A STUDY ON DOMINATION IN GRAPH THEORY

A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of

the

requirementfor the award of

DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE

IN MATHEMATICS
By

ANJALY.T.S

REGISTER NO: SM16MAT004

(2016 – 2018)

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
[Link]’S COLLEGE, (AUTONOMOUS)

ERNAKULAM, KOCHI - 682011

APRIL 2018
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
[Link]’S COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS), ERNAKULAM

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “A STUDY ON DOMINATION IN GRAPH

THEORY”is a bonafide record of the work done by ANJALY.T.S under my guidance as partial
fulfillment of the award of the degree of Master of Science in Mathematics at [Link]’s College (
Autonomous), Ernakulam affiliated to Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam. No part of this work
has been submitted for any other degree elsewhere.

[Link].O.M (Supervisor) Smt Teresa Felitia (HOD)

Assistant Professor Associate Professor

Department Of Mathematics Department of Mathematics

St. Teresa’s College, (Autonomous) St. Teresa’s College (Autonomous)

Ernakulam Ernakulam

External Examiners:

1................................................... 2................................................
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work presented in this project is based on the original work done by me

under the guidance of Smt DHANALAKSHMI.O.M, Assistant Professor, Department of

Mathematics; St Teresa’s College (Autonomous) Ernakulam and has not been included in any other

project submitted previously for the award of any degree.

ERNAKULAM ANJALY.T.S

APRIL 2018 REGISTER NO: SM16MAT004

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I have great pleasure in extending my own wholehearted thanks to [Link].O.M ,my guide
assistant professor ,for presenting the project report.

I wish to express my sincere thanks to Smt. Teresa Felitia , Head of the department, [Link]
College,Ernakulam for the complete facilities made available for this project.

My thanks to all members of the department of mathematics for their wholehearted support and
help.

I wish to express thanks to all my companions for their help and encouragement to bring the
project a successful one.

ERNAKULAM ANJALY.T.S

APRIL 2018 REGISTER NO: SM16MAT004

 CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 1

Preliminary concepts 2-5

Chapter 1: Dominating sets

Chapter 2: Varieties of domination6-8

Section2.1: Common minimal domination 9-12

Section2.2: Total domination 13-14

Section2.3: Independent domination 15-17

Section2.4: Connected domination 18-20

Section2.5 : ( 1, 2)-domination in graphs 21-24

Section2.6: Other varieties domination 25

Chapter 3: Application of domination in graphs 26-32

Conclusion 33

Reference 34
 INTRODUCTION
Domination in graphs has been extensively researched branch of graph
[Link] theory is one of the most flourishing branches of modern
[Link] last 30 years have with one and spectacular growth of
graph theory due to its wide application to discrete optimization
problems,combinotorial problems and classical algebraic [Link] has
wide range of physical,social and biological sciences;linguistic etc,the theory
of domination has been the nucleus of research activity in graph theory in
recent [Link] is largely due to the variety of new parameters that can
be developed from the basic definition of domination.

The rigorous study of dominating set in graph theory began around

1960,even though the subject has historical roots dating back to 1862 when
de jaenisch studies the problem of determining the minimum number of
queens which is necessary to cover or dominate an nxn [Link]
1958,berge defined the concept of domination number of a graph,calling
this as ”coefficient of external stability”.In 1962,ore used the name
”dominating set” and domination number for the same [Link] 1977
cockayne and extensive survey of results know at that time about
dominating set in [Link] have used the notation (G) for the
domination number of graph,which has become very popular since [Link]
survey paper of cockayne and hedetnieme has generated a lot of interest in
study of domination in graphs .In a span about twenty years after the
survey more than 1200 research papers have been published on this topic.

In this chapters describes about domination insets,more about varieties of

domination,common minimal domination etc and theorms,results related to
it and application of domination in graphs.

1
 PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS
Graph:
A graph is an ordered triple=(V(G),E(G),IG ) where V(G) is a non empty
set,E(G) is set disjoint from V(G) and IG is incident map that associates
with each elements of E(G) and ordered pair of elements(same or distinct of
V(G)).
Elements of V(G) are called vertices/nodes/points and elements E(G) are
called edges or lines of G.
If E is an edge and u and v are vertices such that IG (e)=uv;then e is said to
join u and v where the vertices u and v are called ends of e,then we say e is
incident with the end also the vertices u and v are incident with e.

V(G)={v1, v2, v3}

E(G)={e1, e2, e3, e4}
IG (e1)=v1 v2
IG (e2)=v2 v3
IG (e3)=v3 v2
IG (e4)=v3 v3

Subgraph:
A graph H is a subgraph og G (H⊆G) if V(H)⊆V(G),E(H)⊆E(G) and IH is
a restriction of IG to E(H).
A spanning subgraph of G s a subsraph with V(H)=V(G).

