CORROSION: Overview

Corrosion is the process of deterioration and degradation of materials due to chemical or

electrochemical reactions with the surrounding environment. It commonly occurs in metals but
can also affect non-metallic materials like concrete and polymers. Corrosion can lead to
structural failure, reduced functionality, economic losses e.t.c

The Corrosion Reaction

1. A Chemical Reaction
2Fe + 2H2O + O2 = 2Fe(OH)2
By definition, this is a corrosion process since iron metal (Fe) enters the chemically combined
state as ferrous hydroxide, Fe(OH)2. Fe(OH)2 further reacts to form rust.

2. An Electrochemical Mechanism
When aqueous corrosion occurs:
a. The metal loses electrons and is said to be oxidized. This electrochemical oxidation is called
anodic reaction. E.g.
2Fe → 2Fe2+ + 4e-
Al = Al3+ + 3e-
Fe = Fe2+ + 2e-
Under certain conditions of high anodic potential, oxygen evolution may occur as a competing
anodic reaction. This involves water decomposition according to the reaction:
2H2O = O2 + 4H+ + 4e-
b. The basic cathodic reaction involves either hydrogen evolution or Oxygen in the environment
gains electrons and is said to be reduced, or both. This electrochemical reduction is called a
cathodic reaction.
2H+ + 2e- = H2
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- = 2H2O (in acid solution
- -
O2 + 2H2O + 4e = 4OH (in basic or neutral solution)
However, metal ion reduction, or metal deposition may also occur as a competing cathodic
reaction. E.g.
Fe3+ + e- = Fe2+
Fe2+ + 2e- = Fe
Cu2+ + e- = Cu+
Cu+ + e- = Cu
It therefore, follows that sites on the metal surface supporting the anodic reaction are called
anodes or anodic sites while, the sites on the metal surface supporting the cathodic reaction are
called cathodes or cathodic sites.
Positively charged ions (cations – e.g. K+, Na+, H+, Fe2+) are attracted towards cathodes.
Negatively charged ions (anions – e.g. Cl-, OH-, SO4 2-, CO3 2- etc) are attracted towards anode.
 Types of Corrosion
There are basically two types of corrosion: Dry (Chemical) and Wet (Electrochemical) corrosion.

Wet or Electrochemical Corrosion

Electrochemical corrosion involves:
i) The formation of anodic and cathodic areas or parts in contact with each other
ii) Presence of a conducting medium
iii) Corrosion of anodic areas only and
iv) Formation of corrosion product somewhere between anodic and cathodic areas. This involves
flow of electron-current between the anodic and cathodic areas.
At anodic area oxidation reaction takes place (liberation of free electron), so anodic metal is
destroyed by either dissolving or assuming combined state (such as oxide, etc.). Hence corrosion
always occurs at anodic areas.
M (metal) → M n+ + n e-
M n+ (metal ion) → Dissolves in solution
→ forms compounds such as oxide
At cathodic area, reduction reaction takes place (gain of electrons), usually cathode reactions do
not affect the cathode, since most metals cannot be further reduced. So at cathodic part, dissolved
constituents in the conducting medium accepts the electrons to form some ions like OH and O2-.
Cathodic reaction consumes electrons with either by
(a) evolution of hydrogen or
(b) absorption of oxygen, depending on the nature of the corrosive environment.

Difference between (dry) chemical and (wet) electrochemical corrosion:

1. While chemical (dry) corrosion occurs in dry condition, electrochemical (wet) corrosion
occurs in the presence of moisture or electrolyte.
2. Dry corrosion is due to the direct chemical attack of the metal by the environment, while wet
corrosion is due to the formation of a large number of anodic and cathodic areas.
3. In dry corrosion even a homogeneous metal surface gets corroded, but, in wet corrosion,
heterogeneous (bimetallic) surface alone gets corroded.
4. Corrosion products accumulate at the place of corrosion in the case of dry corrosion whereas
in wet corrosion, Corrosion occurs at the anode while the products are formed elsewhere.
5. Dry corrosion is a self-controlled process while it is a continuous process in wet corrosion
6. Chemical corrosion adopts adsorption mechanism, but wet corrosion follows electrochemical
reaction.
7. Formation of mild scale on iron surface is an example of dry corrosion
Rusting of iron in moist atmosphere is an example of wet corrosion.
Forms of Corrosion:
Uniform Corrosion: Occurs evenly across the entire surface of a material, resulting in a general
loss of material thickness.
Galvanic Corrosion: Arises when two dissimilar metals are in contact in the presence of an
electrolyte, leading to accelerated corrosion of the less noble metal.
Pitting Corrosion: Forms localized pits or cavities on the material surface, often resulting from
localized breakdown of protective oxide layers.
Crevice Corrosion: Occurs in crevices, gaps, or confined spaces where stagnant electrolytes
promote corrosion, such as under gaskets or deposits.
Intergranular Corrosion: Affects the grain boundaries of a material, often due to preferential
attack along the grain boundaries.
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC): Results from the combined action of corrosion and applied
mechanical stress, leading to crack formation and propagation.

Deposit Corrosion: This type of corrosion is analogous to crevice corrosion, having many of its
characteristics. The lateral variation in solution composition and potential now form between
deposit – covered, and deposit – free area drive the corrosion process. Metal loss occurs under
deposit.

