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02 Wave Optics

Introduction
• The Greeks believed that light consisted of tiny particles (corpuscles) that were emitted by a light
source and these particles stimulated the perception of vision upon striking the observer’s eye.
Newton used this particle theory to explain the reflection and refraction (bending) of light.
Newton's Corpuscular Theory
➢ Light consists of little, invisible particles known as corpuscles.
➢ These are constantly emitted by all luminous light sources in all directions.
➢ When corpuscles strike the retina of our eye then they produce the sensation of vision.
➢ These corpuscles travel with the velocity of light in straight lines.
➢ Their velocity changes with the change of medium.
➢ The different colors of light are due to different size of these corpuscles.
➢ The rest mass of these corpuscles is zero.

Corpuscles
The phenomena explained by this theory
(i) Reflection (ii) Refraction (iii) Rectilinear propagation of light.
The phenomena not explained by this theory
(i) Interference (ii) Diffraction (iii) Polarisation (iv) Photoelectric effect
Note: Newton proposed in his theory that light travels faster in denser medium than in rarer medium
but he was proved wrong later.
Wave front and Huygens’ Principle
In 1678, one of Newton’s contemporaries, the Dutch scientist Christian Huygens, was able to explain
many other properties of light by proposing that light is a wave.
Huygens showed that a wave theory of light could also explain reflection and refraction.
Huygens' Wave theory of light
➢ The locus of all particles vibrating in same phase is known as wavefront.
➢ Light travels in a medium in the form of wavefront.
➢ When light travels in a medium then the particles of medium start vibrating and consequently a
disturbance is created in the medium.
➢ Every point on the wavefront becomes the source of secondary wavelets. It emits secondary
wavelets in all directions which travel with the speed of light.
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➢ The tangent plane to these secondary wavelets represents the new position of wavefront.
Common
Secondary
tangent
source

source source

Secondary
Wavelets
Wavefront Primary Secondary
Wavefront Wavefront
The phenomena explained by this theory
➢ Reflection, Refraction, interference and diffraction
➢ Rectilinear propagation of light.
➢ Velocity of light in rarer medium being greater than that in denser medium.
The phenomena not explained by this theory
(1) Photoelectric effect (2) Polarisation
Note: Huygens considered that the environment is filled with anisotropic luminiferous ether but later he
was proved wrong, later.
Reflection and Refraction of plane waves at a plane surface using wave fronts
Types of Wavefront: The shape of wavefront depends upon the shape of the light source from which the
wavefront originates. On this basis there are three types of wavefronts.
(1) Spherical Wavefront (2) Cylindrical Wavefront (3) Plane Wavefront
(1) Spherical Wavefront
→ Spherical wavefront originates from point source.
1
→ Intensity (I) 
Area
1
I  2
(Area = 4r2 )
r
→ Intensity  (Amplitude)2
1 1
 2
 A2  A 
r r
(2) Cylindrical Wavefront
→ Cylindrical wavefront originates from linear source.
1 1
→ Intensity (I)   I (Area = 2rh)
Area r
→ Intensity  (Amplitude)2
1 1
  A2  A 
r r
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Wave Optics
(3) Plane Wavefront
→ Plane wavefront originates from the source situated at very large distance.
1
→ Intensity (I) 
Area
I = constant (Area is constant)
→ Intensity  (Amplitude)2
A = constant

Summary
Sr. Wavefront Shape of Light Diagram or Variation of Variation of
No. Source shape of amplitude (A) Intensity (I)
wavefront with distance with distance

1 1
1. Spherical Point source A I
r r2

1 1
A I
Linear source/ r r
2. Cylindrical
Slit

3. Plane Extended Large A: constant I: constant

source / Point A ∝ ro I ∝ ro
source at very
large distance

Illustration 1:
If amplitude of light at 10 m from a small light bulb is A0 then find amplitude of light at a distance 50 m
from the same light bulb?
Solution:
1 A r A 50 A
A   1 = 2  o =  A2 = o
r A2 r1 A2 10 5
Law of reflection by huygen’s wave theory
BB' = v1t  AA' = v1t
AA' = BB'  In ABB'
BB'
sini = …(i)
AB'
In B'A'A
AA'
sinr = …(ii)
AB'
Divide (i) by (ii)
sini BB'
= = 1  sin i = sin r  i = r
sinr AA'
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Law of refraction by huygen’s wave theory
BB' = v1t
AA' = v2t
In ABB’
BB'
sini = …(i)
AB'
In AA’B’
AA'
sinr = …(ii)
AB'
Divide (i) by (ii)
sini BB'
=
sinr AA'
sini v1t v1 2
= = =
sinr v 2t v 2 1
1 sini = 2 sinr
Illustration 2:
A plane wavefront is incident on given optical device in each case. Draw the correct wavefront after
interaction of light ray with the Optical device.

Solution:

Spherical wavefront Spherical wavefront

Illustration 3:
A plane wavefront of monochromatic light is incident on given optical device. Draw the
correct wavefront after interaction of light ray with the Optical device.
Solution:

Plane wavefront
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Wave Optics
Characteristics of Wavefront
• The phase difference between various particles on the wavefront is zero.
• These wavefronts travel with the speed of light in all directions in an isotropic medium.
• A point source of light always gives rise to a spherical wavefront in an isotropic medium.
• Normal to the wavefront represents a ray of light.
• It always travels in the forward direction in the medium.

• Law of reflection by Huygen’s wave Theory: sin i = sin r

• Law of refraction by Huygen’s wave Theory: 1 sini = 2 sinr

Coherent and Incoherent sources

(1) Coherent sources :-
• Two light sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves
of the same frequency and have a constant phase difference. They
are obtained from a single source.

(2) Incoherent sources :-

• Two sources are said to be incoherent if their phase difference changes
with time.
• Two independent monochromatic sources of same frequency are
incoherent because atoms cannot emit light waves in same phase and these
sources are said to be incoherent sources.
Methods of Obtaining Coherent Source
(1) Division of wavefront :-
• In this method, the wavefront is divided into two or more parts by reflection or refraction using
mirrors, lenses, prisms, or slits.

(2) Division of Amplitude :-

• The amplitude of the incoming beam is divided in two parts either by parallel reflection or
refraction. These divided parts reunite after traversing different paths and produce interference.

Thin Film

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Interference of Light
• When the waves emitting from the coherent sources propagating in same direction are superposed
over one another, then redistribution of energy takes place in the space and this phenomenon is
called as interference.
• It is based on energy conservation principle. Total energy of the waves remains constant, only
redistribution of energy takes place.