Parallel edges:
Two or more edges of a graph G with same end is called parallel edges.
Eg:e2,e3.

Loops:
An edge with identical end is called loops
Eg:e4

Link:

2
An edge with distinct end is a link.
Eg:e1,e2,e(not loops)

Neighbourhood:
A vertex u is a neighbor of v in G if uv is an edge of G and u6=v.
The set of all neighbors of v is the open neighborhood of v denoted by N[V].
The set N[V] is closed neighbourhood of v in G ,N[V]=N(v)∪{v}.

Adjacency:
Two vertices u and v in G are said to be adjacent iff if there is an edge of G
with u and v as its ends.
Two distinct edges e and f are said to be adjacent iff they have a common
end vertex.

Simple graph:
A graph is simple if it has no loops and no parallel edges.

Finite and infinite graph:

A graph is finite if both E(G) and V(G) are [Link] it is infinite.

Order:
The number of vertices of graph G is called the order of the graph denoted
by n(G).

Size:
Number of edges of a graph G is called size of graph denoted by m(G) or
simply n.

Degree of vertices:
Let G be a graph and v[Link] number of edges incident at v in G ia called
degree of vertexv in G and dented by dG (V).
The minimum(respectively maximum) of degrees of a graph G is denoted
by δ(G) or simply δ (respectively 4(G) or 4).

Regular graph:
A graph is called K regular graph if every vertex G has degree K.A graph is
said to be regular if it is K-regular for some non zero K.

Isolated vertex:
It is a vertex with degree [Link] is,it is a vertex which not an end point
of any edge.

3
Leaf:
A leaf vertex (also pendent vertex) is a vertex with degree one.

Walk:
A walk in graph G iv0 e1 s alternating sequence W:v0 e1 ,v1 e2 .....vn−1 en vn of
vertices and edges , begnning and ending with vertices in which vi−1 and vi
is the origin and vn is terminus of [Link] walk W is said to join v0 and vn
is called v0 -vn walk.

Path:
A path in graph is an open walk in which no vertex and therefore no edges
is repeated.

Trail:
A trail in a graph is a walk in which no edge is repeated.

Cycle:
A closed walk in which no vertex (and edge) is repeated is called a cycle.

Connected:
Two vertices u and v are said to be connected if there is a uv path in G.

Euler Trail:
A trail that traverses every edge of G is called an Euler trail.

Euler Tour:
A tour of G is a closed walk that traverses each edge of G atleast once.
A euler tour of G is the tour which traverses each edge exactly once or it is
a closed euler trail.

Euler graph:
A graph is eulerian if it contains a euler tour.

Hamiltonian path:
A path that contain every vertex of G or it is a path in G in which every
vertex is included exactly once.

Hamiltonian cycles:
A cycle that contain every vertex of G is called a hamiltonian cycle of G or
any closed hamiltonian path in G is a hamiltonian cycle in G.

4
Hamiltonian graph:
A graph is hamiltonian if it contain a hamiltonian cycle.

Spanning tree:
A spanning tree T of an undirected graph G is a subgraph that is a tree
which includes all vertices of G,with minimum possible number of edges.

Tree:
Any acyclic connected graph is a tree.

Matching:
A matching M in G is set of pairwise non adjacent to each other.
A matching graph G is a subgraph of a graph G where there is no edges
adjacent to each other.

Perfect matching:
A perfect matching is a matching containing edges (the largest possible
meaning of perfect matching are only possible on graphs with an even
number of vertices).

5
 CHAPTER-1
DOMINATING SET
Definition-1
Let G=(V,E) be a graph.A set D⊆V is called dominating set of G if every
vertex u∈V-D has a neighbor v∈D

Defnition-2
A set D⊆V of vertices in G=(V,E) is dominating set if NG [D]=V(G) ie,If
every vertex in V(G) is either in D or adjacent to a vertex in D

Defnition-3
A dominating set for graph G-(V,E) is a subset D of V such that every vertex
not in D is adjacent to atleast one member of D

eg:
For instance the vertex set {b,g} is dominating set in this [Link] set
{a,b,c,d,f} is dominating set of the graph G.

Minimal Dominating set

A dominating set D of the graph G is said to be a minimal dominating set
if for every vertex v in D,D-{v} is not a dominating [Link] is no proper
subset of D is a dominating set
In figure 1,{b,e} and {a,c,d,f} are minimal dominating set.

Minimum dominating set

A dominating set with least number of vertices is called Minimum dominat-
ing set
eg:{b,g} in figure 1

Domination number
The number of vertices in a minimum dominating set is called domination

6
number of graph [Link] is denoted by γ(G)
eg:The Minimum dominating set {b,e} in figure 1 has 2 [Link] γ(G)=2.