Microbially Assisted Corrosion (MAC): Microbial species assist corrosion by: releasing
aggressive material to their environment (e.g. sulphide, acid), biodegradation of their
environment (e.g. destroy protective oils and waxes), forming deposit, stimulating the cathodic
process, and by interfering with the action of corrosion inhibitors.

Erosion Corrosion: Occur when high velocity fluid flow disrupts passive films or prevent their
formation.

Selective Leaching (De-Alloying): A form of localized attack which involves the preferential
dissolution of one of the components of an alloy. De-alloying occurs only in alloys in which two
or more metals form a solid solution, e.g. brass. As a rule, the less noble component is removed
while the remainder is retained or re-precipitated.

Cavitation Corrosion: A form of localized corrosion accompanied be mechanical damage. It

occurs in turbulent and rapidly moving liquid and takes the form of areas or patches of pitted or
roughened surface, caused by sudden formation and collapse of bubbles in a liquid.
Environmental Cracking: Includes corrosion mechanisms like hydrogen embrittlement,
corrosion fatigue, and fretting corrosion.
Causes of Corrosion:
Electrochemical Reaction: Corrosion typically involves an electrochemical process with the
presence of an electrolyte, oxygen, and a potential difference.
Environmental Factors: Factors such as humidity, temperature, pH, salinity, pollutants, and
exposure to corrosive substances can accelerate corrosion.
Galvanic Couple: When two dissimilar metals are in contact, an electrochemical cell is formed,
causing galvanic corrosion.
Chemical Reactions: Chemicals like acids, bases, salts, and gases can initiate corrosion reactions
by reacting with the material's surface.
Mechanical Factors: Stress, vibration, erosion, and wear can exacerbate corrosion processes by
damaging protective coatings or promoting localized corrosion.

Effects of Corrosion:
Compromised Structural Integrity: Corrosion can weaken materials, compromising their
structural integrity and leading to potential failures.
Reduced Functionality: Corrosion can impair the functionality of components and systems,
affecting their performance and reliability.
Increased Maintenance and Repair Costs: Corrosion necessitates frequent maintenance,
repairs, and replacement of corroded parts, resulting in significant expenses.
Safety Risks: Corrosion can pose safety hazards, especially in critical systems like pipelines,
bridges, and aircraft components.
Corrosion Control and Mitigation:

1. Design: Corrosion can be designed out. Thus, during design: eliminate water or water
retention, avoid crevices, avoid stagnant areas, avoid impingement or wear, permit free drainage,
create access for maintenance, avoid condensation of aggressive fluid take care when using
dissimilar metals, add systems to reduce corrosivity (e.g. dehydrators), and, pay attention to flow
rates, stresses (residual/applied, static/dynamic). Failure to design out leaves corrosion designed
in.

2. Material Selection: More corrosion resistant materials may be used but economics or specific
– engineering properties may overrule this. They may introduce new mode modes of failure
(often replacing uniform attack by intense localized corrosion).
Material selection is a COMPROMISE. The object is not to select the most corrosion resistant
material, the material engineer needs to satisfy a number of conflicting requirement, such as:
specific mechanical properties, specific physical properties, fabricability, availability, cost,
maintainability, existence of adequate design data, standards and specifications, previous
experience, appearance, fire resistance, corrosion resistance, amenability to corrosion control etc.

3. Protective Coatings: Applying coatings like paints, enamels, polymers, or metallic coatings
to create a barrier between the material and the corrosive environment.

4. Electrochemical Protection: Polarizing the metal by the application of an external current

changes its potential and changes the nature/rate of the corrosion process. They bare of two
types:

(A). Anodic Protection: Implies that the object to be protected is coupled as an anode in the
electrochemical cell. The potential of the metal is then displaced in the positive direction towards
the passive region, where the oxide of the metal is thermodynamically stable. Anodic protection
is therefore only applicable where to metals that shows chemical passivity.

(B). Cathodic Protection: Connotes that the corroding material is coupled as a cathode in an
electrochemical cell. Cathodic protection is either galvanic (sacrificial anode) protection or
impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP), also called electrolytic cathodic protection.

In sacrificial anode cathodic protection, the corroding object is the cathode of a galvanic cell, the
anode of which is a more reactive metal such as magnesium, aluminium or zinc, and which by
being sacrificed, protects a valuable construction, e.g. a steel tank, from corrosion. The galvanic
anode may be applied as a coating on the protected structure, most important example being
galvanized steel, or it may be a separate anode plate welded or electrically connected to the
structure.

In ICCP, the cathode (i.e. the protected) is supplied with direct current from an outer current
source or rectifier, the auxiliary electrode being insoluble platinum, carbon, silicon or lead. The
process is controlled by either regulating the current via the applied cell voltage or regulating the
cathode potential by means of a potentiostat.

5. Use of Chemical Treatment: Chemical are added to remove/neutralize cathodic reactants or

to inhibit corrosion reactions. Thus, there are two approaches to corrosion inhibition:

1. Negative or indirect approach – remove the corrosive agent by chemical treatment

2. Positive or direct approach – tolerate the presence of the corrosive agent and add chemicals to
control its aggressive action. Positive inhibitor can be classified into: anodic, cathodic and
mixed inhibitor.