Wave (1)
Wave (2)

Resultant
wave

Mathematical Analysis: Let two waves having amplitude A1 and A2 and same frequency, and constant
phase difference ϕ superimpose. Let their displacements are:
y1 = A1 sin(t)
A1
y2 = A2 sin(t + )

 = ( t + ) − (t) =  A2
A2 A2sin
A res = A12 + A22 + 2A1A2 cos 

 A2 sin   A1 A2cos
Phase angle  = tan −1  
 A1 + A2 cos  

A2res = A12 + A22 + 2A1A2 cos 

we know that, I  A2

I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos 

2 I1 I2 cos is known as interference factor.

Constructive Interference Destructive Interference

∆x = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ … … nλ λ 3λ 5λ (2n − 1)λ

∆x = , , … …
n = 0, 1, 2, 3………. 2 2 2 2
n = 1, 2, 3……….

∆ϕ = 0,2π, 4π … … 2nπ ∆ϕ = π, 3π, 5π … … (2n − 1)π

Amax = √A21 + A22 + 2A1 A2 cos 0 Amin = √A21 + A22 + 2A1 A2 cos π
Amax = A1 + A2 Amin = A1 – A2

2 2
Imax = (√I1 + √I2 ) Imin = (√I1 − √I2 )
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Wave Optics
• Here intensity varies as the function of position.
• Existence of one wave is not affected due to presence or absence of another wave in the medium,
waves propagate independently in the medium.
:-
Constructive Interference Destructive Interference

Conditions for sustained interference

• The two sources should be coherent.
• The separation between two coherent sources should be small.
• The distance of the screen from the two sources should be large.
• For good contrast between maxima and minima, the amplitude of two interfering waves should be
as nearly equal as possible. The two sources should be

• Interference follows the law of conservation of energy.

I +I
• Average intensity of interference pattern = max min = I1 + I2
2
2 I1 w1 A12
• Intensity  width of slit  (amplitude)2  I  W  A  = =
I2 w 2 A22
2 2 2
Imax  I1 + I2   A1 + A2   A max 
• =  =  = 
Imin  I1 − I2   A1 − A2   A min 
Imax − Imin
• Fringe visibility V =  100% when Imin = 0 then fringe visibility is maximum. i.e. when
Imax + Imin
both slits are of equal width the fringe visibility is the best and equal to 100%.
• Intensity is proportional to width of slit.

Illustration 4:
Two waves having the intensities in the ratio of 16 : 9 produce interference. Find the ratio of maximum to
minimum intensity?
Solution:

( ) =( )
2 2
I1 16 I I1 + I2 16 + 9 49
= ; max = =
( I ) ( 9)
2 2
I2 9 Imin I1 − 16 − 1
2

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Illustration 5:
The ratio of maximum to minimum intensity when two waves interfere is equal to 16 : 9, find the ratio of
Amplitudes of superimposing waves.
Solution:
2
Imax 16  A max  16
=   =
Imin 9  A min  9
A max 4 A + A2 4
=  1 =
A min 3 A1 − A 2 3
A1 7
3A1 + 3A 2 = 4A1 − 4A 2  =
A2 1
Illustration 6:
Find resultant amplitude of two superimposing waves given by y1 = 6 sin(t), y2 = 8 cos(t)
Solution:
y1 = 6sin(t) and y2 = 8cos(t) = 8sin(t + 90)
8 10
 = (t + 90) − (t) = 90

ARes = 62 + 82 + 2(6)(8)cos(90) = 100 = 10

6

Illustration 7:
S1
Two coherent sources, each producing identical waves of intensity I0 and
4λ
wavelength  are at some distance from point P as shown. Find the intensity
of resultant wave at point P. P

Solution:
4.25 
 S2
x at point P = 4.25  – 4 = 0.25  =
4
2    x 
 = =  =
4 2  2  
   1
IRes = 4Io cos2   = 4Io  2  = 2Io
 2   

BEGINNER’S BOX-1
1. Consider interference between two sources of intensities I and 4I. Obtain intensity at a point

where phase difference is .
2
2. Two coherent sources whose intensity ratio is 81 : 1 produce interference fringes. Calculate the
ratio of intensity of maxima and minima in the fringe system.
3. Consider interference between two sources of intensity I and 4I. Find the resultant intensity.
where phase difference is :-

(a) (b)  (c) 4
4
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Wave Optics
Young’s Double Slit Experiment (Y.D.S.E.)
According to Huygens, light is a wave. It is proved experimentally by YDSE. In YDSE division of wavefront
takes place.

S1
S

S2

• At point O path difference and phase difference of the waves coming from the source via both the
slit is zero.
• The fringe formed at the point O is known as central maxima or central bright fringe.

At Point ‘P’
x = SS2P – SS1P = S2P – S1P
x = (S2M + MP) – S1P
y
x = S2M ( MP = S1P)
x = d sin
if angle θ is small then
x = d sin  d tan (for small angles)
dy  y
x = .......(1)  tan  = D 
D  

If bright fringe is formed at point P If dark fringe is formed at point P

x = n x =
(2n − 1) 
2

dy dy ( 2n − 1) 
= n , from equation = , from equation
D D 2

n D (2n − 1)D
y= y=
d 2d

Distance of nth maxima from central maxima Distance of nth minima from central maxima
n D (2n − 1)D
y max th = y min th =
n d n 2d
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YDSE Pattern on Screen
For maxima
Second Maxima (∆x = 2λ)

First Maxima 2λD

(∆x = λ) ymax =
2 d
1λD
ymax =
1 d
Central Maxima (∆x = 0)
1λD
ymax =
1 d
First Maxima (∆x = λ)
𝐧𝛌𝐃
𝐲𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐧𝐭𝐡 =
𝐝

For minima

Second Minima

First Minima

Central Maxima

First Minima

Fringe Width ()

Distance between two successive dark fringes or two successive bright fringes is known as fringe
width ().
Dark fringe width
Second Maxima

First Maxima

Central Maxima

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Wave Optics
Bright fringe width

Second Minima

First Minima

Central Maxima

First Minima

Angular Fringe Width ()

It is the angle subtended by linear fringe width at the centre of the plane of slit.

=
D
D
=
dD

=
d
Angular fringe width does not depend on the distance between plane of slit and screen.

Variation of intensity with phase difference

If slits are of equal width then intensity is also equal.
  
