Lesson Note on Physics SS3 First Term

First
WEEK ONE

Subject Physics Topic

ELECTROMAGNETIC

WAVES

Class: year 12

Date : 9th- 13th

September 2024

Period 4

Duration 40 minutes

Objective : explain the

meaning of

electromagnetic wave

CONTENT

DEFINITION AND CONCEPT

Electromagnetic waves are produced by electromagnetic

vibrations. Electromagnetic waves have electrical origin
and the ability to travel in vacuum. So, electromagnetic
waves are regarded as a combination of traveling electric
and magnetic
forces which vary in value and are directed at right
angles to each other and to the direction of travel. In
other words, they are transverse waves.

TYPES OF RADIATION

The electromagnetic waves consist of the following:

1. Radio waves with wavelength 10-3m to 1000m.

2. Infra-red waves with average wavelengths of 10-6m.

3. Visible spectrum, known as light waves, with

wavelengths of 7 x 10-7 m for red rays.

4. Ultraviolet rays with wavelength of 10-8m

5. X- rays with wavelength of 10-10 m.

6. Gamma –rays with wavelength of 10-11m.

Radio waves: Radio waves have the longest wavelengths.

Radio waves are emitted from transmitters and carry
radio signals to radio sets. The shortest radio waves are
called microwaves.
Microwaves are used in radar and in heating hence they
are used in cooking.

Infra-red waves Infra-red waves are found just beyond the

red end of the visible spectrum. They are present in the
radiation from the sun or from the filament of an electric
lamp. Many manufacturing industries used infra-red
lamps to dry paints on painted items. They are also used
for the treatment of muscular problems.

VISIBLE SPECTRUM OR LIGHT WAVES

The visible spectrum is made up of red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo and violet rays. These are all colours
of the rainbow. When these rays combine, they form a
white light. In the visible spectrum, red rays have the
longest wavelengths while the violet rays have the
shortest wavelengths. The main source of light is the
sun.

ULTRA VIOLET RAYS

Ultra violet rays are located just beyond the violet end of
the visible spectrum. Ultraviolet rays can be produced by
quarts, mercury filaments, or the sun. Ultraviolet rays
can cause certain materials to fluoresce (i,e glow).

X-RAYS

X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons strike a

metal target, which reduces their velocity.X- rays are
used in hospitals to destroy malignment growth in the
body and to produce X–ray photographs which can locate
broken bones, Much of X-ray in the body is harmful and
can lead to sterility and adverse change in the blood. X-
rays are used in industries to locate cracks in metal
castings and flows in pipes.

X-rays ionize gases and have a penetrating effect such

that they pass through substances opaque to white light
are diffracted by crystals and unaffected by either
electric or magnetic fields.

GAMMA – RAYS

Gamma – rays are emitted by radioactive substances

such as cobalt. 60, uranium and polonium. Like x- rays,
gamma rays ionize gases and darken photographic
plates. Because of their shorter wavelengths gamma rays
have a greater penetrating power.
EVALUATION

1. Give three similarities of electromagnetic waves.

Mention two distinguishing properties of infra-red and
ultraviolet rays.

2. Mention and describe two important uses of x-rays.

DETECTORS

The detectors of the various radiations in the

electromagnetic spectrum are

i. Gamma rays – Geiger-Muller tube

Read Also

ii. X- rays – Photographic films

iii. Ultraviolet rays- Photographic films,

fluorescent substances

iv. Visible rays – Eye, photographic film,

photo electric cell

v. Infra-red rays – Skin, thermometer, photo

transistor, photographic film.

vi. Radio waves – Radio set, Television set, Aerials

EVALUATION
USES

EVALUATION

1. A radio station transmits at a frequency of 1200KHZ.

What is the wavelength of the radio wave?(c = 3.0 x
108 ms-1).

READING ASSIGNMENT

New School Physics for Senior Secondary School(M.

WAnyakohaPages 364- 369)

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. When a mass is hung on a spring, the spring

stretches 6cm. Determine its period of vibration, if its
pulled down and released [Π = 3.142 , g = 10m/s2]

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Arrange the following electromagnetic waves in

their increasing order of wavelength, Infra-red rays, visible
rays, radio waves and x-rays.(a) Radio waves, infra- red
ray, visible rays, x- rays (b) x-rays, visible rays, infra –red
rays, radio waves (c) Visible rays, x –rays, radio waves,
infra-red rays. (d) Infra-red rays, Radio waves, X- rays,
Visible rays.

2. Which of the following radiation is of nuclear origin?

(a) X- rays (b) Visible –rays
(c ) Radio waves (d) Gamma rays.

3. Which of the following radiations is found useful by

soldiers fighting in darkness.(a) Gamma-rays
(b) x- rays ( c) infra-
red rays (d ) ultra violet rays.
4. The velocity of light in vacuum is
 (a) 3. 0 x 106 m/s (b) 3.0 x 107 m/s (c) 3.0 x 108
m/s (d) 3.0 x 109 m/s

5. Which of the following has the shortest wavelength?

(a ) Radio waves (b) x –rays ( c) Infra

– red rays (d) microwaves.

THEORY

1. (a) What rays make up the radio waves?

(b) Arrange these radiations in their increasing order of

[Link] rays,Radio waves Visible spectrum,
Infra- red wavesX- rays Gamma –rays

2. (a) What is a radar?

(b) What type of electromagnetic radiation does it use?

(c) How does it function?

Physics Note SS3 First Term – [Link]

([Link]

WEEK 2

Subject Physics

Class: year 12

Date: 16th-20th

September 2024

Topic

GRAVITATIONAL
FIELD

Period 4

Duration 40minutes

Objective to

understand the

meaning of

gravitational field

CONTENT

INTRODUCTION

Gravitational field is a region or space around a mass in

which the gravitational force of the mass can be felt.
Gravitation is the force of attraction exerted by a body
on all other bodies in the universe. Gravitational force
exists between a body and all other
bodies around it. Gravitational force act between all
masses and hold together planets, stars and galaxies.
Each mass has a gravitational field around it.

LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Newton’s law of universal of gravitation states that

“every particle in the universe attracts every other
particles with a force that is proportional to the products
of their masses and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them

The law can be expressed mathematically as:

F ά m1m2......................... 1

Fά1

r2..................................... 2

F ά m1m2

r2

F = G m1m2

r2

m1 and m2 are the masses of the two particles r is the

distance between them and G is the universal gravitational
constant. The numerical value of G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg -2.

EVALUATION
 1. State Newton’s law of universal gravitation.

1. Two small objects of masses 100Kgand

90Kg respectively are separated by a
distance of 1.2m. Determine the force of
attraction between the two objects. (G =
6.67 x 10-11 Nm2Kg-2 )

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD INTENSITY

Gravitational field intensity at a point is the force per unit

mass of an object placed at that point.

g=

Fm

The unit is N/Kg . It is a vector quantity and it is regarded as

acceleration due to gravity.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN g AND G

If the force of attraction (F) between two particles of matter

separated by a distance r is given by:

F = Gm1m2..................(1)

r2

But g = F.....................( 2 )

m2

g = Gm1m2 x 1

r2 m2

g =Gm1.................(3)
 r2

Note that m1 is the mass of the body exerting the force

on the other (e.g the Earth).