An inhibitor is a substance which retards or slows down a chemical reaction. A corrosion

inhibitor is a substance which when added to the environment decreases its rate of attack on the
metal. They are substances which when added to an electrolyte reduce diffusion of ions to metal-
electrolyte interface and enhance the polarization of one or both electrical reactions.
6. Combinations: Some corrosion control combinations make sense e.g. corrosion allowance +
inhibitors, cathodic protection + coatings.
Some combinations may be excessive e.g. corrosion resistant alloy + coating
Some combinations may be dangerous e.g. titanium + cathodic protection.

7. Do Nothing: This is a valid option.

Why spend money controlling corrosion than it would cost if it progressed unabated?
Corrosion is not important. The consequences of corrosion may be. The need for, and
extent of corrosion control depends on the consequences of a failure.

FABRICATION PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS- AN OVERVIEW

1.0: Basic concepts
1.1: Fabrication
Fabrication refers to the process of creating a product by shaping, assembling, or otherwise
manipulating materials. It involves the conversion of raw materials into a final product using
various techniques and processes.
Fabrication can be performed on various materials such as metals, polymers, ceramics, and
composites. The choice of fabrication process depends on factors like material properties, desired
product characteristics, cost, and production volume. Fabrication processes are essential in the
manufacturing industry to shape raw materials into finished products. These processes involve
various techniques and methods to transform materials into desired forms.
Fabrication processes play a crucial role in the manufacturing industry, enabling the production
of various components and products through a range of techniques. These processes involve
transforming raw materials into finished products, often involving the removal, addition, or
reshaping of material. This lecture note aims to provide an overview of different fabrication
processes and their applications.
1.2: Processes
Processes are specific methods or techniques used during fabrication to transform materials.
Each process has its own characteristics, advantages, and limitations, making it suitable for
different applications.
1.3: Applications
Applications refer to the practical uses or areas where fabricated products find utility. These can
range from automotive and aerospace industries to electronics, medical devices, and
construction.
1.4: Importance of Fabrication Processes
Fabrication processes are essential for manufacturing industries as they enable the production of
complex and customized products with high precision and quality. These processes contribute to
the advancement of technology, innovation, and economic growth.

2.0: Categories of Fabrication Techniques

Fabrication techniques can be broadly categorized into four main groups:
a. Subtractive processes, subtractive processes involve removing material from a larger
work piece. E.g. Machining, Grinding, Milling etc.

b. Additive processes, additive processes build up layers of material. E.g. 3D Printing,

Stereo lithography, Selective Laser Sintering etc.

c. Forming processes, forming processes change the shape of a material without removing
any significant amount of material. E.g. Casting, Forming and Bending

d. Joining processes, joining processes connect multiple components together. E.g.

Welding, Brazing and Soldering etc.

The basic fabrication processes which include casting, machining, forming, joining among others
are explained below;
2.1: Machining
Machining is a subtractive manufacturing process that involves removing material from a work
piece to achieve the desired shape and size. It is typically performed using machine tools such as
lathes, milling machines, and drills. Machining is commonly used to produce precision
components with tight tolerances, such as engine parts, gears, and molds. Machining processes
include turning, milling, drilling, grinding, and broaching, among others.
i. Turning: Turning is a machining process where a work piece is rotated while a cutting
tool removes material from the work piece. This process is commonly used to create
cylindrical shapes such as shafts and tubes.

ii. Milling: Milling is a machining process that uses a rotating multi-point cutting tool to
remove material from the workpiece. It is commonly used to create flat surfaces, slots,
and complex shapes.

iii. Drilling: Drilling is a machining process that uses a rotating drill bit to create holes in a
workpiece. It is widely used in various industries, including construction, automotive,
and aerospace.
 iv. Grinding: Grinding is a precise machining process that utilizes abrasives to remove
material and improve surface finish. It is often used to achieve tight tolerances and
smooth surfaces. Grinding involves the use of a grinding wheel or belt, which rotates at
high speed and removes material through abrasion.

2.2: Casting
Casting is a fabrication process where molten material is poured into a mold, which solidifies to
form the desired shape. Casting finds applications in industries such as automotive, aerospace,
and jewelry manufacturing. It is commonly used for manufacturing complex shapes that are
difficult to obtain by other methods. It is used to produce complex shapes and components with
high dimensional accuracy. Common casting processes include sand casting, investment casting,
die casting, and continuous casting.
i. Sand Casting: Sand casting is one of the most widely used casting processes. It involves
creating a mold using a mixture of sand and a binder material. The molten metal is then
poured into the mold, allowed to cool, and the mold is subsequently removed to reveal
the final product.

ii. Investment Casting: Investment casting, also known as lost-wax casting, is a process that
uses a wax pattern to create a mold. The wax pattern is coated with a ceramic material,
which hardens to form the mold. The wax is then melted and drained, leaving a cavity
that is filled with molten metal. After solidification, the mold is broken to obtain the final
product.