I = 4Io cos2  
 2 
Illustration 8:
In YDSE two narrow slits are 1 mm apart are illuminated by a source of light of wavelength 500 nm. How
far apart adjacent bright bands in the interference pattern observed on a screen 2 m away and also find
distance of third bright fringe from center of screen?
Solution:
D 5  10−7  2 3D
= = −3
= 10−3 m = 1mm  y max3 = = 3 = 3 mm
d 10 d
Illustration 9:
In the above question find the distance of third dark fringe from central maxima and also find distance
between 4th dark and 6th bright fringe on same side of central maxima?
Solution:

y min3 =
(2(3) − 1) D = 5D = 5  5 10−7  2 = 2.5 mm
2d 2d 2 10−3
6D 7D 7
D = y max6 − y min4 = − = 6 −  = 2.5  = 2.5 mm
d 2d 2
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Illustration 10:
YDSE is performed twice, firstly with the wavelength 300 nm and secondly with wavelength 500 nm.
(i) Find minimum order of maxima of 1st experiment that coincide with maxima of another experiment.
(ii) Distance between consecutive overlapping region of maxima? (D = 1 m, d = 2 mm)
Solution:
(i) y max th = y max
n mth

n1D m2D
=
d d
n × 300 × 10–10 = m × 500 × 10–10
n 5
=
m 3
5th maxima of 1st experiment coincide with 3rd maxima of 2nd experiment.
(ii) ynth = ymth
nD 5(3 10−7 ) 1
 y nth = = = 7.5 × 10–4 m
d 2 10−3
Illustration 11:
In a Young's double slit experiment, light has a frequency of 6 × 1014 Hz. The distance between the centre
of adjacent bright fringes is 1 mm. If the screen is 2 m away then find the distance between the slits?
Solution:
v = f   3 × 108 = 6 × 1014 ×    = 0.5 × 10–6m
D 0.5  10−6  2
=  1  10−3 =  d = 10−3 m = 1 mm
d d
Illustration 12:
The distance between the coherent source is 0.3 mm and the screen is 90 cm from the sources. The second
dark band is 0.3 cm away from central bright fringe. Find the wavelength and the distance of the fourth
bright fringe from central bright fringe?
Solution:
As y min2 = 0.3  10−2 m

3D 3    90  10−2 6  10−7

= 0.3  10−2  = 3  10−3
  = = 666 nm
2d 2  3  10−4 90  10−2
Illustration 13:
In Young's double slit experiment, wavelength of light is 6000 Å. Then the phase difference between the
light waves reaching the seventh bright fringe from the central fringe will be :
Solution:
x
Phase difference, x = 7  So, path difference  =  2 = 14

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Illustration 14:
In Y.D.S.E. the fringe width is 0.2 mm. If the wavelength of light is increased by 10% and separation between
the slits is increased by 10 % then fringe width will be?
Solution:
D 10 10
= = 0.2 mm &  new =  +  = 1.1  & dnew = d + d = 1.1 d
d 100 100
 D 1.1 D D
new = new = = = 0.2 mm
dnew 1.1 d d
Illustration 15:
A YDSE produces interference fringe for sodium light of wavelength 5890 A° that are 0.40° a part. What is the
angular fringe separation if the entire arrangement is immersed in water (μ = 4/3)
Solution:
 0.40
new = = = 0.30
 4
3
Illustration 16:
In YDSE the intensity of light at a point on the screen where the path difference is λ is K (λ being the
wavelength of light used). Find intensity at a point where the path difference is λ/4.
Solution:
When path difference (x) =  then constructive interference takes place (Imax = K)
    2 
Ires = Imax cos2   ; When x = ,  = =
 2  4 4 2

   K
Ires = K cos2  2  = K cos2   =
 2  4 2
 
Variations in YDSE
• When a wave travels through a distance x in a medium of refractive index  then it suffers the
same phase change as it travels a distance x in vacuum. The quantity x is called the optical
path of the light.
• Consider a wave travelling in a medium of refractive index  then time taken by wave to cover
x distance is calculated as-
x
t=
v
x  c
t=  v= 
c  
Optical Path
• Distance covered by the wave in same time t in vacuum is calculated as,
d=c×t
µx
d=c×
c
d = μx
• This distance d is the optical path length of light.
• Here we considered the same time interval so that the wave in medium and vacuum suffer the same
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Note: (1) In other words, a path length of ∆x in a medium of refractive index μ is equivalent to a path
length of μ∆x in vacuum.

(2) Number of waves remain same in both the medium and vacuum only wavelength changes.
(3) Optical path lengths of all paths between an object point and its image are exactly equal.
Effect of white light in YDSE

[Minima of red & maxima of blue Blue appearance]

White S1 [Minima of blue Reddish appearance]

light

P
White light
S2

• The interference patterns due to different component colours of white light overlap (incoherently). The
central bright fringes for different colour are at the same position. Therefore, the central fringe is
white.
• For a point P for which S2P – S1P = b/2. Where b ( 4000 Å) represents the wavelength for the
blue colour, the blue component will be absent and the fringe will appear red in colour.
• Slightly farther away where S2Q – S1Q = b = r/2 where r ( 8000 Å) is the wavelength for the red
colour, the fringe will be predominantly blue because red component will be absent.
• Thus, the fringe closest on either side of the central white fringe is red and the farthest will appear
blue. After a few fringes, no clear fringe pattern is seen.
Illustration 17:
White light is used in YDSE, D >>d, then find the missing wavelengths in front of any slit on screen?
Solution:
dy  d
x = y = 2
D   P
d2
x =
2D
white
Missing wavelength means minima
 d2
(2n − 1) =
2 2D
d2
=
(2n − 1)D
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d2
For, n = 1; =
D

d2
n = 2; =
3D

d2
n = 3; = and so on……….
5D
Illustration 18:
1
White light is used in YDSE, where D = m, d = 1 mm. Find the missing wavelengths of visible region in
3
front of the slits on screen?
Solution:

dy d  d  d2
x = = =
D D  2  2D

 d2 d2
(2n − 1) =   =
2 2D (2n − 1)D
On putting values, we get.

(10 )
2
−3
3  10−6 3000
= = = nm
(2n − 1)
1 (2n − 1) (2n − 1)
3
3000
When n = 1, = = 3000 nm (Not in range)
1
3000
When n = 2, = = 1000nm ( Not in range )
(3)
3000
When n = 3, = = 600nm ( possible )
5
3000
When n = 4, = = 428nm ( possible )
7
Thus, 428 nm and 600 nm are the missing wavelengths, because visible region have 400-700 nm range.

• Central Fringe is white.

• The fringe closest on either side of the central white fringe is red and the farthest will appear blue.
• After a few fringes, no clear fringe pattern is seen.
• Fringe width of each colour is different because of different wavelength.