EVALUATION

24
1. If the mass of the earth is 5.78 x 10 Kg and
gravitational constant is 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg2.
Calculate the gravitational field intensity due to
earth. Radius of earth is 6400km

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

The gravitational potential at a point is the work done in

taking a unit mass from infinity to that point. The unit is
Jkg-1.

The gravitational potential, V, is given by V = – Gm

m is the mass producing the gravitational field and r is

the distance of the point to the mass. The gravitational
potential decreases as r increases and becomes zero
when r is infinitely large. The negative sign indicates that
the potential at infinity (zero) is higher than the potential
close to the mass.

EVALUATION

1. Calculate the gravitational potential at a point on

the earth surface. Mass of earth is 6.0×1024kg,
-
radius of earth = 6400km and G = 6.67 x 10
11
Nm2kg-2

2. Calculate the gravitational potential at a point on the

earth surface [ radius of the earth = 6.4X104m mass
 24 -11
of the earth = 6.0 X 10 Kg, G= 6.67X 10 Nm2Kg-2]
ESCAPE VELOCITY

This is the minimum velocity required for an object

( e.g. satellite, rocket) to just escape or leave the
gravitational influence or field of an astronomical
body (e.g the earth) permanently.

If M = mass of the earth, m = mass of the satellite, then the

gravitational force of the Earth on the satellite is:

F =GMm

r2

The work done in carrying a mass m from a point at a

distance r from the centre of the earth, to a distance that
is so great is

W= GMm Xr

r2

= GMm

This work must equal the Kinetic energy of the body of

mass m at this point, having a velocity, Ve.

Remember Kinetic Energy K.E = ½mVe2

:. 1/2mVe2 =

GMm r.

Therefore:Ve =

………………… (1)
If the mass was launched from the earth surface where r
= R, and m1 = M,

so that g =

GM R2.

This implies that:gR = GMand 2gR = 2GM

R R

[Link] =

………………. (2)

EVALUATION

1. Calculate the escape velocity of a satellite from the

earth’s gravitational field.(g = 9.8m/s2, R = 6.4 x 10 6m).

ENERGY IN GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

A satellite moving in an orbit round the earth has both

kinetic and potential energy.

The centripetal force = mv2 =

GMm 2 2
r r

KE = ½ mv2= GMm

2r

PE of mass in orbit =–
GMm r
the total energy in orbit = PE + KE

= – GMm + GMm=GMm

r 2r2r

The following conclusions can be drawn from the equation.

i. The magnitude of the total energy is equal to that of

the k.e of the satellite.

ii. The kinetic energy of a satellite in an orbit

increases as the radius o the orbit decreases.

[Link] kinetic energy of a satellite in an orbit

increases as the speed of the satellite increases.

[Link] potential energy of the satellite in orbit is twice its

kinetic energy and of opposite sign.

EVALUATION

Derive an expression for the total energy in a

gravitational field. What conclusions can you draw from
the equation?

READING ASSIGNMENT

New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools (M.W

Anyakoha Pages 370-377).

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. A ball is projected horizontally from a height of 30m

above the ground with a speed of 20m/s. calculate
the horizontal distance travelled by the ball when it
hits the ground g = 10m/s2]
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. What is the gravitational potential due to a

molecule of mass m at a distance r from it.?

(a) Gm (b) Gm (c) Gm2 (d) m2

r2 r r Gr2

Calculate the escape velocity for a rocket fired from

the earth’s surface at a point where the acceleration
due to gravity is 10m/s2 and the radius of the earth is
6.0 x 106m

(a) 7.8 x 103m/s (b) 1.1 x 104m/s (c ) 3.5

x 107m/s (d) 6.0 x 107m/s

3. If g = 9.8m/s2. G = 6.7 x 10-11Nm2kg-2, calculate

the mass of the earth if the radius is 64000km. (a)6.14 x
1023kg (b) 5.99 x 1024kg(c ) 3.98 x 1026kg (d
) 4.02 x 1025kg

4. Two objects of mass 80kg and 50kg are separated

by a distance of 0.2m. calculate the gravitational
attraction between them if G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2.

(a) 6.67 x 10-6 (b) 6.67x 106N (c) 5.92 x

10- 6N (d) 5.92 x 106N.

5. Which of the following statements is/are correct

about gravitational potential?

V = -Gm

I. The negative sign indicates that work done is

against the gravitational field.
II. The potential at infinity is zero

III. The potential at infinity is less than that at the

surface of the earth.

IV. Gravitational potential is a vector quantity

(a)I and II only (b) III and IV Only(c) III only (d) I,II and III only
(e) II and IV only.

THEORY

1. The average radius of Jupiter’s orbit round the sun

of mass 2 x 1030Kg is 7.8 x 1011m. If the mass of Jupiter
is 1.9 x 10 27, find the gravitational force the sun exerts
on Jupiter , G = 6.67 x 10-11Nm2kg-2

2. If the mass of a portion is 1.67 x 10-27kg and the

mass of an electron is 9.11 x 10-31kg, calculate the force
of gravitation between:

i. a proton and an electronii. two electronsiii.

two protons.

Take G= 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2, distance between the

protons = 4.0m., distance between the electrons = 2 x
10-2m, distance between the proton and the electron =
5.4 x 10-11m

WEEK 3
Subject Physics
Date 23th- 27th October 2024
Class: year 12
Topic: Electric Field
Period 4
Duration 40
Objective: to explain electric charge between two
bodies
CONTENT
ELECTRIC FIELD

An electric field is a region of space which surrounds a

system of electric charges. Electrical forces will act on
any electric charge which is placed within the region.
Electric field is a vector quantity. The direction of the
field can be determined using a test charge (a small
positive charge).

Fundamental Law of Electrostatics

The fundamental law of electrostatic states that: “Like

charge repels, unlike charges attract.

Negative charge Positive

charge Attraction between two unlike charges

EVALUATION

With the aid of a sketch diagramexplain the following

Electric Force between Two Charges: Coulomb’s Law

It has been pointed out that like charges repel each

other while unlikecharges attract each other. Charles
Coulomb formulates the law that governs electrostatics
forces between electric charges. This law is known as
Coulomb’s law.

COULOMB’S LAW states that in a given medium, the

force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is
directly proportional to the product of the two charges
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the two charges.

r
 q1 q2

For charges of magnitude q1, q2, separated by distance r

as shown above, Coulomb’s law can be stated
mathematically as :

Fαq1q2

Fα

2
r

:. Fα q1q2

r2

F = Kq1q2

r2

K= 1

4πEo

Eo is permittivity of free (vacuum) in S. I unit.