Theorm 1.1
Let S be a dominating set of a graph [Link] S is minimal dominating set of
G iff for every vertex u∈s one of the following conditions is satisfied
(i) u is a isolate of S ie,(N (u))∩S=Φ
(ii)there exist a vertex v∈V-S(N (u))∩S={u})

proof:
First we suppose that S is minimal dominating se of [Link] u∈[Link] S-{u}
is not dominating set of [Link] there exist v∈V-{S−{u}}=(V − U )∪{u}
such that,(N (v))∩{S−{u}}=Φ
If v=u, u satisfies condition (i)
If v6=u, we then have (N (v))∩{S−{u}}=Φ and(N (v))∩S6=Φ.since S is a dom-
inating [Link] (N (u))∩S={u} and condition (ii) satisfied.
Conversely,Let us suppose that S is not a minimal dominating set of [Link],there
0 0 0
exist S ⊆S such that S is dominating set of [Link] there exist u∈S-S .Then
0 0
S ⊆S-{u}⊆[Link] S is a dominating set,so is S-{u}.Then as u∈S-{u},it
must be adjacent to a vertex in S-{u}.ie,u is not an isolate of [Link] v∈S,then
/
(N (v))∩{S−{u}}=Φ
ie, (N (u))∩S6={u}.Hence either condition (i) and (ii) is satisfied for this par-
ticular u∈S.
Theorm 1.2:
Let G be a graph with no isolated vertices and S be a minimal dominating
set of [Link] V-S is also a dominating set of G.
Proof:
Let us consider that u∈[Link] claim is N(u)*[Link] us suppose that the
contrary where N(u)⊆[Link] u must be adjacent to a vertex in S and any
vertex in V-S must be adjacent only to vertex in S-{u}.This implies S-{u}
is a dominating set,a contradiction to minimality of S.
Then for any u∈S ,N(u)*S
equalently N(u) ∩ V-S6=φ.
⇒V-S is dominating set.
Corollary:
n
If G is a graph of order n without isolated vertices then γ(G)≤ .
2
7
Proof:
Let S be minimum dominating set of [Link] |S|=γ(G).By above
theorm,V(G)-S ia a dominating set of G and so
n
γ(G)=|S|≤|V(G)-S|=n-γ(G). therefore, 2γ(G)≤n ⇒ γ(G)≤ .
2

8
 CHAPTER 2

VARIETIES OF DOMINATION
Section 2.1

COMMON MINIMAL DOMINATION

Definition:
Let G=(V,E) be a graph.A set D⊆V is the dominating set.A dominating
set D of G is minimal if for any vertex v  D,D-v is not dominating set of
[Link] minimum and maximum cardinalities taken over minimal
dominating set of G are domination number γ(G) and upper domination
number Γ(G) of respectively.
The neighbourhood graph N(G) of a graph G is having the same vertex set
as G with two vertices adjacent in N(G) iff they have a common neighbor
in G.
Now we define a similar type of graph namely ”The common minimal
dominating graph ”as follows:
The common minimal dominating graph CD(G) of graph G is graph
having the same vertex set as G with two vertices adjacent in CD(G) iff if
there exist a minimal dominating set in G containing them.

In below figure , a graph G and its common minimal dominating graph

CD(G) are shows:

Let G’ be complement of G.

Theorm 2.1.1:
For any graph G,
G’⊆CD(G) and G’=CD(G) iff every minimal dominating set of G is
independent.

9
Proof:
If (uv) E(G’), then extended {u, v} to maximal independent set S of
vertices in [Link] S is also a minimal dominating set of G,we obtain
G’⊆CD(G).
Now we prove second part.
If every minimal dominating set of G is independent ,then two vertices
adjacent in G cannot be adjacent in CD(G).Thus CD(G)⊆G’ and together
with G’⊆CD(G), we see that CD(G)=G’.
Coversely,
CD(G)⊆G’
⇒Two vertices in same minimaldominating set S are not adjacent in G.
That is , S is independent.

Let 4(G) denote the maximum degree of G.

Theorm 2.1.2:
For any graph with p vertices p≥2,CD(G) is connected iff 4(G) < p-1

Proof:
Let 4(G) < p-1 and u,v be any two vertices of G.
If (u,v)∈E(G),then
/ by theorm 2.1,(u,v)∈CD(G).
If (u,v)∈ E(G) and some vertex w distinct from both u and v is adjacent to
neither ,then again by theorm 2.1.1,in CD(G) the path uwv joins u to [Link]
only remains to consider (u,v)∈E(G) and every other vertex w is adjacent
to atleast one of u and [Link] {u, v} is minimal dominating set of G and
hence (u,v)∈CD(G).Thus CD(G) is connected.
Conversely,
Suppose CD(G) is [Link] possible,suppose 4(G)=p-1 and u is a
vertex of degree [Link] u is isolated vertex in CD(G).Since G has atleast
two vertices CD(G) has atleast two components , a [Link]
4(G)<p-1.