2.3: Forming and Bending

Forming and bending processes deform materials, such as sheet metal, without removing any
significant amount of material. These processes utilize specialized tools, such as presses and
dies, to shape the material into specific configurations. Forming processes involve shaping
materials by applying external forces such as bending, rolling, extrusion, or stamping. These
processes are primarily used for shaping sheet metal or other ductile materials. Examples of
forming processes include bending, deep drawing, roll forming, and hydroforming. Forming is
widely used in the automotive industry for manufacturing car body panels, as well as in the
production of appliances, containers, and structural components.
i. Rolling: Rolling is a forming process that involves passing a workpiece through a pair of
rotating rolls. This process is commonly used to produce sheets, plates, and tubes of
various sizes and shapes.

ii. Extrusion: Extrusion is a forming process where a material is forced through a die to
create a continuous profile. It is commonly used to manufacture products such as pipes,
rods, and profiles with consistent cross-sections.
2.4: Joining
Joining processes involve connecting two or more separate components to create a larger
structure. These processes can be divided into mechanical joining (screws, rivets, welding) and
adhesive joining (gluing, bonding). Welding, in particular, is a commonly used joining process
that involves melting and fusing two or more materials together. Joining processes are vital in the
construction, automotive, and aerospace industries, enabling the assembly of complex structures
and systems.
i. Welding: Welding is a joining process that involves melting the base materials and
adding a filler material to create a permanent bond. It is widely used in industries such as
construction, automotive, and aerospace.

ii. Adhesive Bonding: Adhesive bonding is a joining process that uses adhesive materials to
bond two or more materials together. It is commonly used in industries where welding
may not be suitable or when a more aesthetically pleasing appearance is desired.

iii. Brazing and Soldering: Brazing and soldering are similar to welding but involve joining
materials using lower temperatures. Brazing uses a filler metal with a melting point
higher than 450°C (842°F), while soldering uses a filler metal with a melting point below
450°C (842°F). These processes are commonly used in electronics, plumbing, and
jewelry manufacturing.

2.5: Additive Manufacturing

Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, is a revolutionary fabrication process that
involves building three-dimensional objects by adding successive layers of material. It allows for
the creation of highly complex geometries and customized designs. Additive manufacturing is
used across various industries, including aerospace, medical, and consumer products. It offers
advantages such as reduced material waste, faster prototyping, and the ability to create intricate
structures that are difficult to produce with traditional methods.
i. 3D Printing: 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, builds up objects
layer by layer from a digital design file. It involves depositing material in a
controlled manner to create the desired shape. Various 3D printing technologies
exist, including fused deposition modeling (FDM), stereo lithography (SLA), and
selective laser sintering (SLS).

ii. Stereo lithography: Stereo lithography is an additive manufacturing technique that

uses a liquid photopolymer resin and a UV laser to selectively cure the resin layer
by layer. The UV laser scans the resin surface, solidifying it based on the digital
 design. Stereo lithography produces high-resolution and detailed parts, making it
suitable for prototyping and small-scale production.

iii. Selective Laser Sintering: Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) is an additive

manufacturing process that uses a high-power laser to selectively fuse powdered
materials, typically polymers or metals, together layer by layer. The laser sinters
the powdered material, creating solidified layers according to the digital design.
SLS is capable of producing complex geometries and functional parts.

3.0: Emerging Trends in Fabrication Processes:

i. Nanofabrication:

Nanofabrication involves the manipulation of materials at the nanoscale to create advanced

nanomaterials, nanoelectronics, and nanostructures with unique properties.
ii. Biofabrication:

Biofabrication combines fabrication processes with biological materials to create tissues, organs,
and other bioengineered constructs for medical and research purposes.
iii. Smart Materials:

Fabrication processes are utilized in creating smart materials that can respond to external stimuli,
enabling applications such as sensors, actuators, and self-healing materials.
iv. Green Manufacturing:

Green manufacturing focuses on environmentally friendly fabrication processes, aiming to

reduce energy consumption, waste generation, and environmental impact.

4.0: Fabrication Process Selection

The selection of a fabrication process depends on several factors, including the material
properties, desired product characteristics, production volume, cost, and time constraints.
Engineers need to consider the advantages and limitations of each process to determine the most
suitable one for a particular application.

Factors to consider during process selection are;

i. Material compatibility
ii. Complexity of the design
iii. Tolerance requirements
 iv. Production volume
v. Cost-effectiveness
vi. Time constraints

5.0: Applications of Fabrication Processes

i. Automotive Industry:

Fabrication processes play a vital role in the automotive industry. Machining techniques are used
to produce engine components, brake discs, and transmission parts. Casting processes are
employed for manufacturing engine blocks and cylinder heads. Forming processes are used for
producing body panels, while joining techniques are used for welding various parts together.
ii. Aerospace Industry:

The aerospace industry relies heavily on fabrication processes to create aircraft components.
Machining is used to manufacture turbine blades, landing gear parts, and wing components.
Casting processes are utilized for producing engine casings and structural components. Additive
manufacturing techniques are gaining prominence for creating lightweight and complex parts,
such as fuel nozzles and brackets.
iii. Electronics Industry:

Fabrication processes are crucial for the production of electronic devices. Machining techniques
are used for creating circuit boards and connectors. Additive manufacturing plays a significant
role in producing prototypes and custom-designed components. Joining processes, such as
soldering and adhesive bonding, are employed for assembling electronic components onto circuit
boards.

iv. Medical Industry:

The medical industry benefits from fabrication processes for producing various medical devices.
Machining is used to create orthopedic implants, surgical instruments, and prosthetics. Additive
manufacturing techniques enable the production of patient-specific implants and anatomical
models for surgical planning. Casting processes are utilized for manufacturing dental crowns and
bridges.
v. Architecture and Construction Industry

In the construction industry, fabrication processes are employed to manufacture structural

elements, prefabricated components, and building systems. Steel fabrication, for instance,
involves cutting, bending, and welding steel to create beams, columns, and other structural
members used in buildings, bridges, and infrastructure projects.