Eo = 8.85 x 10-12 Farad/meter.

:. F = q1q2

4πEor2

RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY (εr)

The relative permittivity of a medium is the ratio of the

permittivity of a medium to that of air.
Εr = εm
εo

εm = permittivity of medium εo = permittivity of

air/ vaccum

EVALUATION

1. Find the force of attraction between two charges

of magnitude 6UC and 20UC respectively. If the
distance between them is 0.5m (taek ¼ πEo =
9.0 x 109 Bm2C-2).

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY OR STRENGTH (E)

The electric field intensity, E, at any point in an electric

field is the force experienced by a unit positive test
charge at that point . It is a vector quantity whose S. I
unit is (N/C), mathematically.

E =F

E= Electric field intensity (NC-1), F = Force, q = charge.

q1 q2

From the diagram above, F between q and q is

given as F =Qq

4πeor2

But E = F = Qq x 1

q 4πEor2 q
:. E = Q

4πEor2

EVALUATION

1. Calculate the electric field intensity in vacuum at a

distance of 5cm from a charge of 5,0x 104c(1/4πEo =
9.0 x 109 NM2C-2).

12c

mP

Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant

electric field intensity at p.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

The electric potential (V) at a point is the work done in

bring a unit positive charge from infinity to that point
against the electrical forces of the field. It is measured in
volts. It is scalar quantity.

Mathematically, V =

wq

V= electric potential (volts)

W = work done in joules, q = charge in coulombs

The electric potential at a point due to a charge Q at a

distance r from the charge Q at a distance r from the
charge is given as:

V =Q .
4πEor

If the work done is against the field, the potential is

positive. If the work done is by the field, the potential is
negative. The potential an infinity is zero. Also the
potential of the earth is zero. The earth is used to test the
potential of the body. This is done by connecting a wire
form the body to the earth (the body is said to be
earthed). If electron flow from the body to the earth, the
body is at a negative potential. If electron flows from the
earth to the body, the body is at positive potential.
Positive points are at higher potential while negative
points are at lower potential.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

The potential difference between any two points in an

electric field is the work done is taking a unit positive
charge from one point to another in the field.

If a charge Q is moved from a point at a potential V1 to

another at a potential V2, the potential difference (V1 –
V2) is the work done by the field.

Work done on the charge, W = Q (V1

– V2) Q

A B

If Q moves from A to B, then the work

done, W = Force x distance

W = F.r
But E = F

Eq = F

: . W = Eq.r

But W = q(Va – Vb)

Q (Va – Vb) = Eq

r Va – Vb = E r

E =Va – Vb

: . E = p.d.

distance

i. e, E = V

V=Er

:. V= Q

4πEor

ELECTRON VOLT (eV)

The electron volt is the quantity of energy gained by an

electron in accelerating through a potential difference of
one volt.
Electronic charge = 1.6 x 10-19C

I e V = 1.6 x 10-19 x 1 = 1.6 x 10-19J

The energy acquired by a charged particle accelerated by an

electronic field in a vacuum depends only on its charge and
the
p.d. through which it falls. When the electron is in
motion, its kinetic energy will be ½ mv2. If the electron
moves in a circle of radius r, the force towards the centre
inmv2r (centripetal force), and it is provided by the
electrical force of attraction

Force of Attraction = e2 .

4πEor2

: . ½ mv2= e2

4πEor2

EVALUATION

(1/4π εo= 9.0 x 109m).

Calculate the velocity of an electron as it strikes the

anode of a thermionic tube if the p.d. between anode
and cathode is [Link] of electron is 9.1 x 10-31kg
while its charge is -1.6 x 10-19C.

WORKED EXAMPLE

1. Calculate the energy in eV and in Joule of an α

particle (helium nucleus) accelerated through a p.d. of
4 x 106V.

SOLUTION
The charge on an α particle is 2e.
Ke = work done

= charge x p.d.

= 2 x 4 x106

= 8 x 106eV = 8

MeV IeV= 1.6 x 10-19J.

K.e. gained = 8 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19

= 1.48 x 10-12J

2. An electron gun releases an electron. The p.d.

between the gun and the collector plate is 100V. What is
the velocity of the electron just before it touches the
collector plate? (e = -1.6 x 10-19C, Me = 9.1 x 10-31 kg).

SOLUTION

Electrical energy = QV

= 100 x 1.6 x 10-19

= 1.6 x 10-19J.

½ (9.1 x 10-31) v2 = 1.6 x 10-19

V2 = 3.2 x 10-16

9.1 x 10-31

V2= 0.35 x 1014

: . V = 6 x 106 ms-1
GENERAL EVALUATION

CAPACITORS

Every conductor may possess one or more of the following

properties:

parallel plate capacitor

circuit representation of a capacitor.

This is called “charging”. For a charged capacitor the

electric charge on one plate is +q while on the other
plate it is -q

EVALUATION

CAPACITANCE

Experiment shows that the magnitude of the charge q on

any of the plate is directly proportional to the potential
difference, V across the capacitor,

that is q α v

q = cv............................1

Where c is a constant of proportionality known as the

capacitance the farad (F) is capacitance unit.

(F). Practical units are

micro ( F ) and pico ( pF )

farad

CAPACITANCE IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL

If two or more capacitors, c1, c2 — are connected in series
, it can be shown that the equivalent or net capacitance,
c of the combination is given by

1/c = 1/c1 + 1/c2 + —– 2

If they are connected in parallel the net capacitance C in

this is given by

C = c1 + c2 + c3

——- 3 NOTE

The opposite is the case if these were resistance.

SIMPLE PROBLEMS

E.g. A capacitor contain a charge of 4 .0 x coulomb when a

10– 4
potential difference of 400 v is applied across it. Calculate
the capacitance of the capacitor

The capacitance C = q/v

= 4.0 x 10-4= 10
– 6 F= 1. 0

40

EVALUATION

ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITOR

A charged is a store of electrical energy. When a charge ,
q , is moved through a p.d , the work done is given by
W = average charge
p.d x

=½vq

But = q /c

vW = ½ q/c x q =½
q2/c
W = ½q2/C

0r if instead we use

q=cv W =1/2 cv2

Therefore the work done is either

W=½
= q2/c
CV2 1
/2

This work is stored in the capacitor as electrical potential

energy.

EVALUATION

1. The net charge on capacitor which is charged to a p.d of

200 is
1.0 x 10-4 coulomb. What is the capacitance of capacitor and
the energy stored in the capacitor?

2. Derive an expression for the energy lost on sharing

charges.

PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

For a parallel plate capacitor with plates each of area (A),

separated by distance (d) the capacitance (C), of the
capacitor is given by
C = εoA/d
Where εo is the permittivity of the dielectric material
between the plates of the capacitor.

