ,which filled all the deep depressions on the
earth and formed oceans.
• It is estimated that life appeared on earth 500 million years after its formation .

Theories behind beginning of life on earth

1. Theory of panspermia- It Explains that, unit of life called spore, which transferred to different planets.
Panspermia assumes that seeds of life exist all over the universe. therefore the life on earth may have
originated after one such seed was deposited on the earth from somewhere in the universe.
2. Theory of spontaneous generation/theory of abiogenesis/theory of autogenesis According to this
theory life came out of non living decaying and rotting matter like stones, straw and mud. even Aristotle
believed in this theory.
3. Theory of biogenesis – Spontaneous generation was invoke until a German biologist Rudolf Virchow
challenged it with his theory called omnis cellula e cellula, which explains that living cells can arise from pre
existing cells. He could not prove this theory of Biogenesis.
later on Louis Pasteur proved the theory of [Link] used sealed flasks with killed yeast, these flasks
did not show any signs of life. in another flask,he exposed killed yeast to air, surprisingly living organisms were
found in this flask .
4. Theory of chemical evolution-theory of chemical evolution was given by Oparin of Russia and Haldane of
England. They said, First form of life originated from pre-existing non-living organic molecules, such as RNA
and protein. And the birth of life was preceded by chemical evolution over the formation of diverse organic
molecules from inorganic constituents. When the earth was created, the conditions were -high temperature,
volcanic storms and reducing atmosphere consisting of methane and ammonia.

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 S.L MILLER EXPERIMENT
In 1953 Miller created all the conditions similar as present during the formation of earth. He created an electric
discharge in a closed flask containing containing - CH4, ammonia, hydrogen and water vapour at 800°C and
observed the formation of amino acids.

Later on, while conducting similar experiments , other Scientist observed the formation of sugars, nitrogen
bases and fats as well. when meteorites content was analysed similar compounds were found in them also,
which proved that similar processes occurred in other parts of the universe as well thereafter the theory of
chemical evolution was most widely accepted.

Three cannotations of theory of special creation -

1. All Organisms around us have not evolved overtime, but are just as they were originally created
2. diversity among living organisms has been uniform, since the time of creation and will continue to be the
same in future as well.
3. the earth is only 4000 years old
NATURAL SELECTION

According to the Charles Darwin natural selection is the mechanism of evolution. Which states that any
population has variations in characteristics which help it’s better survival in natural conditions (climate, food
physical factors, etc) and have fitness specially reproductive fitness to outbreed others and leaf more
progeny .These, therefore will survive more and hence are selected by nature .

EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION

[Link]- fossils are the preserved remains of animals plants and other organisms found in the
sedimentary layers of rocks. Different aged Rock sediment contain fossils of different life forms. and signify
different periods of the earth’s history. Study of fossils for evolution is called evolutionary paleomtology.
for example -fossil remains of dinosaurs belong to the mesozoic era. fossils are also a great help in
morphological and anatomical studies. they also help in comparative anatomy which is the study of the
similarities and differences in the internal anatomy of organisms of the past with those who today.

2. Embryological evidence-according to Ernst Haeckel early embryological development stages of

vertebrates show certain features that are common to all vertebrates and absenting adult. supports the concept
of organic evolution.e.g. all vertebrates including human develops a row of vestigial gill slits behind the head but
it’s a functional organ only in fish and not found in any other other adult vertebrates.

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3. COMPARATIVE ANATOMICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL EVIDENCES-
• Homologous organs are those organs which possess a similar internal structure and similar development
but have different forms and functions. This phenomena of producing functionally different forms from
structurally similar structure is called homology and considered as divergent evolution.
• E.g.-Fore limbs of bat, cheetah , whale and humans ;Thorns of bougainvillea and tendrils of cucurbita.
• Analogous organs are those organs which have similar functions but they are different in anatomical
structural details and origin. This phenomenon of producing functionally similar form from structurally
different structure is called analogy and considered as and convergent evolution
E.g. wings of butterfly and birds; Eyes of the octopus and mammals; Slippers of Penguins and dolphins;
Sweet potato as a root modification and potato as a stem modification.

4 . MOLECULAR EVIDENCE – similarities in biomolecules such as proteins enzymes nucleic acids and gene
performing a given function among different organisms shows the common ancestry.