Lecture summary
Fabrication processes encompass a wide range of techniques that are instrumental in
transforming raw materials into finished products. The diverse applications of fabrication
processes in various industries highlight their importance in technological advancements and
economic growth. Emerging trends in fabrication processes, such as nanofabrication,
biofabrication, smart materials, and green manufacturing, further contribute to the evolution of
fabrication techniques and their applications in the future.

INTRODUCTION TO NANOTECHNOLOGY, NANO-MATERIALS, AND THEIR

ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

1.0: Introduction
Nanotechnology is the branch of science and engineering that deals with the manipulation and
control of matter at the nanoscale, typically ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers. It involves the
design, synthesis, characterization, and application of nanomaterials and nanostructures.
The concept of nanotechnology was first introduced by physicist Richard Feynman in his famous
lecture titled "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom" in 1959. The term "nanotechnology" was
coined by Professor Norio Taniguchi in 1974. Since then, significant progress has been made in
this field, leading to numerous breakthroughs and applications.
Nanotechnology is an inherently interdisciplinary field, drawing knowledge from physics,
chemistry, biology, materials science, and engineering. It combines principles from different
disciplines to understand and manipulate matter at the nanoscale.

1.2: Importance of nanotechnology

Nanotechnology has revolutionized various fields by enabling the development of new materials
with enhanced properties and novel functionalities. It has the potential to impact diverse
industries, including electronics, medicine, energy, and materials science. The ability to
manipulate matter at the atomic and molecular levels opens up new possibilities for designing
advanced materials and devices.

1.3: Basic Fundamental Concepts

1.3.1: Nanoscale
The nanoscale refers to the dimensions of nanosized objects, typically ranging from 1 to 100
nanometers. To put it into perspective, a nanometer is one billionth of a meter. At this scale, the
properties of materials can differ significantly from their bulk counterparts, resulting in unique
phenomena and enhanced performance.
1.3.2: Size-Dependent Properties:
As materials are reduced to the nanoscale, their properties, such as optical, mechanical,
electrical, and thermal, can significantly change due to the increased surface-to-volume ratio and
quantum effects.
1.3.3: Quantum Mechanics in Nanoscale
Quantum mechanics plays a vital role in understanding nanoscale phenomena. At the nanoscale,
the wave-like properties of electrons become dominant, leading to quantum confinement effects,
energy band shifts, and discrete energy levels.
1.3.4: Surface-to-Volume Ratio
The surface-to-volume ratio increases as the size of a material decreases. This high surface area
allows for enhanced reactivity, improved catalytic properties, and increased interactions with
surrounding environments.

2.0: Nano-Materials
2.1: Definition of Nano-Materials
Nano-materials are substances that possess unique properties and functionalities due to their
nanoscale dimensions. They possess novel characteristics due to their small size, large surface
area, and quantum effects. Nanomaterials are materials with at least one dimension in the
nanoscale range. They can be classified into various types based on their structure, composition,
and morphology.
2.2: Types of Nano-Materials:
Types of nano-materials commonly used in nanotechnology are;
2.2.1: Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles are particles with sizes ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers. They can be metallic,
semiconductor, or polymeric in nature and find applications in catalysis, drug delivery, sensors,
and electronics.
2.2.2: Nanotubes
Nanotubes are cylindrical nanostructures with diameters on the nanoscale. Carbon nanotubes, for
example, have excellent mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties, making them useful in
composites, electronics, and energy storage.
2.2.3: Nanofibers
Nanofibers are ultrafine fibers with diameters typically below 100 nanometers. They possess
high surface area, strength, and flexibility, making them suitable for filtration, tissue engineering,
and reinforcement in composites.
2.2.4: Nanocomposites
Nanocomposites are materials composed of a matrix filled with nanoscale additives or
reinforcements. They combine the properties of the matrix material with the enhanced
functionalities provided by the nano-fillers.
2.2.5: Nanowires
Nanowires are structures with a diameter in the nanoscale range and lengths up to several
micrometers. They exhibit unique electrical, optical, and thermal properties, enabling
applications in electronics, photonics, and energy conversion.

Generally, nanomaterials are classified as follows:

a. Carbon-Based Nano-Materials: Examples include carbon nanotubes (CNTs), fullerenes,
and graphene.

b. Metal-Based Nano-Materials: Such as gold nanoparticles, silver nanoparticles, and

magnetic nanoparticles.

c. Semiconductor Nano-Materials: Including quantum dots and nanowires.

d. Composite Nano-Materials: Combinations of different nanostructures to achieve

synergistic properties.