It therefore means the capacitance of a parallel plate

capacitor is dependent ov several factors namely:

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Calculate the force acting on an electron

carrying a charge of 1.6 x 10-19C in an electric field of
intensity 5.0 x 108
N/C is (A). 3.2 x 10-29N (B).8.0 x 10- (C). 3.1 x
11
1027N D. 4.6 x 10-6N

2. Find the electric field intensity in a vacuum at a

distance of 10cm from a point charge of 15uc if 1/
4πε0= 9.0 x 109(A). 1.35 x 107NC-1(B). 1.4 x 1010NC-1(C).
1.3 x 1011NC-1 (D).1.5×1010NC-1

3. Which of the following statements is/are true about

an isolated positively charged sphere? I. It contains
excess positive [Link] has an electric field
associated with it. III. It carries electric current. Iv. It has
excess negative charges.A. I and II only B. I, II
and III only [Link] and IV only [Link] and IV E. I
and III only

4. Two capacitor of capacitance 3uF and 6uF are

connected in series. Calculate the equivalent capacitance
(a) 9uF (b) 6uF
(c) 2uF (d) ½ uF.
5. A capacitor stores 10-4c of charge when the p.d
between the plates is 1kv. What is the capacitance? (a)
10-4uF (b) 0.1 uF
(c) 4uF (d) 100uF.

THEORY

1. If three charges are distributed as shown in the diagram

below.

+10C 3m

– 20C

2m

+16C

Find the resultant force on the +10C charge (take

1 = 9.0
9
x 10 s.I. units)

4πEo

2. Two charges of +5uc and -10NC are separated by a

distance of 8cm in a vacuum as shown below.

+5uc B -10uc

3cm 5cm

Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant

electric field intensity due to point B.

1/ 4πEo = 9.0 x 109 s.I unit.

Physics Note SS3 First Term – [Link]

([Link]
 WEEK FOUR

Subject: Physics
Date 30th- 4 th October 2024

Class: Year 12
Topic ELECTRIC CELLS AND

electrolysis

Period 4

Duration 40 minutes

Objective

DEFINITION OF SIMPLE TERMS

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Electric current is simply electric charge in motion. In

conductors such as cables or wire, the current consist of
swam of moving electron. Electric cells are chemical
devices, which are capable of causing an electric current
to flow. This produces electric force, which pushes the
current along. If there is a complete circuit of conductors
by which current can leave from one end to terminal of
the cell and travel round to the other terminal, a current
will flow. This current will be the at any point round the
circuit and of the line is broken, the current is stopped or
switched off. The electrons flow from the negative
terminal or cathode of the cell to the procedure terminal
or anode

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CELLS

Electric cells are divided into two namely: the primary
cells and the secondary cells

PRIMARY CELLS
These are those cells in which current is produced as a
result of an irreversible chemical charge.

SECONDARY CELLS

These cells are those which can be recharged when they

run down by passing current backwards through them.

There are three component in a cell .Two of them are

electrodes in the primary cell, the two electrodes are of
different metals (graphite is often used). The third item is
the container bearing
the electrolyte. Examples of electrolyte are strips of
aluminum, Carbons (graphite) copper, iron lead and zinc.

THE SIMPLE PRIMARY CELL (VOLTAIC CELL)

A simple cell can be made by placing two different

electrodes (metals) in an electrolyte. Two wire are then
used to connect these metals to a voltmeter, an
instrument which measure the potential different
between any two point in an electric circuit. If a
deflection is noticed it means that the cell creates a
voltage. If the deflection is done to the right it mean that
the electrode, or anode, which is connected to the
positive terminal of the voltmeter is the positive
electrode, or anode, while the one is connected to the
negative terminal is the negative electrode or cathode. If
the deflection is however done to the left, a reconnection
should be done.

The two major deflects of a simple cell are polarization and

local action

POLARIZATION

The cell is characterized by the release of “hydrogen

bubbles.” The bubbles collect at the positive electrode
and insulate it. This shows down and eventually stops the
working of the cell. This defect is called polarization.

This defect can be corrected either by occasionally

brushing the plates, which is highly in convenient, or by
using a depolarize e.g. manganese oxide. This oxides
hydrogen to form and so removes the hydrogen bubble.

LOCAL ACTION
This occurs when pure zinc is not in use. The impurities
in the zinc results in the gradual wearing away of the
zinc plates. This can be prevented by cleaning the zinc
with H2SO4 and then rubbed with mercury. The mercury
amalgamates the zinc by covering the impurities thereby
preventing it from coming into contact with electrolyte.

EVALUATION

1. What is a cell?

2. Explain the defects of a named cell.

LECLANCHE CELL

Leclanche cells are of two types : the wet and the dried
types. The wet leclanche cell consists of a zinc rod at the
cathode in solution of ammonium chloride contained in a
glass vessel. The anode is a carbon rod contained in a
porous pot and is surrounded by manganese chloride as
a depolarize

An e.m.f. is set up by the zinc, the carbon and the

electrolyte, which drives a current from zinc to carbon
through the cell. This carbon is at a higher potential than
the zinc. When an external circuit is connected to the cell,
current flows from carbon to zinc out side. The e.m.f is set
up because zinc reacts with the ammonium chloride to
form zinc chloride, ammonia and hydrogen, and electrons
are released. These electrons flow from the zinc plate to
the carbon plate out side the cell.

Hydrogen reacts with the manganese dioxide and

oxidizes it to form water. The e.m.f of a leclanche cell is
1.5 voIts, defect includeWhen the cell has worked for
sometime, the rate of hydrogen production becomes
greater than rate at which it is oxidized by the
manganese dioxide, hence the formation of polarization.
Therefore the cell must be allowed to rest from
time. These primary cells are restricted to intermittent
current supply because they do not give continuous
[Link] are too heavy to carry about without spilling
the liquid. For the dry leclanche cell, the defect of
heaviness is overcome.

The ammonium chloride electrolyte is a jelly-like material

and not aligned solution. The positive electrode is a
carbon rod surrounded by a packed mixture of
manganese dioxide and powered carbon, inside a zinc
container, which is the negative electrode.

The dry cell can be carried about easily E.g. torch

batteries, and transistor radio batteries. Due to local
action, they deteriorate after sometime.

THE DANIEL CELL

This is also a primary cell invented to counter the

problem of polarization. The zinc rod is the negative
electrode while the positive electrode is the container.
The electrolyte is dilute tetrasulphate (vi) acid contained
in a porous pot around the zinc rod, and the depolarize is
copper tetraoxosulphate (vi) in the surrounding copper
container. The diaphoreses is mush more efficient than
the leclanche cell. The e.m.f. is of a constant value of
l..08V.

Secondary cells are of two main type: lead acid

accumulator, and the alkaline or Nife accumulation.

THE LEAD-ACID ACCUMULATOR

This is the most common one. It consists of lead oxide as

the positive electrode, lead as the negative electrode and
tetra oxosulphate (vi) acid as the electrolyte. During the
discharge, when the cell is given out current both plates
gradually charge to lead tetraoxosulphate (vi) while the
acid gradually becomes more
dilute and the density decreases. When fully charged the
relative density and e.m.f. of the cell are 1.25 and 2.2v
respectively. But when discharged, they are reduced to
1.5 and less than 2.0v respectively. The rod density of
the cell should not be allowed to drop 1.15 before it is
recharged.