5. CYTOLOGICAL EVIDENCE – similarity in cell structure and cell division provides a strong evidence on
evolution.
INDUSTRIAL MELANISM (an example of natural selection)
In England , in the 1850s before industrialisation there were larger number of white winged moth on trees than
dark winged or melanic forms. As white moth survived by hiding among thick growth of white coloured lichens
and dark coloured moths were picked by predators. But after industrialisation, devar more dark coloured moss
in the same area, and the portion was reversed.
The dark coloured moths survived .The reason behind this was that the tree trunk became dark due to smoke
and soot. Lichens disappeared due to pollution by industrialisation and white coloured marks did not survive
due to predators. They shows that in a mixed population, those that can better adapt survive and increase their
population size.
• NOTE. Selection of resistant varieties by excessive use of herbicides and pesticides etc. Resistance strains of
microbes by employing drugs or antibiotic against eukaryotic organisms are examples of evolution by
anthropogenic (man) action aur artificial selection.

ADAPTIVE RADIATIONS
the process of evolution of different species from one species in a given geographical area starting from a point
and spreading or radiating to new habitat (other area of geography) and food source is called adaptive radiation.
It is a kind of divergent evolution.
e.g. Darwin observed in Galapagos Island that there were different varieties of Darwin finches, the species of
the birds are different from each other with respect to the shape of their beak and their overall size. The original
seat eating birds became insectivorous and vegetarian finches.

Types of adaptive radiation

[Link] divergence- animals of the same or closely related groups show Great divergence in their morphology
when found in a different habitat.
for example – the Darwin finches of the Galapagos islands . with the passenger time multiplied and began to
compete with each other for food and as a result birds adapted themselves by by having altered beaks some and
birds converted from insectivorous.
[Link] Convergence -Animals of unrelated groups occupying the same habitat exhibit common features. for
example Australian marsupials such as the kangaroo marsupial rat,banded anteater, tiger cat, Tasmanian wolf
and koala . Marsupial mammals are characterised by their pouch in which the female carries the young through
the initial days of infancy. many different types of marsupials with different ancestry have evolved on the
continent of Australia. this type of evolution where several adaptive radiations have occurred in an isolated
geographical area with several habitats is considered as convergent evolution .

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Similar adaptive radiations were seen in placental mammals and Australian masupials of Australia, although
they have different lineages but they resemble each other physically.

DARWIN THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION - BRANCHING DESCENTS AND NATURAL SELECTION IS THE ESSENCE AND
KEY CONCEPTS OF DARWIN THEORY OF EVOLUTION.
According to Darwin, nature favour the survival of the fittest means individuals who are better than others have
a greater potential for survival.
Variations due to natural selections which are heritable and which make resource utilisation better for few
(adapted to have it at better) will enable only those to reproduce and leaf more progeny. And they would be a
change in population characteristic and hence new form appear to arise.
• Natural selection give rise to variation
• Variations are small and directional
HUGO DE VRIES THEORY OF MUTATION – According to Hugo de Vries mutation causes sudden change in a
population. He believed
• mutation causes evolution
• New species originate due to large mutation and it is called as salutation.
• Evolution is discontinuous process and not gradual
• Nutritions are directionless.

HARDY WEINBERG PRINCIPLE

THE PRINCIPLE STATES THAT ALLELE FREQUENCY IN A POPULATION ARE STABLE AND IS CONSTANT FROM GENERATION
TO GENERATION. THIS IS CALLED GENETIC EQUILIBRIUM. SOME TOTAL OF ALL LED FREQUENCY IS 1.
P2+ 2pq+q2=1
Where p and q represents the frequency of a allele A and a .
FOUNDER EFFECT – sometimes the change in allele frequency is so different in a new sample of population
that they become a different species. This original drifted population become the founder and the effect is
called founder effect.

FACTORS AFFECTING HARDY WEINBURG EQUILIBRIUM

1. Gene migration or gene flow
2. Genetic drift
3. Mutation
4. Genetic recombination
5. Natural selection
NOTE- If gene migration happen multiple Times then it is called as gene flow. But if the same change occur
by chance it is called genetic drift.

ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
• 2000 million years ago first cellular life form appeared on earth.
• Non cellular macromolecule aggregates and formed first living organism.
• Some of the organisms can photosynthesized due to light harvesting pigment.
• single cell organism become multiplied to form multicellular life form.
• 500 million years ago invertebrates formed.
• 350 million years ago in carbonylist period jawless fishes evolved.
• 320 million years ago she weed and few plants for there.
• 300 million years ago pteridophytes invaded the land.
• Coelacanth a lobefin fish which was thought to be extinct is considered as living fossil.
• Lobe fins evolved into first amphibians. These were ancestors of modern day frogs and salamanders.

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• Amphibians evolved into reptiles. 200 mya ,The land reptiles were dinosaurs in the biggest of them was
tyrannosaurus Rex about 20 feet in height.
• 65 million years ago dinosaur suddenly disappeared due to climatic changes. And small size to reptiles exist
today.
• Reptiles evolved into birds and some into mammals
• First mammals were like shrews.