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BEGINNER’S BOX-2
1. In Young's double slit experiment, the slits are 2mm apart and are illuminated with a mixture
of two wavelength,  = 7500 Å and ' = 9000 Å. At what minimum distance from the common
central bright fringe on a screen 2 m from the slits will a bright fringe from one interference
pattern coincide with a bright fringe from the other ?
2. In a Young's double slit experiment the angular width of fringe formed on a distant screen is
0·1 radian. Find the distance between the two slits if wavelength of light used is 6000Å.
3. Two slits in Youngs experiment are 0·02 cm apart. The interference fringes for light of
wavelength 6000Å are formed on a screen 80cm away. Calculate the distance of the fifth bright
fringe.
4. In Young's double slit experiment, two slits are separated by 3mm distance and illuminated by
light of wavelength 480 nm. The screen is at 2m from the plane of the slits. Calculate the
separation between the 8th bright fringe and the 3rd dark fringe obtained with respect to central
Bright fringe.
5. In a double slit experiment with monochromatic light, fringes are obtained on a screen placed
at some distance from slits. If the screen is moved by 5 × 10–2 m towards the slits, the change in
fringe width is 3× 10–5 m. If the distance between slits is 10–3 m. Calculate the wavelength of light
used.
6. In young's experiment for interference of light the slits 0.2 cm apart are illuminated by yellow
light ( = 5896 Å). What would be the fringe width on a screen placed 1m from the plane of slits.
What will be the fringe width if the system is immersed in water. (µw = 4/3) ?
7. The distance between the coherent source is 0.3 mm and the screen is 90 cm from the sources.
The second dark band is 0.3 cm away from central bright fringe. Find the wavelength and the
distance of the fourth bright fringe from central bright fringe.
8. State two conditions to obtain sustained interference of light. In Young's double slit experiment,
using light of wavelength 400 nm, interference fringes of width 'X' are obtained. The wavelength
of light is increased to 600 nm and the separation between the slits is halved. If one wants the
observed fringe width on the screen to be the same in the two cases, find the ratio of the distance
between the screen and the plane of the slits in the two arrangements.
9. In a Young's double slit experiment, light has a frequency of 6 × 10 14 Hz. The distance between
the centres of adjacent bright fringes is 0.75 mm. If the screen is 1.5 m away then find the
distance between the slits.
10. In a Young's experiment, the width of the fringes obtained with light of wavelength 6000 Å is
2.0 mm. What will be the fringe width, if the entire apparatus is immersed in a liquid of refractive
index 1.33 ?
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Wave Optics
Thin Film in Front of a Slit in YDSE
• Central maxima is not at the center of the screen.
• Path difference at center of the screen is (μ − 1)t if a
thin film is introduced in front of any of the slit.
• Fringe width doesn’t get affected due to the
introduction of the thin film in front of slit.
• Central maxima is shifted on the same side where
thin film is placed.
Path difference at point P,
∆x = S2P – S1 Peff
∆x = S2P – (S1P – t + μt)
∆x = S2P – S1P – (μ – 1) t
∆x = dsinθ – (μ – 1) t
• If angle is small, then
∆x = dtanθ − (μ − 1)t
dy
x = − (  − 1) t
D
• If Maxima is formed at P,
dy
n = − (  − 1) t
D
• If Minima is formed at P,
(2n − 1)  = dy −  − 1 t
( )
2 D
• If central maxima is formed at P then ∆x = 0
dy dy
0= − (  − 1) t  = (  − 1) t
D D

y=
(  − 1) tD = y
cm
d
• When central maxima shifts its position from center then all the fringes also get shifted in that direction
and by the same value.
y
• The number of fringes crossing the center line (n)= cm

(µ − 1)tD (µ − 1)tD (µ − 1)t
n= = =
d d D 
d
When thin film is placed in front of both the slit
• If thin film is placed in front of both the slit then central maxima is shifted to that side where the
value of (μ − 1)t is more or path difference due to slab is more.
• For CBF to shift upwards, (μ1 − 1)t1 > (μ2 − 1)t 2
• For CBF to shift downwards,
• (μ1 − 1)t1 < (μ2 − 1)t 2
• For no shift in CBF
(μ1 − 1)t1 = (μ2 − 1)t 2

y cm =
((2 − 1) t 2 − (1 − 1) t 1 ) D
d

n=
( (  2 − 1 ) t 2 − ( 1 − 1 ) t 1 )
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Illustration 19:
In YDSE, λ = 6000 Å, D = 2 m, d = 6 mm. When a film of refractive index 1.5 is introduced in front of the
lower slit, the fourth maxima shifts to the origin. Find thickness of the film.
Solution:

y=
(  − 1) tD  4 = (1.5 − 1) tD  4D = 0.5tD  4  6  10−7 = 0.5 t  t = 4.8 m
d d d d
Illustration 20:
In Y.D.S.E,  = 400 nm is used when a thin film of refractive index 1.5 and thickness 4 m is placed in front
of upper slit, find the number of maxima that crossed the centre line?
Solution:

n=
(  − 1) t = (1.5 − 1)  4  10−6 = 5
 4  10−7 Rarer
Note:
• Whenever a wave is reflected from a denser medium, an extra
phase difference of π or path difference of λ/2 is introduced.
Denser

• Whenever a wave is reflected from a rarer medium, no extra phase Rarer

difference or path difference is introduced.
Denser
Path difference in Thin Film Interference
𝜆
Reflected system (x = 2µtcosr – )
2
Rarer 1 M M
3
i
A
C

t
Denser
µ
D
B
Rarer
2 S 4 S

Transmitted system (x = 2µtcosr)

System Maxima Minima

λ λ (2n−1)λ
Reflected 2μt cosr – 2 = nλ 2μt cosr – 2 = 2

(2n−1)λ
Transmitted 2μt cosr = nλ 2μt cosr = 2

For thin film interference to be observable, thickness of film must be in order of wavelength of light (≈ 10−7 m).
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Wave Optics
Note: For the reflected system if thickness of the thin film tends to zero then thin film appears dark.
λ
Δx = 2µt cosr –
2

| x|= (When, t  0)
2
This condition represents destructive interference therefore dark fringes are formed.
Illustration 21:
Light of wavelength 6000 Å is incident on a thin glass plate of refractive index 1.5 such that angle of
refraction into the plate is 60°. Calculate the smallest thickness of plate which will make it appear dark by
reflection.
Solution:
 
2t cosr − = (2n − 1)
2 2
2t cosr = n  2  1.5 t cos60 = 1  6  10−7  t = 4  10−7 = 0.4 m
Shape of fringe in YDSE

Shape of fringe
is Hyperbolic

• Optical path length of light, d = x.