MAINTENANCE OF LEAD ACID ACCUMULATORS

1 The liquid level must be maintained by using distilled H2O

2. The cell should be charge if relative density of acid falls

below
1.15. it is fully charged when relativedensity of acid is 1.25.
It is tested with a special hydrometer.

3. If the cell is not in use for a long time, it should be

discharge from time to time or the acid remove and
thecell dried.

4. The battery should be kept clean so that current does

not leak away across the casing between the terminals.

THE ALKALINE OR NIFE ACCUMULATORS

The name is gotten from the chemical symbol nickel (Ni)

and iron (Fe). The positive electrode is made of nickel
hydrogen while the negative plate is either of iron or
calcium. The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide dissolve
in water. This cellslast longer and lead acid cells keep
their charge longer and they require less maintenance.
They are used for emergencies in factories and hospitals.
They are expensive and bulky with a small e.m.f value,
about 1.25v.

EVALUATION

Summary
 Positive Negativ
Cell Electrolyte Depolariser
Terminal e
Termin
al

Dilute
Simple Copperplat Zinc rod _
e sulfuric
acid

Copper
Copper Dilute
Daniell Zinc rod sulphate
container sulfuric
solution
acid

Ammonium
Leclanché Manganese
Carbon rod Zinc rod chloride
(wet) dioxide
solution

Ammonium
Leclanché Zinc Manganese
Carbon rod chloride
(dry) container dioxide
paste

Lead-acid Dilute
Lead oxide Lead _
accumulator sulfuric
acid

READING ASSIGNMENT

New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools

([Link] 397 – 402).

GENERAL EVALUATION

ELECTROLYSIS

Is the process whereby a liquid conducts electricity by

the movement of positive and negative ions within the
liquid while undergoing chemical changes.

ELECTROLYTES
Are liquid, which allow the electricity through them. Such
electricity is salt solutions, alkalis and dilute acids
(acidulated water).

NON-ELECTROLYTES

Are liquids, which do not allow electricity to pass through

them. Such liquids include distilled water, alcohol, liquid
paraffin and sugar solution.

NOTE

Metals and hydrogen are deposited at the cathode, while

non- metals and oxygen are deposited on the anode. The
anode may dissolve in solution.

Electrolysis does not manufacture electric charges and it

is the “splitting’ of compounds by electricity. E.g water
decomposes into oxygen and hydrogen by electric
current. Electrolysis begins when the electric circuit is
completed and ends abruptly when the electric circuit is
broken.

EVALUATION

FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS

FARADAY’S FIRST LAW OF

ELECTROLYSIS

States that the mass of a substance liberated during the

process of electrolysis is proportional to the quantity of
electricity passed through the electrolyte

FARADAY’S SECOND LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS

 States that the relative masses of substances liberated
by the same quantity of electricity are proportional t
their chemical equivalents.

SIMPLE CALCULATIONS

If M is the mass of substance deposited when a current

q flows for time t, then the quantity of electricity of
electricity which flows is flows is It, and

m = Z It.

Where, Z = electrochemical equivalent (e.c.e) the

substance.

…. Z = m

It

I = current in t = time in see m = mass

of subs in grammes.

EVALUATION

“
1. What is meant by the statement the
electrochemical equivalent of copper is 0.000 33
g /coulomb.

2. A current of 3A maintained for 50 minutes deposits

3.048g of zinc at the cathode. Determine the
electrochemical equivalent of zinc.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROLYSIS

In industry, electrolysis is used in electroplating of metals,

purification of metals and electrolytic production of metals
from compounds.
ELECTROPLATING

This process is used in coating cutlery and other articles

with copper, silver, chromium, nickel or gold. The article
to be plated is used as the cathode and the coating metal
is used as the anode. The electrolyte is a solution of a
salt of a salt of the plating metal. For example, in the
silver –plating of a spoon is made the cathode, pure silver
is the anode, and silver nitrate solution is the electrolyte
(see figure below). Two anodes would be placed, one on
each side of the spoon so that back and front would be
plated at once.

The silver nitrate dissociates in solution into silver ion and

nitrate ions.

AgNo Ag++ NO-3

When electricity is passed through the solution, the Ag

ions move towards the cathode where they are
discharged and the spoon becomes coated with metallic
silver. The NO remains in solution combining with silver
from the anodes to form more silver nitrate, thus,
staying at its original concentration.

THE PURIFICATION OF METALS

In the electrolysis of copper sulphate using copper

electrodes, copper is deposited at the cathode while at
the same time the copper from the anode goes into
solution.

In purification of copper metal, the impure copper is

made the anode while the pure copper is made the
cathode. When current is passed, copper ions are
dissolved from the anode and deposited at the cathode
leaving the impurities behind. The pure copper is used in
manufacture of electric cables because of its low
resistance.
 THE ELECTROLYTIC PREPARATION OF METALS FROM
COMPOUNDS

Metals such as aluminum, sodium and potassium are

prepared from their molten chlorides or hydroxide by the
process of electrolysis.

EVALUATION

1. Mention at least two uses of electrolysis

2. Explain how electrolysis can be used to

calibrate an ammeter?

WEEKEND

ASSIGNMENT

THEORY

1. In electrolysis of copper tetraxosulphate (vi) using

copper electrodes, 1.53g of copper wire deposited
in 30 minutes. Determine the average current
used.(Z=3.29 x 10-4)

WEEK 5
Subject: Physics
Class: year 12
Topic
ELECTRIC MEASUREMENT
Objective
CONTENT

RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY

The resistance of a wire maintained at a constant

temperature is related to its length L and its cross-sectional
area (A) by the expression

R = p l................1

Where p is a constant of proportionality known as

resistivity of the material. Therefore,

p = Rl

A = Π r2 = Π d2
where r = radius of conductor d =
diameter of

conductor 4

RESISTIVITY

This is the resistance of unit length of material of unit

cross sectional area.

When R is measured in ohms, A in m and l inm, the unit

of p is its ohm-metre (Ωm).The resistance is the ability of
a material to oppose the flow of current through it. The
greater the resistivity of a wire the poorer it is as an
electrical conductor. That is why conductivity is used to
specify the current –carrying ability of a material. The
greater the conductivity the more easily can
current flow through the material. Hence, materials with
high conductivity will have low [Link]
бis the reciprocal of the resistivity p.

Б = 1........................2

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

This is a measure of the extent to which a material will

allow current to flow easily through it when a p.d is
applied at a specified temperature. It is the reciprocal of
the resistivity.

EVALUATION

1. The resistance of a wire of length 100cm and

diameter 0.3mm is found to be 3.0 ohms. Calculate (a)
the resistivity, (b) the conductivity of the material of the
wire.