2.3: Nano-Materials Characterization

Three methods can be used to characterize nanomaterials. These include;
2.3.1: Imaging Techniques:
Imaging techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron
microscopy (TEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM) are used to visualize and study
nanostructures with high resolution.
2.3.2: Spectroscopy Techniques:
Spectroscopy techniques, including UV-Vis spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy (IR), and
Raman spectroscopy, provide information about the optical, electronic, and vibrational properties
of nano-materials.
2.3.3: Mechanical Testing Techniques:
Mechanical testing techniques, such as nanoindentation and atomic force microscopy (AFM)
nanoindentation, are employed to evaluate the mechanical properties of nano-materials,
including hardness, elasticity, and strength.
2.4: Fabrication Techniques for Nano-Materials
Several techniques are employed to synthesize nano-materials, including bottom-up, top-down
approaches and Self-Assembly Techniques.
2.4.1.: Bottom-up Approaches
Bottom-up approaches involve the synthesis and assembly of nanostructures from atomic or
molecular components. In otherwords, Bottom-up methods involve the assembly of atoms and
molecules to build nanostructures
[Link]: Chemical Vapor Deposition:
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a technique used to grow thin films or nanomaterials by
introducing reactive gases onto a substrate, leading to chemical reactions and deposition.
[Link]: Sol-Gel Method:
The sol-gel method is a versatile approach that produces materials by converting a sol (colloidal
suspension) into a gel and subsequent drying and annealing steps.
[Link]: Electrospinning:
Electrospinning is a process that produces nanofibers by applying an electric field to a polymer
solution or melt, resulting in the elongation and solidification of fibers.

2.4.2: Top-down Approaches

Top-down approaches involve the reduction of bulk materials to the nanoscale through various
machining or etching techniques. Common synthesis techniques include chemical vapor
deposition, sol-gel synthesis, and physical vapor deposition.
[Link]: Lithography
Lithography is a widely used technique for patterning surfaces with high precision. It involves
the transfer of a pattern from a mask or template onto a substrate using light or electron beams.
[Link]: Physical Vapor Deposition
Physical vapor deposition (PVD) is a method that deposits thin films by evaporating a solid
source material in a vacuum and condensing it onto a substrate.
[Link]: Atomic Layer Deposition:
Atomic layer deposition (ALD) is a deposition technique that forms thin films by sequentially
exposing a substrate to alternating precursor gases, resulting in controlled layer-by-layer growth.

2.4.3: Self-Assembly Techniques:

Self-assembly techniques exploit the natural forces and interactions between particles to form
well-defined nanostructures. Examples include DNA self-assembly, block copolymer self-
assembly, and colloidal self-assembly.

2.5: Properties and Characterization of Nano-Materials

Nano-materials exhibit unique properties such as high strength, enhanced electrical conductivity,
improved catalytic activity, and altered optical properties. These properties arise due to quantum
confinement, surface effects, and increased surface-to-volume ratio. Some of the properties are;
2.5.1: Mechanical Properties
Nanomaterials can exhibit exceptional mechanical properties such as high strength, stiffness, and
toughness. Techniques like nanoindentation and atomic force microscopy (AFM) are used to
characterize their mechanical behavior.
2.5.2: Optical Properties:
At the nanoscale, materials can exhibit unique optical properties, including plasmonic effects,
quantum confinement, and enhanced light-matter interactions. Techniques like spectroscopy and
microscopy are used to study and exploit these properties.
2.5.3: Electrical Properties
Nanomaterials can exhibit altered electrical properties such as enhanced conductivity, tunable
bandgaps, and quantum transport phenomena. Electrical characterization techniques such as
conductive atomic force microscopy (C-AFM) and field-effect transistor measurements are used
to analyze these properties.
2.5.4: Thermal Properties
Nanomaterials often show improved thermal conductivity due to reduced phonon scattering.
Techniques like scanning thermal microscopy (SThM) and thermal diffusivity measurements are
used to investigate their thermal behavior.
2.5.5: Magnetic Properties
Nanomaterials can possess unique magnetic properties, such as superparamagnetism and
enhanced magnetic anisotropy. Techniques like vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM) and
magnetic force microscopy (MFM) are employed for their characterization.