• A path length of ∆x in a medium of refractive index μ is equivalent to a path length of μ∆x in vacuum.
• When thin film is placed in front of a slit in YDSE,
(i) Fringe width doesn’t get affected due to the introduction of the thin film in front of slit.
(ii) Central maxima is shifted on the same side where thin film is placed.

(iii) Shift of central maxima (C.M.) = y =

(  − 1) tD = y
cm
d

(iv) Number of fringes crossing centre line = n =

(  − 1) t

• If thin film is placed in front of both the slits then central maxima is shifted to that side where the
value of (μ − 1)t is more or path difference due to slab is more.
• Strongly reflected means maxima is formed by reflected system.
• Strongly transmitted means maxima is formed by transmitted system.

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BEGINNER’S BOX-3
1. On placing a thin sheet of mica of thickness 12 × 10–7 m in the path of one of interfering beams
in a Young's experiment, it is found that the central bright band shifts a distance equal to the
width of a bright fringe. If the wavelength of light used is 6 × 10–7 m. then find refractive index
of mica.
2. A central fringe of the interference produced by light of wavelength 6000Å is shifted to the
position of 5th bright fringes by introducing a thin glass plate of refractive index 1.5. Calculate
the thickness of the plate.
4
3. White light is incident on a soap film of refractive index
at an angle of refraction 30°. The
3
reflected light is observed to have a dark band for wavelength 6 × 10–5 cm. Calculate the
minimum thickness of the film.
4
4. A soap solution film of  = is illuminated by white light incident with angle of refraction is
3
60°. In reflected light, dark band was found corresponding to wavelength 5500 Å. Calculate the
minimum thickness of the film.

Diffraction
Single slit Diffraction
• Bending of light rays from sharp edges of an opaque obstacle or aperture and its spreading in the
geometrical shadow region is defined as diffraction of light or deviation of light from its rectilinear
propagation tendency is defined as diffraction of light.
• The phenomenon of diffraction of light was discovered by Grimaldi.

Diffraction depends on two factors:

(i) Size of Obstacle/aperture,

(ii) Wavelength of wave,

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Wave Optics
Conditions of Diffraction
• Size of obstacle or aperture should be nearly equal (Comparable) to the wavelength.
• If size of obstacle/aperture is much larger than wavelength, then diffraction is not observable.
(It is practically observed when size of aperture or obstacle is greater than 50λ. The obstacle or
aperture does not show diffraction.)
Note: (1) Wavelength of light is of the order 10−7 m. In general obstacle of this wavelength is not
present so light rays does not show diffraction and it appears to travel in straight line.
(2) Sound wave shows more diffraction as compared to light rays because wavelength of sound
is large (16 mm to 16m). So, it is generally diffracted by the objects of our daily life.
Types of Diffraction
Fresnel diffraction: In Fresnel diffraction both source and screen are near from the diffraction device.
Fraunhofer diffraction: In Fraunhofer diffraction both source and screen are effectively at infinite
distance from the diffracting device.

Plane Wavefront

Path difference at any point on screen due to Fraunhofer diffraction

Path difference, x = asin

x
y
a

1st secondary Minima 1st secondary minima

 = 2 y
x = 
a
asin = 

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2nd secondary Minima
2nd secondary minima
 = 4
y
x = 2
a
a sin = 2

D
𝐧 secondary Minima
𝐭𝐡

∆ϕ = 2nπ nth secondary minima

a sinθ = nλ
y
If angle is small then,
a tanθ = nλ
a
y
a = n
D
n D D
y=
a
1st secondary Maxima
1st secondary maxima
∆ϕ = 3π y
3
x =  a
2
3
a sin  = 
2 D
2 secondary Maxima
nd

2nd secondary maxima

∆ϕ = 5π
5 y
x = 
2
5 a
a sin  = 
2

D
nth secondary Maxima
Δϕ = (2n + 1)π

x =
(2n + 1)  nth secondary maxima
2
y
asin  =
(2n + 1) 
2
a
If angle is small then,

a tan  =
(2n + 1) 
2 D
y ( 2n + 1)  (2n + 1) D
a = y =
D 2 2a
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Wave Optics
Central Bright Fringe (CBF)
• It is the region between first minima on both the sides of centre of screen.
• Linear width of CBF = 2y
2D
• Linear width of CBF =
a
• Angular width of CBF = 2 y


• Angular width of CBF = 2sin −1   a
a y

• For small angle,

2
Angular width of CBF = D
a

• Condition of diffraction: It occurs when size of obstacle or aperture should be nearly equal
(Comparable) to the wavelength.
n D
• For nth secondary minima; asin θ = nλ  y =
a
(2n + 1) (2n + 1)D
• For nth secondary maxima; a sin  =  y=
2 2a
• For Central Bright Fringe,
2D 
Linear width of CBF = ; Angular width of CBF = 2sin −1  
a a

Illustration 22:
Light of wavelength 6000 Å is incident normally on a slit of width 0.3 mm. Calculate the distance of 1 st
minimum on a screen placed at a distance 8 m?
Solution:

nD (1)(6000  10−10 ) 8

y min1 = = = 16 × 10–3 m
a 0.3  10−3
Illustration 23:
If slit width is 2 and distance of screen is D. What is
(i) Angular position of first minimum? (ii) Linear position of first minimum?
Solution:
1
(i) asin = n  2 sin =   2sin = 1  sin  =   = 30°
2
nD (1)D D
(ii) y = = =
a 2 2
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Illustration 24:
Red light of wavelength 6000Å from a distant source falls on a slit 0.75 mm wide. What is the distance
between the first two dark bands on each side of the central bright of the diffraction pattern observed on
a screen placed 1.5 m from the slit?
Solution:
Distance between the first two dark bands is width of Central Bright Fringe
2D 2  6000  10−10  1.5
= = −3
= 2.4  10−3 m
a 0.75  10
Illustration 25:
Light of wavelength 3000 Å is incident normally on a slit of width 15 × 10–5 cm. Find out the angular width
of first secondary maxima.
Solution:

a sin  = (2n + 1)
2
3000  10−10 1
 (15  10−7 )sin  = (2  1 + 1)  sin  =   = 30
2 2
Illustration 26:
A linear aperture whose width is 0.04 cm is placed immediately in front of a lens of focal length 30 cm. The
aperture is illuminated normally by a parallel beam of wavelength 10 × 10–5 cm. The distance of first dark
band of diffraction pattern from the center of screen is:-
Solution:
nD 1D 1  10  10−7  30  10−2 = 75  10−5
y min1 = = = m = 0.075 cm
a a 4  10−4
Double Slit Diffraction
• In the double-slit experiment, we must note Intensity
that the pattern on the screen is actually a
superposition of single-slit diffraction from
each slit or hole, and the double-slit
interference pattern.
• It shows a broader diffraction peak in which
there appear several fringes of smaller width
due to double-slit interference.
• The number of interference fringes occurring Intensity
in the broad diffraction peak depends on the
ratio d/a, that is the ratio of the distance
between the two slits to the width of a slit.
• In the limit of a becoming very small, the
diffraction pattern will become very flat and we
will observe the two-slit interference pattern
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Wave Optics
Illustration 27:
In a double slit experiment, the two slits are 2 mm apart and the screen is placed 1 m away. What should be
the width of each slit for obtaining 8 maxima of double slit within the central maxima of single slit pattern for
same distance of screen. A monochromatic light of wavelength 500 nm is used to illuminate the slits.
Solution:
8 = width of CBF
8D 2D 2 2
=  a=  a = 0.5 mm
d a 8
Intensity Distribution Curve in Diffraction:
• Intensity of CBF = o
Io
• Intensity of 1st maxima   4% of Io
22
I
• Intensity of 2nd maxima  o  1.6% of Io
61
Fresnel distance (Validity of Ray Optics)
It is a distance up to which ray optics is a good approximation.
OR
It is the minimum distance a beam of light can
travel before its deviation from straight line
path becomes significant/noticeable.
2D θ
= 2a a
2a
a θ
2Zf 
= 2a
a
a2
Zf = [Zf = Fresnel distance]
 D = Zf

Note: (1) Up to the Fresnel distance diffraction is not observable, ray optics is valid there.
(2) After Fresnel distance spreading due to diffraction dominates over that due to ray optics.
Illustration 28:
For what distance is ray optics a good approximation when the aperture is 3 mm wide and the wavelength
is 500 nm?
Solution:
−6
a2 9  10
Zf = = =18m; Up to 18m Ray optics is valid.
 5  10−7

a2
• Zf = [Zf = Fresnel distance]

• Up to the Fresnel distance diffraction is not observable, ray optics is valid there.
• After Fresnel distance spreading due to diffraction dominates over that due to ray optics.
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BEGINNER’S BOX-4
1. A slit of width 0·15 cm is illuminated by light of wavelength 5 × 10–5 cm and a diffraction pattern
is obtained on a screen 2·1m away. Calculate the width of central maxima.
2. The light of wavelength 600nm is incident normally on a slit of width 3mm. Calculate the angular
width of central maximum on a screen kept 3m away from the slit.
3. Red light of wavelength 6500Å from a distant source falls on a slit 0.50 mm wide. What is the
distance between the first two dark bands on each side of the central bright of the diffraction
pattern observed on a screen placed 1.8 m from the slit.
4. In a single slit diffraction experiment first minimum for 1 = 660 nm coincides with first maxima
for wavelength 2. Calculate 2.

Diffraction Through Circular Slit, Concept of Airy Disc

• The diffraction pattern of circular disc shaped
alternate dark & bright fringes with a central bright
spot, formed when light passes through a small
circular aperture.
• This circular spot formed at the center known as Airy disc.
• The concentric rings will get fainter as it moves from a
the central spot.

• The first minima is given by, sin = 1.22
a
 D
for small angle,  = 1.22  r = 1.22 D
a a
Rayleigh's Criterion for Resolution
• When a point source of light is imaged by an optical system with a circular aperture, the image is
an Airy disc.
• If two points are very close, their Airy discs will overlap and we may not be able to resolve them
i.e. distinguish separate images.

Unresolved Just resolved Resolved

• Two points are just resolved by an optical system when the central maximum of the diffraction
pattern due to one fall on the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other.

Unresolved Min of one and Max of Clearly Resolved

other at same place
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Wave Optics
Resolution Limit (R.L.)
• The minimum distance between two-point objects at which they are just resolved is called
resolving limit (R.L.).
• Smallest angular separations (dθ) between two distant objects, whose images are separated is
called resolving limit (R.L.).

Resolving power-Human eye, Microscopes and Telescopes

Resolving Power (R.P.)
• Resolving power of an optical instrument is its ability to distinguish two neighboring points.
• Resolving power is inversely proportional to resolving limit.
1
Resolving power (R.P.) =
Resolving lim it (R.L.)
Resolving limit of Microscope
Objective
lens

𝑎
I2 2
O1
𝛼
𝑑 θ
I1 𝑢
O2
𝑢

a
1.22 a a
= ; tan  = 2 = & For small angle  sin  =
 u 2u 2u
d 1.22
= ...(i)
u 

2sin  = ...(ii)
u
From (i) and (ii)
1.22
d=
2sin 
If the medium between the object and the objective lens is not air but a medium of refractive index ,
1.22
d= ( sinα = numerical aperture)
2 sin 
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Resolving limit of Telescope Objective lens
• Smallest angular separations (d) between two
distant objects, whose images are separated is
O1 I2
called resolving limit (RL). θ
O2
1.22 dθ I1
d = (a = aperture of lens)

Illustration 29:
The Hale telescope of Mount Palomar has a diameter of 6 m. What is its limiting angle of resolution for
600 nm light.
Solution:
1.22 1.22 6  10−7
d = = = 1.22 10−7 rad
a 6
Illustration 30:
Find limit of resolution of a microscope if an object of numerical aperture 0.12 is viewed by using light of
wavelength 4800 Å.
Solution:
1.22 1.22 4.8  10−7
d= = = 24.4 × 10–7 m = 2.44 m
2 sin  2 0.12
Illustration 31:
Find ratio of resolving powers of an optical microscope for two wavelengths 1 = 4800 Å & 2 = 6000 Å?
Solution:
1 RP1  2 RP 6000 5
R.P.   =  1= =
 RP2  1 RP2 4800 4

1.22 2 sin 
• For Microscope  R.L. = ; R.P. =
2 sin  1.22
1.22 
• For Telescope  R.L. = ; R.P. =
 1.22
1 RP 
• R.P.   2 1
 RP1  2

 1 
• Limit of resolution of eye is 1' i.e.   .
 60 
• Violet light gives better resolving power than any other visible colour.