2. What length of the wire will produce a resistance of 5Ω?

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL

In the absence of an external conductor, a chemical cell

develops a potential difference E, which is called the
electromotive force (emf) . The electrolyte inside the cell
offers a certain amount of resistance when its terminals
are connected and currents flows. This is known as the
internal resistance (r). The p.d required to drive a current
through a cell is Ir( lostpd) while that required to drive a
current through an external conductor is IR ( terminal pd)

I = E.......................3

R+r
E = I (R + r) = IR + Ir =V+v

Where V = terminal pd r = internal resistance of

the cell

R = external resistance v = lost

pd GALVANOMETER CONVERSION

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER TO AMMETER (SHUNT)

An ammeter is used for measuring currents. A

galvanometer is used for detecting and measuring very
small currents. We can convert galvanometer into
ammeter by connecting a suitable resistor in parallel with
the galvanometer. This is known as shunt. A shunt is a
low resistance wire and is used to divert a
large part of the current being measured but to allow only a
small current to pass through the galvanometer.

EVALUATION

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER TO VOLTMETER:

A galvanometer used for measuring very small current

can be converted to voltmeter by connecting a high
resistance or multiplier in series with the galvanometer.

Measurement of resistance by Ammeter and Voltmeter

Method: The resistance of a wire can also be measured
using ohm’s law, as we now show with the following
activity( Ohms law)

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE

The methods of measuring resistance are:

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Wheatstone bridge is an instrument used in getting
accurate resistance. It consist of four resistors R1, R2,
R3,R4 connected side by side together to form a close
circuit. Varying the resistance, a stage is reached when
no current flows through the galvanometer at the centre
indicating zero.

I 1R 1= I 2R 3

At the same time, the pd between A

and C is I1R2 = I2R4

Diagram of wheat stone

bridge Dividing through the

equations

R1 = R2

R3 Rx

POTENTIOMMETER

The potentiometer is a device used to measure potential

difference. It consists of a uniform wire AB of length
100cm stretched on a wooden hard board by the side of
a meter rule.

Diagram of

potentiometer E2 = L2

E1L1

ADVANTAGE OF POTENTIOMETER OVER VOLTMETER

GENERAL EVALUATION
 1. How much heat is required to convert 50g of water
at 1000C to steam at the same temperature [specific
latent heat of vaporization = 2260J/g]?

READING ASSIGNMENT

New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools (M.W

Anyakoha Pages 412 – 415)

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

THEORY

1. Calculate the length of a constant in wire of diameter 0.6

mm and resistivity 1.1 x 10-6Ωm required to construct a
standard resistor of resistance 35Ω

WEEK6

Subject: physics

Class Year 12

Topic

MAGNETISM

Objective CONTENT

MAGNET AND ITS PROPERTIES

A magnet is any material that is capable of attracting

other pieces of the same material as well as pieces of
[Link] is an iron ore which has the property of
attracting pieces of iron’s substance is said to be
ferromagnetic if it is attracted by a magnet. Examples
are iron,cobalt,Nickel,and certain alloys.
Substances which cannot be attracted by a magnet are
called non magnetic material e.g brass, wood, copper,
and glass.
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS

1. The ends of a magnet where the attracting power is

greatest are called the poles.

2. A bar magnet suspended freely in a vertical plane

called magnetic meridian comes to rest with its axis in
the North-South direction. The part which points
northwards is called the north seeking pole or North pole
while the opposite pole is called the south pole

3. Like poles of magnet repel each other while unlike

poles attract each other.

4. The polarity of a magnet can be tested by bringing

both poles in turn nearer to the known pole of a
suspended magnet. Repulsion indicates similar polarity.
Attraction could be due to two unlike poles or a pole and
a piece of unmagnetized [Link], repulsion is the
only sure test for polarity.

MAGNETIZATION AND DEMAGNETIZATION

Magnetization is a process whereby a material is made

to becomemagnetic. This can be achieved through any of
the following methods.

ELECTRICAL METHOD

A cylindrical coil wound with several turns of insulated

copper wire is connected in series with a six or twelve
volt electric battery and switch.A coil of this type is
called a solenoid.A steel bar is placed inside the coil and
the current is switched on forsometime. On removing
and testing the steel, it will be found to have been
magnetized. It is unnecessary to leave the current for
long as length of time makes no difference but causes
over
heating. The induce polarity depends on the direction of
flow of the current. Clockwise flow at an end indicates
South Pole while an anti-clockwise flow indicates North
Pole.

SINGLE TOUCH METHOD

A steel bar is stroke from end to end several times in the

same direction with a known pole of a magnet. Between
successive strokes the pole is lifted high above the bar
otherwise the magnetism already induced will be
weakened. The disadvantage of this method is that it
produces magnets in which one pole is nearer the end of
the bar than the other.

DIVIDED TOUCH METHOD

Here the steel bar is stroke from the centre outward with
unlike poles of two magnets simultaneously. The polarity
produced at the end of the bar where the stroking
finishes is of opposite kind to that of the stroking pole.

HAMMERING IN THE EARTH FIELD

Magnets can be made by hammering red hot steel bar

and allow it to cool as it lies in North- South direction.

INDUCED MAGNETISM

When a piece of unmagnetized steel is placed either near

or in contact with a pole of a magnet and then removed,
it will be magnetized. This is called Induced Magnetism.
The induced pole is of opposite sign to that of inducing
pole.

DEMAGNETIZATION

This is a process whereby a magnet is made to lose its

magnetism. Demagnetization can be achieved by:
The magnet is placed in a solenoid through which an
alternating current is flowing. The solenoid is placed with
its axis pointing in the East Westdirection. After a few
seconds, the magnet is slowly withdrawn out of the
solenoid to a long distance away.
This is the most efficient way of demagnetizing a magnet.

Another method of demagnetizing magnets is to hammer it

hard when it is pointing in the East West direction.

When magnet is strongly heated, it loses its magnetism.

EVALUATION

TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT MAGNET

Soft iron is pure iron while steel is an alloy of iron and

carbon. Steel is a much harder and stronger material than
soft iron. Steel and iron have different magnetic
properties.

Iron is easily magnetized than steel but it readily loses its

magnetism. Steel produces a stronger magnet, which is
the reason why steel is used for making permanent
magnet such as compass needle. In temporary magnets,
where the magnetism is required for a short time, iron is
used,e.g electromagnets.

EVALUATION

MAGNETIC FIELDS

Magnetic field is the space surrounding the magnets in

which magnetic force is exerted. It is a vector quantity
and it is represented by magnetic lines. The direction of
the magnetic flux at any point is the direction of the force
on a north pole placed at that point.
 In the neighbourhood of two magnets placed closed
together, there exist a field in which the direction of the
magnetic flux changes rapidly in a confined space. The
magnetic flux can be obtained by using iron fillings.