EVOLUTION OF MAN

• Dryopithecus and ramapithecus exist 15 million years ago [mya].

• Dryopithecus evolved around 25 mya. They were more ape like. They have very arms and legs of same
length. Large brain size, eat soft fruits and leaves, walked like gorillas chimpanzees.
• Ramapithecus more man like and walked erect and they bear teeth like modern man. Members of
ramapithecus were 4 feet tall.
• Fossils of man like discovered in ethopia and Tanzania suggest that who have hominid the features
and lived in Africa almost 3-4 mya found in the grasslands of East Africa .
• Australopithecines live TV staphy can grass . They hunt with stone weapons but ate fruit.
• homo habilis were first man like. Brain capacity was 652 800 CC and do not eat meat.
• Homo erectus -there fossils have found in Java in 1891. They were present on earth 1.5 mya. Have
large brain size of 900 cc. And they eat meat.
• Neanderthal -evolved one lakh to 40000 years ago. Fossils found in East and Central Asia. The brain
size was 1400cc. And they use hides to protect their body badies and burry dead.
• 25000 years ago homo sapiens arose in Africa.
• Homo sapiens sapiens arose fron homo sapiens of ice age.
• Evidence of the knowledge of making cart can be seen at bhimbetaka Rock shelter in raisen district of
Madhya Pradesh
• Agriculture came around 10000 years back.

NCERT QUESTIONS

1. Explain antibiotic, resistance observed in bacteria in light of Darwinian selection theory.

Ans. According to Darwin, environment selects organisms with favourable variations and these organisms are
allowed to survive. When a bacterial population encounters a particular antibiotic, those sensitive to it die. But
some bacteria having mutations become resistant to the antibiotic. Such resistant bacteria survive and multiply
quickly as the competing bacteria have died. Some the resistance providing genes become widespread and
entire bacterial population becomes resistant.
2. Find out from newspapers and popular science articles any new fossil discoveries or controversies about
evolution.
Ans. Fossils of dinosaurs were found that have revealed to evolution of reptiles in jurassic period.
Two unusual fossils recently found in China which brings the controversy over the evolution of the birds.
Confuciusornis lived during the cretaceous period in China is the genus of primitive bird.
3. Attempt giving a clear definition of the term species.
Ans. Species is population or group of individuals that have potential of interbreeding and are able to produce
viable, fertile young ones but are reproductively isolated from members of other species.
4. Try to trace the various components of human evolution (hint: brain size and function, skeletal structure,
dietary preference, etc.)
Ans. The various components of human evolution are as follows:

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 Dietary
[Link]. Name Brain capacity (cm3) Skeleton structure
preference

Posture similar to chimpanzees and

1. Dryopethicus africans – Herbivore
gorillas

2. Rama-pithecus – Fully erect Herbivore

3. Australop- ithicus africans 450 Fully erect Herbivore

4. Homo habilis 735 Fully erect Carnivore

5. Homo erectus 800-1100 Fully erect Omnivore

6. Homo neander-thalensis 1300-1600 Fully erect Omnivore

7. Homo sapiens fossils 1650 Fully erect Omnivore

8. Homo sapiens sapiens 1200-1600 Fully erect Omnivore

5. Find out through internet and popular science articles whether animals other than man has self-
consciousness.
Ans. They are many animals other than humans, which have self consciousness. These includes dolphins,
elephants, chimpanzees, apes and monkeys.
6. List 10 modern-day animals and using the” internet resources link it to a corresponding ancient fossil.
Name both.
1. Ans. Human- Ramapithecus 6. Giraffe - Palaeotragus
2. Horse- Eohippus 7. Gorilla - Dryopithecus
3. Whale -Protocetus 8. Octopus- Belemnite
4. Bat - Archaeonycteris 9. Tetrapods -- Icthyostega
5. Camel - Protylopus 10. Dog - Leptocyon
8. Describe one example of adaptive radiation.
Ans. Darwin’s finches of the Galapagos islands had common ancestors but now have different types of
modified beaks according to their food habits.
9. Can we call human evolution as adaptive radiation?
Ans. Adaptive radiation is not a term that can be used for human evolution. This is because adaptive radiation
is an evolutionary mechanism that produces new species from a single, rapidly diversifying lineage, but human
evolution does not.
10. Using various resources such as your school library or the internet and discussions with your teacher,
trace the evolutionary stages of any one animal say horse.
[Link] stages of horse:
Eohippus– Mesohippus – Merychippus – Pliohippus – Equus.
Evolutionary trend:
(i) Increase in body size. (iv) Enlargement of third digit.
(ii) Elongation of neck. (v) Increase in structural complexity of teeth for
(iii) Lengthening of limbs. feeding on grass.