BEGINNER’S BOX-5
1. Calculate the resolving power of a telescope, assuming the diameter of the objective lens to be
6 cm and the wavelength of light used to be 540 nm.
2. Calculate the limit of resolution of a microscope if an object of numerical aperture 0.12 is viewed
by using light of wavelength 6 × 10–7 m.
3. Assuming human pupil to have diameter 0.25 cm and a comfortable viewing distance of 25 cm.
Minimum separation between two lines that human eye can resolve at 500 nm wave length.
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Wave Optics
Polarisation of Light Wave
The phenomenon of restricting the vibration of light (electric vector) in a particular direction
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave is called polarisation of light.
• Experiments like YDSE and Diffraction tell us that light is a wave.
• Polarisation confirms the transverse nature of wave.
• Longitudinal waves (Ultrasonic wave, sonic wave, infrasonic wave etc.) cannot be polarised.
Unpolarised light
• A beam of unpolarised light consists of waves moving in the same direction with their electric
vectors pointed in random orientations about the axis of propagation.

Direction of Propagation

Direction of Vibration of electric vector

Direction of Propagation

Direction of Vibration of electric vector

• The atoms on the surface of a heated filaments, which generate light, act independently on one
another. Each of their emissions can be approximately modeled as a short-wave train lasting from
about 10–9 to 10–8 sec. The electromagnetic wave emanating from the filament is a superposition
of these wave trains, each having its own polarisation direction. The sum of the randomly oriented
wave trains results in unpolarised light.

𝐜Ԧ

Polarised light
• Plane polarised light consists of waves in which the direction of vibration is the same for all waves.

Direction of Propagation

Direction of Vibration of electric vector

Direction of Propagation
Direction of Vibration of electric vector

Polariser
Polariser is any device or crystal that can convert an unpolarised light into
Polarised light.
e.g. : Tourmaline crystal , Nicol Prism etc.
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Analyser
Analyser is a device which is used to determine whether the light is Plane
polarised or not.
Analyser and Polariser are made up of same material only placement position
is different.
Optic axis/Transmission axis
• The axis along which light gets polarised after passing through a polariser.

Polariser Analyser
Vertical Optic Axis Horizontal Optic Axis

Plane Polarised Light

⃗Ԧ vibrates/oscillates is known as plane of vibration.
Plane of Vibration: Plane in which E
Plane of Polarisation: Plane which is perpendicular to plane of vibration.

Plane of Vibration

Unpolarised Polariser Plane of

Light Polarisation

Methods of Obtaining Plane Polarised light

➢ Polarisation by Dichroism/Selective absorption.
➢ Polarisation by Reflection.
➢ Polarisation by Refraction.
➢ Polarisation by Scattering.
➢ Polarisation by Double Refraction.
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Wave Optics
Polarisation by Dichroism/Selective absorption
• Some crystals such as tourmaline and sheets of iodosulphate of quinone have the property of
strongly absorbing the light with vibrations perpendicular of a specific direction (called
transmission axis) and transmitting the light with vibration parallel to it. This selective absorption
of light is called dichroism.
•

• So, if unpolarised light passes through proper thickness of these crystals, the transmitted light will
plane polarised with vibrations parallel to transmission axis.

• Polarisation confirms the transverse nature of wave.

• Longitudinal waves (Ultrasonic wave, sonic wave, infrasonic wave etc.) cannot be polarised.
• Plane of polarisation is perpendicular to plane of vibration.

Malus' Law
When Plane Polarised Light (PPL) of intensity Io passes through a polaroid such that angle between Axis
of vibration of PPL and Optic Axis of Polaroid is θ, then Intensity of Emergent Light after passing through
Polaroid becomes, I = Io cos 2 θ
Reasons:
• A Polarised light has E confined to one axis. When it passes through a polaroid.
• Component of E perpendicular to Optic Axis (E sin) is absorbed by the polaroid.
• Only component of E along Optic Axis (E cos) passes through the polaroid.
Eo
Now, I  A2 Eo sinθ
Eo cosθ Eo cosθ
2
I  Eo cos  
= 
Io  Eo 

 = o cos2
Illustration 32:
Find the output intensity of light if angle between analyser and Polariser is 90°.

Io

Solution:
Ioutput = 0 because angle between analyser and Polariser is 90°.
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Illustration 33:
Find output intensity if angle between analyser and Polariser is 30°.

I0

I'

Ioutput
Solution:
I
I' = (When unpolarised light get Polarised then intensity reduced to half)
2
I 3I
Ioutput = I' cos2  = cos (30 ) =
2
2 8
Illustration 34:
Two Polaroids P1 and P2 are placed with their axis perpendicular to each other. Unpolarised light I 0 is
incident on P1. A third polaroid P3 is kept in between P1 and P2 such that its axis makes an angle 45° with
that of P1. Find the intensity of transmitted light through P2 ?
Solution:
P1 P3 P2

output
’
o
2
I I  1  Io
I' = 0 and I'' = I'cos2 45 = o   =
2 2  2 4
I 2 I
Ioutput = I''cos2 45 = o cos (45) = 0
4 8
When analyser is rotated by 360° in front of polariser
Polariser Analyser

 = 0°

 = 90°

 = 180°

 = 270°
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Wave Optics
Observations
• After passing through polariser, intensity of light becomes half.
• Final intensity is maximum two times.
• Final intensity becomes zero two times.
Illustration 35:
Plane Polarised light passes through a Polaroid. On viewing through the polaroid, we find that when
Polaroid is given one complete rotation about the direction of light, one of the following is observed.
(1) The intensity of light gradually decreases to zero and remains at zero
(2) The intensity of light gradually increases to a maximum and remains at maximum
(3) There is no change in intensity
(4) The intensity of light is twice maximum and twice zero
Solution:
The Intensity of light coming out of a polaroid is given by, I = Io cos2 

In one complete rotation; the angle between polaroid and plane polaroid light will be zero twice and /2 twice.
The Intensity of light varies such that, it is twice maximum and twice zero. Thus, option D is correct.

• Malus law; I = Io cos 2 θ

• When analyser is rotated by 360° in front of Polariser,
Final intensity is maximum two times, Final intensity becomes zero two times.