Magnetic meridian at any place is a vertical plane

containing the magnetic axis of a freely suspended
magnet at rest under the action of the earth [Link]
geographical meridian at a place is a plane containing the
place and the earth axis of rotation.

The angle between the magnetic and geographical

meridian is called the Magnetic [Link] angle of
dip or inclination is the angle between the direction of
the earth magnetic flux and the horizontal.

EVALUATION

With the aid of a suitable diagram, explain the

[Link] Flux, Angle of Inclination andAngle
of Declination.

EVALUATION

1. A gas occupies a certain volume at [Link] what

temperature would the volume be three time the
original volume assuming constant pressure.

2. A gas with initial volume 2X 106 m3 is allowed to

expand six times its original volume at constant
pressure of 2X 105 N/m2, what is the work done?
WEEKEND

ASSIGNMENT

THEORY

WEEK 7

Subject: physics

Class: year 12

Topic

ELECTROMAGNETIC

Field

Objective

CONTENT

PATTERNS OF MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND CURRENT

CARRYING CONDUCTORS

A straight conductor carrying current can be shown that it

has magnet filed around it. Allow a thick isolated copper
wire to pass vertically through a hole in a card board
sheet. As shown below, sprinkle some iron fillings
uniformly on the cardboard around the vertical wire
connect the ends of the wire to a battery, switch on the
current and place some compass needles around the
wire. Note the direction to which the compass needle
point. Switch on the current and note the swing of the
needles and how they point.
It will be observed that when current is switched on and
the card board is gently tapped, the fillings arrange
themselves in a series of concentric circles about the wire
as centre. Also as soon as the current is switch on, the
needles will swing around and form a circle with the wire
as centre. The direction of the iron fillings depends on the
direction of flow of the current.

MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR

CARRYING CURRENT
The direction and pattern of the magnetic field around a
straight conductor carrying current can be determined
using the the following rules.

MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CIRCULAR CONDUCTOR

CARRYING CURRENT

MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A SOLENOID

FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENT CARRYING

CONDUCTORS.

When two current carrying wires are placed parallel to each

other, their magnetic fields interact.

When current flows in the same direction, the conductors

will repel each other, and when current flows in the same
direction in the conductors, they attract.

READING ASSIGNMENT

New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools

([Link] 425 -428)

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Masses m1 and m2are hung at the 20cm and 60cm mark

respectively of a uniform meter rule freely suspended at
its centre of gravity. If the meter rule balances
horizontally, determine the ratio of m1 to m2.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Alloys for making powerful permanent magnets

are these except — (a) alcomax (b) alnico (c)
mumetal(d) ticonal
2. A magnetic substance can be demagnetized by
(a) dropping on the floor (b) hammering while hot (c)
divided touch
(d) single touch

3. Which of the following pairs of metals will be picked

up by an electromagnet? (a)Aluminium and Copper (b)
Brass and Copper (c) Iron and Steel (d)Aluminium and
Brass

4. Which question can be asked to determine if a

material is magnetic or non-magnetic? (a) Is it a metal or
a non-metal? (b) Is it a conductor or an insulator? (c) Is it
a solid or a gas (d)Does it affect the direction of a
compass needle?

5. One of the following rules can be used to

determine the direction of the magnetic field around a
straight current carrying conductor. (a) Fundamental law
of magnetism(b) Clenched fist rule (c) Fleming’s right
hand rule (d) Fleming’s left
hand rule

THEORY

WEEK 8

Subject : Physics

Class: year 12

Topic:

ELECTROMAGNETIC

FIELD

Objective
CONTENT

FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A

MAGNETIC FIELD

A conductor carrying an electric current, when placed in

the magnetic field experiences a mechanical force. This
can be demonstrated by using a set up a shown below.
Two metal rails fixed on each side of a powerful horse-
shoe magnet. A copper rod is placed across the rays.
When the current is passed
through this copper rod, it is observed that the copper
rod rolls along the rays, toward the right. If by adjusting
the rheostat, more current is made to flow through the
rod. One will notice that the rod moves faster, thus the
force on the rod increases when the current increases.

If the direction of flow of current is reversed by reversing

the connections at the battery terminals, the rod will be
observed to move towards the left, opposite to the
previous direction of motion.

If one turns the magnet such that the magnetic field is

parallel to the length of the rod as shown below, it will be
observed that the current carrying rod remains stationary
no matter the amount of current that passes through.
There is therefore no force on the rod.

The direction of the force on a current carrying conductor

placed perpendicular to the magnetic field is given by
Fleming’s left- hand rule which is stated as follows:

If the thumb, forefinger and middle finger are held

mutually at right angles to one another with the fore-
finger pointing in the direction of magnetic field, and the
second finger in the direction of Current, then the thumb
will point in the direction of Motion (or force producing the
motion).

EVALUATION

Explain the effects of force on a current carrying conductor

in a magnetic field?

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

The electric motor is a device for converting electrical
energy into mechanical energy. It consists of the
following

(i) a rectangular coil of insulated wire, known as armature,

(ii) a powerful magnetic field in which the

armature turns is provided by two curve pole pieces
of a powerful magnet.

(iii) acommutator consisting of a split copper ring, two

halves of which are insulated from each other.

(iv)two carbon brushes which are made to press lightly

against either side of the split-ring commutator

This galvanometer is one of the most sensitive and accurate

methods for detecting or measuring extremely small
currents or potential differences.

Structure:

It consists essentially of:

FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

The force on a charge q moving with a velocity v ( less than

the velocity of light) in a magnetic field of strength B is given
by:

F = qvB

READING ASSIGNMENT
 New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools
([Link] Pages 425 -428)

GENERAL EVALAUTION

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. What is the force on an electron of charge -1.6 X 10-

19
C, mass 9.1 X 10-31Kg and speed2.0 X 107ms-
1
which enters perpendicularly into a magnetic field
-14 -12
of strength 0.010T (a) 3.2 X 10 N(b) 3.2 X 10 N
-24
(c) 5.2 X 10 N (d) 3.5 X 10
-12
N

2. Calculate the radius of the circular path travelled by

-14
the electron in (4) above. (a) 3.2 X 10 m (b) 1.2
-4 -2 -1
X 10 m (c) 1.14 X 10 m (d) 4.12 X 10
WEEK 9 and 10
Subject: physics
Topic: Electromagnetic induction
Class: year 12
Objective

CONTENT

INDUCED CURRENT

Electromagnetic induction: is the production of electric

current or voltage in a conductor whenever there is a
relative motion between the conductor and a magnetic
field or a magnet. The current so induced is called
induced current.

The induced e.m.f. or current depends on:

The direction of the induced current reverses when the
direction of motion of the magnet or coil is reversed.

The coil A and C are wound on a steel ring R. When the

switch S is close, a deflection will be obtained on the
galvanometer G, and when S is open G will show a
deflection in the opposite direction.