2.6: Applications of Nanotechnology

2.6.1: Electronics and Computing
Nano-materials have revolutionized the electronics industry by enabling the development of
smaller, faster, and more efficient devices. They are used in integrated circuits, transistors,
memory storage devices, and flexible electronics. Examples include carbon nanotube transistors
and quantum dot displays.
2.6.2: Medicine and Healthcare
Nanotechnology has transformative applications in medicine and healthcare. Nano-materials are
used for targeted drug delivery, imaging agents, biosensors, and tissue engineering. They offer
improved diagnostics, enhanced therapeutic outcomes, and personalized medicine.
2.6.3: Energy and Environment
Nanotechnology plays a crucial role in energy conversion, storage, and conservation.
Nanomaterials are employed in solar cells, batteries, fuel cells, and energy-efficient coatings.
Additionally, Nanostructured catalysts are also employed for pollution control and
environmental remediation.
2.6.4: Materials Science and Engineering
Nano-materials have opened new avenues in materials science and engineering. They are used to
enhance mechanical properties, develop lightweight materials, and improve wear resistance.
Applications include coatings, composites, and nanofabrication techniques.
2.6.5: Optics and Photonics
Nanotechnology has revolutionized optics and photonics by enabling the manipulation of light at
the nanoscale. Nanophotonics, plasmonics, and metamaterials offer new avenues for developing
compact optical devices, sensors, and data storage technologies.
2.6.6: Aerospace and Defense
Nanotechnology finds applications in aerospace and defense industries, including lightweight
and high-strength materials, nanosensors, and advanced coatings. Nanomaterials contribute to
improved aircraft performance, energy efficiency, and defense systems.
2.6.7: Construction and Infrastructure
In the construction industry, nano-materials enhance the properties of concrete, coatings, and
composites. They improve strength, durability, and resistance to corrosion and weathering.
Nano-coatings can also provide self-cleaning and antimicrobial properties.
2.6.8: Consumer Products and Textiles
Nano-materials find applications in various consumer products, such as personal care products,
electronics, and coatings. They enhance product performance, provide antimicrobial properties,
and enable stain resistance in textiles.

2.7: Challenges and Future Perspectives

2.7.1: Safety and Ethical Considerations
The potential toxicity and environmental impacts of nanomaterials raise concerns that must be
addressed. Proper safety protocols and regulations are essential to ensure the responsible
development and use of nanotechnology.

2.7.2: Scalability and Manufacturing:

Upscaling the production of nanomaterials and integrating them into large-scale manufacturing
processes is a challenge. Novel manufacturing techniques and cost-effective synthesis methods
are being explored to overcome this hurdle.

2.7.3: Environmental Impacts:

The release of nanomaterials into the environment and their long-term effects are subjects of
research and concern. Understanding their fate, transport, and potential ecological impacts is
crucial for sustainable nanotechnology.
2.7.4: Integration with Other Technologies:
The integration of nanotechnology with other emerging technologies, such as artificial
intelligence, quantum computing, and biotechnology, holds immense potential for further
advancements and interdisciplinary applications.
Lecture Summary
Nanotechnology and nano-materials have transformed various industries, offering unprecedented
opportunities for technological innovation. The ability to manipulate matter at the nanoscale has
led to advancements in electronics, medicine, energy, and materials science, among other fields.
However, challenges related to safety, scalability, and environmental impacts need to be
addressed for the responsible development and deployment of nanotechnology.
The Need for Material Selection
During the last decades many new materials and material types have been developed. At present
of the order of 100 000 engineering materials exist. In addition many materials have successively
obtained improved properties. This has been possible due to the development of the materials but
also due to the appearance of new production methods.

As a consequence of this rapid development many material types can be used for a given
component. This also applies to situations where one previously only employed one material for
example cast iron in cylinder heads where cast aluminium alloys are also used now. Another
example is body panels in cars where low carbon mild sheet steel is still the dominating material
but many other materials like high strength sheet steels, aluminium alloys, sheet moulding
compounds (SMC), thermoplastics, thermoplastic elastomers and expanded plastics are used. In
fact it is quite a common case that many entirely different materials can be used to a given part.
As a consequence material selection becomes quite a complex task. Hence, the need for materials
selection is necessitated because of
 Many new materials
 Many new material types
 New manufacturing methods
 Properties of existing materials improved
 Increased use of advanced materials
 Entirely new design configurations feasible
 Increased competition between materials

Creation of a New Product

In the first stages of development of a new product, the following questions may be posed: What
is it? What does it do? How does it do it? To answer these questions it is necessary to specify the
performance requirements of the different parts involved in the design and to broadly outline the
main materials performance and processing requirements. This allows the initial screening of
materials whereby certain classes of materials and manufacturing processes may be eliminated
and others chosen as likely candidates.

Thus, one of the most challenging task of materials engineer is the proper selection of the
material for a particular job, e.g., a particular component of a machine or structure. An engineer
must be in a position to choose the optimum combination of properties in a material at the lowest
possible cost without compromising the quality.
Factors affecting the selection of materials:
(i) Component shape: The shape and size of a component has great effect on the choice
of the processing unit which ultimately effects the choice of the material. To make it
more clear, we consider an example, let the best possible production method is
selected, under given conditions, it is die casting, obviously, now the choice of the
material becomes limited, i.e. one can only choose materials with lower melting
points, e.g. aluminium, zinc, magnesium and thermoplastics.
(ii) Dimensional tolerance: There are some materials which can be finished to close
tolerance while others cannot. Obviously, the required dimensional tolerance for
finished components will, influence the choice of materials.
(iii) Mechanical properties: To select a suitable material for specific conditions, all
mechanical properties, e.g., toughness, hardness, strength, etc. guide us.
(iv) Fabrication (Manufacturing) requirements: Method of processing of the material also
affects the properties of a component, e.g., forged components can be stronger than
the casted components. Different types of working processes may also give different
types of fibre structure. However, investment casting can provide precise dimensions
at low cost in comparison to machine operations.
Note: fabrication requirements are: castability, i.e., ease in casting a material;
Weldability, i.e. ease in welding the material; machinability-ease to machine a
material; formability-ease to form a material; hardenability etc.