Brewster's Law
Polarisation by Reflection: When unpolarised light is
incident on the interface of two medium such that reflected
and refracted ray are mutually perpendicular to each other p
µ1
than reflected ray is perfectly polarised normal to plane of
90°
incidence and refracted ray in the same plane is partially
polarised.
µ2
By Snell’s Law, μ1 × sin θP = μ2 × sin r
μ1 × sin θP = μ2 × sin(90° − θP )
μ1 × sin θP = μ2 × cos(θP ) P + 90° + r = 180°
sin P  2 r = 90° – P
=
cos P 1

2
tan P =
1
( P = Polarising angle (Brewster's angle ) )

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Note:
(1) If incident light medium is denser than the other considered medium (μ1 > μ2 ) then θ < 45°.
(2) If incident light medium is rarer than the other considered medium (μ1 < μ2 ) then θ > 45°.
(3) If incident light medium is air (μ1 = 1) then tanθp = μ.
(4) If it is mentioned that light is incident at polarising angle or tanθp = μ , then consider that reflected
ray is completely polarised.
(5) If it is mentioned that reflected and refracted ray are perpendicular to each other then consider
reflected ray is completely polarised.
(6) If above 2 points are not mentioned, and nothing is written about polarisation then consider
reflected and refracted ray both as partially polarised
Illustration 36:
For a given medium, the polarising angle is 53°. What will be the critical angle for this medium?
Solution:
4
 = tan 53°   =
3
1 3
sin C =  C = sin −1  
 4
Other methods of polarisation
1. Polarisation by Refraction
• According to Brewster's law, the reflected light will be plane polarised with vibrations
perpendicular to the plane of incidence and the transmitted light will be partially polarised. Since
in one reflection about 15% of the light with vibration perpendicular to plane of paper is reflected
therefore after passing through a number of plates emerging light will become plane polarised with
vibrations in the plane of paper.

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Wave Optics
Vibration
perpendicular
to the plane

Vibration in the plane

2. Polarisation by Scattering
• When light scatters on small particles such as dust, air
molecules, it gets absorbed by electrons in the atoms and
re-radiated in all directions.

• Light scattered in a plane at right angle to the incident

light is always plane polarised.

3. Polarisation by Double Refraction

• It was found that in certain crystals such
as calcite, quartz and tourmaline, etc., O-Ray
incident unpolarised light splits into two
light beams of equal intensities with E-Ray
perpendicular polarisations.
• One of the rays behaves as ordinary light (obeys law of refraction) is called O-ray (ordinary ray)
while the other which does not obey laws of refraction is called E-ray (extra-ordinary ray).
• When an object is seen through these crystals is rotated, one image (due to E-ray) rotates around
the other (due to O-ray).

BEGINNER’S BOX-6
1. Refractive index of water is 1.33. Calculate the angle of polarisation for light reflected from the
surface of a lake. (tan–1 1.33 = 53°.4')
2. A ray of light strikes a glass plate at an angle of 60°. If the reflected and the refracted rays are
perpendicular to each other, find the index of refraction of glass.
3. A parallel beam of light is incident at an angle of 60° on a plane glass surface and the reflected
beam is completely polarised.
(a) What is the angle of refraction in glass? (b) What is the refraction index of glass?
4. Light reflected from the surface of a glass plate of refractive index 1.732 is linearly polarised.
Calculate the angle of refraction in glass.
5. Critical angle for a certain wavelength of light in case of glass is 40°. Find the polarising angle
2
and angle of refraction in glass corresponding to this. (sin 40° = )
3
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Doppler Effect of Light
• Doppler's effect holds also for EM waves. As speed of light is independent of relative motion between
source and observer, the formulae are different from that of sound. Here when either source or
observer (detector) or both are in motion, only two cases are possible (approach or recession).
• Doppler's effect of light is symmetrical (unlike sound). It means the observer moving towards the
source at a particular speed will produce the same frequency change as the source moving towards
the observer at the same speed.

Case-I Doppler effect of light in case of approach

v = relative speed of source with respect to the observer.

Frequency Wavelength
1 1
v 2 v 2
1+c 1−c
′ ′
f = f( v) λ = λ( v)
1− 1+
c c
If velocity v is very much smaller then c
Frequency Wavelength
v v
f ′ ≈ f (1 + ) λ′ = λ (1 − )
c c
vf λv
f′ = f + λ′ = λ −
c c
vf λv
f′ − f = λ′ − λ = −
c c
vf Δf v Δλ v
Δf = ⇒ = =−
c f c λ c
∆f = Shift in frequency ∆λ = Shift in wavelength Blue Shift

Case-II Doppler effect of light in case of Recession

v = relative speed of source with respect to the observer.

Frequency Wavelength
1 1
v 2 v 2
1− 1+
f′ = f ( c λ′ = λ ( c
v) v)
1+ 1−
c c

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Wave Optics

Frequency Wavelength
v ∆f −v v ∆λ v
f ′ ≈ f (1 − ) ⇒ = λ′ = λ (1 + ) ⇒ =
c f c c λ c
∆f = Shift in frequency ∆λ = Shift in wavelength Red Shift
Illustration 37:
An observer is moving with one fourth the speed of light towards a stationary microwave source emitting
wave at frequency 10GHz. What is the frequency of the microwave measured by the observer?
Solution:
1
1  c 2
 v 2  4
 1+ c  1+ 
c  GHz = 10 5GHz
f'=f  , f ' = 10 
v
 1 −   c  3
 c  4 
 1− 
 c 
Illustration 38:
The velocity of star is 105 m/s and frequency of emitted light is 6 × 1014 Hz. If star is moving towards the
observer, then find shift in frequency?
Solution:
f v v 105
=  f =  f =  6  1014 = 2  1011 Hz
f c c 3 10 8

Illustration 39:
The velocity of star is 106 m/s and frequency of emitted light is 4.5 × 1014 Hz. If star is moving away, then
apparent frequency will be,
Solution:
 v  106   1 
f ' = f 1 −  = f 1 − 8
= f  1 −   4.485  10
14

 c  3  10   300 

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BEGINNER’S BOX ANSWERS KEY

BEGINNER'S BOX-1

25
1. 5I 2. 3. (a) 7.8I, (b) I (c) 9I
16
BEGINNER'S BOX-2

1. 4.5 mm 2. 6m 3. 1·2 cm 4. 1.76 × 10–3 m

5. 6 × 10–7 m 6. 0.2948 mm, 0.2211 mm 7. 8 × 10–3 m,  = 0.66 × 10–6 m

3
8. 9. 10–3 m. 10. 1.5 mm
1
BEGINNER'S BOX-3

1. 1·5 2. 6 × 10–6 m 3. 2.59 × 10–5 cm 4. 4125 Å

BEGINNER'S BOX-4

1. 1·4 mm 2. 0.023° 3. 4.68 mm 4. 440 nm.

BEGINNER'S BOX-5

1. 9.1 × 104 2. 3.05 × 10–6 m. 3. 61 m

BEGINNER'S BOX-6

1. 53°4' 2. 1.732 3. (a) 30° (b) 1.732

4. 30° 5. 57.3°, 32.7°

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