Current will flow in the galvanometer whenever there is

relative motion between the coil and the magnet. There is
such a relative motion when the magnet moves towards
the coil or away from the coil and when the magnet is
stationary but the coil is moved. Such a current is called
induced current and the phenomenon is called
electromagnetic induction.

EVALUATION

LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

There are two laws of electromagnetic induction

1. Faraday’s law

2. Lenz’s law

FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

States that whenever there is a change in the magnetic

lines of force (e.m.f) is induced, the strength of which is
proportional to the rateof change of the flux linked with
the circuit.

The magnetic flux or field lines linking a coil depends on

To obtain a large induced e.m.f move at a high speed

across a strong magnetic field. Faraday’s law gives the
magnitude of the induced e.m.f.
LENZ’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION STATES

That the induced e.m.f is in such a direction as two oppose

the motion or change producing it.”

Lenz law gives the direction of the induced e.m.f or

induced currents.

EVALUATION

INDUCTION COIL

This is an electrical device that is capable of producing a

very high intermittent e.m.f .by electromagnetic
induction from a low voltage d.c.

CONTENT

MOVING A CONDUCTOR WITHIN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Induced current can also be produced by moving a
conductor in a magnetic field. The direction of such
current can always be obtained by applying the
Fleming’s Right hand rule which states that “If the
thumb, forefinger and middle finger are held mutually at
right angles to one another with the fore-finger pointing in
the direction of magnetic field, the thumb pointing in the
direction of Motion (of the conductor), then the second
finger will point in the direction of the induced Current.”

A.C AND D.C GENERATOR

A machine that converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy or electrical energy into mechanical
energy is called a dynamo. When it changes
mechanical energy into electrical energy it is called a
generator, but when it changes electrical energy into
mechanical energy, it is called a motor.

There are two classes of generators, the alternating current

(A.C) generator and the direct current (D.C) generator.

The A.C. generator consists of:

EVALUATION

DIRECT CURRENT (D.C) GENERATOR

An A.C generator can be made to produce a D.C by

replacing the two slip rings with a single split ring
or commutator. A split ring commutator is a split ring
that has been split into two segments which are
insulated from each other. The ends of the coil are
connected one to each split ring or commutator
segment.

The commutator is a current reverser. When the

armature coil is rotated, the commutator automatically
switches each end of the coil from one brush to the other
each time the coil completes
one-half of a revolution. As the current reverses in the
coil after each half revolution, the connection between
the coil and the brushes are reversed through the action
of the commutator.

A DIRECT CURRENT (D.C)

GENERATOR TRANSFORMER

A transformer is an electrical device for changing the size of

an
a.c. voltage. It acts to increase or decrease the em.f of an
alternating current. It consists of two separate sets of coil,
the primary coil and the secondary coil. The primary coil
is the input winding of turns of wire and the secondary
coil is the output winding. The coils are wound round a
soft-iron core. The soft-iron core acts to increase and
concentrate the magnetic flux within the core. It is also
laminated, i.e. it consists of sheets of soft-iron insulated
from each other instead of a solid block of iron. This
lamination reduces loss of energy in the form of heat due
to eddy currents introduced in the core.

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

When an alternating e.m.f. or A.C voltage (EP) is applied

at the terminals of the primary coil (p), an alternating
magnetic flux is produced in the iron core which links or
threads the secondary coil (s). An alternating e.m.f (Es)
of the same frequency as that Ep is induced in the
secondary coil by mutual inductance.

Mutual inductance is the flow of induced current or

voltage in a coil due to an alternating or varying current
in a neighboring coil.

The total flux linking the two coils is proportional to their

number of turns. The induced e.m.f in the secondary coil
(Ep) depends on the e.m.f. in the primary coil and on the
ratio of the number of turns in each
:. ES= Ns

E p Np

In an ideal transformer with a 100% efficiency, the power

developed in the secondary coil is equal to the power
developed in the primary coil.

:. Es= Ip

Ep Is

Hence,Es = Ns= Ip

E p Np I s

To use a transformer to increase an applied voltage, i.e

to make Es greater than Ep, Ns must be greater than Np.
Such a transformer which increases or steps up the
applied or primary voltage is called a step-up
transformer. In a step-up, the primary current is greater
than the secondary current but the primary voltage is
less than the secondary voltage.

ENERGY LOSSES IN PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER

There are energy losses in practical transformers due to:

Eddy Current reduces efficiency because they consume

power and this causes energy lost in the form of heat.
Such loss can be reduced by laminating the core.

Hysteresis loss is wasted energy due to reversing the

magnetization of the core. It is reduced by the use of
special alloys in the core of the primary coil.
Heat loss is the primary and secondary coils have
resistance, some energy is lost in the form of heat (I2R) in
the coils. This can be reduced by using thick wires or low
resistance coils.

Some energy is lost due to leakage of magnetic flux. This

arises because not all the lines of induction due to
current in the primary coil pass entirely through the iron
core. This loss is reduced by efficient core design.

Examples

1. Find the turns ration in a transformer which delivers a

voltage of 120V in the secondary coil from a primary
voltage of 60v.

Turns ration =Ns=

120= 2 Np60

2. Atransformer has 500 turns in the primary coil and

300 turns in the secondary coil. If the primary coil is
connected to a 220v mains, what voltage will be
obtained from the secondary coil? What type of
transformer is this?

E s = Ns

E p Np

Es =300

220 500

Es = 220 x 300

500
Es = 132 V
It is a step-down transformer because secondary voltage
is less than primary voltage (132 < 220)

3. A transformer supplies 15v from a 220v mains. If the

transformer takes 0.7A from the mains when used to
light three lamps connected in parallel and each rated
15v, 40w calculate:

i. the efficiency of the transformer

ii. the cost of using it for 24hrs at 30k

per kwh. Primary or input power = IpVp

= 0.7 x 220 = 154w

Secondary (output power) =IsVs = (Is x 15 )W

p = I SV

p = Is

Is = 40= 2.67A.

15

Total current taken by the 3 lamps in parallel = 3 x 2.67 =8A

:. Output power = 8 x 15 =

120 W Efficiency = Output

Power X 100 Input Power

= 120x 100 = 78%

Power consumed = 0.7 x

220Kw 1000

Total power consumed in 24 hrs

= 0.7 x 220 x 24kwh

1000

Cost at 30k per Kwh

= 0.7 x 220 X 24 X 30

1000 100

= N1

EVALUATION

POWER TRANSMISSION

Power generated at power stations are distributed over

large distances to consumers through metal cables.
Power can be transmitted either at low current and high
voltage or at high current and low voltage. Because the
metal cables through which the power is transmitted
have a certain amount of electrical resistance,
transmitting power at high current will lead to loss of
energy in the form of heat. To avoid this, power is
transmitted at high voltage and low current. This is
known as high tension transmission.

Low currents leads to low energy loss. It also requires

thinner cables, cost of cable materials is considerably
reduced if power is transmitted with low current and high
voltages.
Step down transformers are used to reduce the high
transmitted voltages to lower voltages required in home and
factories.