(v) Service requirements: Service requirements are: dimensional stability, strength,

toughness, heat resistance, corrosion resistance, fatigue and creep resistance,
electrical and thermal conductivity etc.
(vi) Cost :
(A). Cost of the material: In most of the cases, the cost of raw material accounts about
50 % of the finished cost. Obviously, the cost of the material is a major factor which
influences the choice of the material or process. We must note that the use of cheaper
material will not always reduce the final cost of the component or product. Use of
cheaper material may be associated with higher processing cost due to large number
of operations to be performed and also more scrap. We can easily see that this
sometimes makes the overall cost more than that of expensive raw material in
combination with low processing cost due to lesser number of operations and lesser
 scrap. The type of material affects the detailed aspect of design and hence the choice
of material as well as the process is selected at the early design state e.g. whether the
material is to be joined by spot welding, screws or rivetes, must be decided at the
design state
(B). Cost of processing: In most of the industries, the processing cost (labour cost)
and other costs such as overhead costs account for about 50% of the production cost.
Overhead cost in automatic industries is much more than the other costs. If one can
somehow reduce all such costs, the total production cost will automatically reduce.

(vii). Availability of the material: We may find that sometimes the availability of the material
becomes a governing factor. When the desired material supply is limited, then a costly
material which is available in ample quantity may be chosen.
Analysis of Material Performance Requirements
The material performance requirements can be divided into five broad categories, namely
functional requirements, processability requirements, cost, reliability, and resistance to service
conditions.
1. Functional Requirements
Functional requirements are directly related to the required characteristics of the part or the
product. For example, if the part carries a uniaxial tensile load, the yield strength of a candidate
material can be directly related to the load-carrying capacity of the product. However, some
characteristics of the part or product may not have simple correspondence with measurable
material properties, as in the case of thermal shock resistance, wear resistance, reliability, etc.
Under these conditions, the evaluation process can be quite complex and may depend upon
predictions based on simulated service tests or upon the most closely related mechanical,
physical, or chemical properties. For example, thermal shock resistance can be related to thermal
expansion coefficient, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, ductility, and tensile strength.
On the other hand, resistance to stress corrosion cracking can be related to tensile strength,
KISCC, and electrochemical potential.

2. Processability Requirements
The processability of a material is a measure of its ability to be worked and shaped into a
finished part. With reference to a specific manufacturing method, processability can be defined
as castability, weldability, machinability, etc. Ductility and hardenability can be relevant to
processability if the material is to be deformed or hardened by heat treatment, respectively. The
closeness of the stockform to the required product form can be taken as a measure of
processability in some cases.
It is important to remember that processing operations will almost always affect the material
properties so that processability considerations are closely related to functional requirements.

3. Cost
Cost is usually an important factor in evaluating materials because in manyapplications there is a
cost limit for a material intended to meet the application requirements. When the cost limit is
exceeded, the design may have to be changed to allow for the use of a less expensive material.
The cost of processing often exceeds the cost of the stock material. In some cases, a relatively
more expensive material may eventually yield a less expensive product than a low priced
material that is more expensive to process.

4. Reliability Requirements
Reliability of a material can be defined as the probability that it will perform the intended
function for the expected life without failure. Material reliability is difficult to measure because
it is not only dependent upon the material’s inherent properties, but it is also greatly affected by
its production and processing history.
Generally, new and non-standard materials will tend to have lower reliability than established,
standard materials.
Despite difficulties of evaluating reliability, it is often an important selection factor that must be
taken into account. Failure analysis techniques are usually used to predict the different ways in
which a product can fail and can be considered as a systematic approach to reliability evaluation.
The causes of failure of a part in service can usually be traced back to defects in materials and
processing, to faulty design, unexpected service conditions, or misuse of the product.

5. Resistance to Service Conditions

The environment in which the product or part will operate plays an important role in determining
the material performance requirements. Corrosive environments, as well as high or low
temperatures, can adversely affect the performance of most materials in service. Whenever more
than one material is involved in an application, compatibility becomes a selection consideration.
In a thermal environment, for example, the coefficients of thermal expansion of all the materials
involved may have to be similar in order to avoid thermal stresses. In wet environments,
materials that will be in electrical contact should be chosen carefully to avoid galvanic corrosion.
In applications where relative movement exists between different parts, wear resistance of the
materials involved should be considered. The design should provide access for lubrication;
otherwise self-lubricating materials have to be used.

Engineering Design Loop

The Engineering Design Loop model represents the sequence of engineering and software design
steps in a project life cycle. It describes the activities that continually happen during product
development, from identifying the need to redesigning the final product. An engineering design
loop is a process of producing a design to a set of given requirements or constraints. Each cycle
of this loop s called iteration.
In the Engineering Design Loop, the steps are in this order and represent a continuous circle:

 Identify the need,

 Research the problem,
 Develop possible solutions,
 Select the most promising solution,
 Construct a prototype,
 Test and evaluate the prototype,
 Report the results, and finally
 Redesign the solution if needed.

This loop emphasizes that design is a continuous process. Mistakes or dead ends are okay, as
they ultimately point the company in a better direction.

Engineering Design Process