Note:
In a graph G, avertex and an edge incident with it are said to cover each
other.A set of vertices which covers all the edges is a vertex cover of [Link]
vertex covering number α0 (G) in G is minimum number of vertices in a
vertex cover.A set S of vertices in G is independent if no two vertices in S
are [Link] independent number β 0 (G) of G is the maximum
cardinality of an independent set of vertices.

10
Theorm 2.1.3:
For any graph G,γ(CD(G))≤ω(G).

Proof:
By theorm 2.1.1,
γ(CD(G))≤γ(G)
≤β 0 (G)
≤ω(G).

Theorm 2.1.4:
For any graph G,γ(CD(G))≤p-Γ(G)+1.

Proof:
Let S be a minimal dominating set with |S|=Γ(G).Then
γ(CD(G))≥Γ(G).Thus γ(CD(G))≤p-Γ(G)+1 follows from the fact that
γ(G)≤p-∆(G) and 4(G)≥ω(G)-[Link] ant graph G,let α0(G) denote the
vertex covering number of G. That is the minimum number of vertices in a
vertex cover and use the fact that α0 (G) + β 0 (G)=p.

Theorm 2.1.5:
For any graph G,γCD(G)≤1+δ(G).

Proof: By theorm 2.1.1,4CD(G)≥4(G’)=p-1-δ(G).

Hence γCD(G)≤1+δ(G) follows from the first fact used in proof of theorm
2.1.4.

To prove th next two results we make use of the following results from
Harary.
Theorm A: A graph G is eulerian iff every vertex of G is of even degree.
p
Theorm B: If every vertices v of G, deg(v)≥ where p ≥ ,then G is
2
hamiltonian.
A graph G is odd iff every vertex of G is of odd degree.
Let diam(G) denote the diameter of G.

Theorm 2.1.6:
If G is an odd graph with Γ(G)=diam(G)=2,then CD(G) is eulerian.

11
Proof:
Since p is even,every vertex in g is non adjacent to an even number of
[Link] every vertex in G’ of even degree and by theorm A,G’ is
[Link] for any two vertices u,v in [Link] exist a vertex w which is
not adjacent to both u and v and further there is no minimal dominating
set in G containing u and v ,by theorm 2.1.1, CD(G)=G’
Hence CD(G) is eulerian.

Let [x] denote the greatest integer not greater than x.

Theorm 2.1.7:
Let G be a graph of order atleast three satisfying one of the following
conditions.
(i)4(G)<[ p2 ];
(ii)4(G)=[ p2 ] and for every vertex v of G with deg(v)=[ p2 ],there exist a
vertex u ∈ N(v) such that u is adjacent to every vertex in V-N(v).
Then CD(G) is hamiltonian.

Proof:
Suppose (i) [Link] δ(G’)≥ p2 and hence by G’⊆CD(G) and G’=CD(G)
in theorm 2.1.1, and theorm B ,CD(G) is hamiltonian.
Suppose (ii) [Link] {u, v} is dominating set of G and further it is
minimal,since there exist two vertices u1 ∈N(u)-N(v) and v1
∈N(v)-N(u).Hence by G’⊆CD(G) and G’=CD(G) in theorm 2.1.1,deg(v) in
CD(G) ≥ p2 .Also by (i), for any vertex u with deg(u)<[ p2 ],deg(u) in CD(G)
≥ p2 .Hence by theorm B,CD(G) is hamiltonian.

12
Section 2.2

TOTAL DOMINATION
Definition:
A set S⊆V is a total dominating set if every vertex in V is adjacent to
some vertex of S.
Alternatively , we may define a dominating set D to be a total dominating
set if G[D] has no isolated vertices.
The total domination number of G,denoted by γ t =γ t (G) is cardinality
of smallest dominating set,and we refer to such a set as a γ t -[Link]
immediate consequence of definitions of domination number and total
domination number is that , for any graph G,γ t ≥γ.
An example of equality in domination and total domination: K2,3

Some basic result for domination and total domination

Theorm 2.2.1:
n
Let G be a graph with no isolated [Link] γ≤ .
2
Proof:
Let D⊆V(G) be a γ-[Link] G has no isolated vertices ,every vD has
atleast one neighbor in [Link] means that V-D is also a dominating
n
[Link] |D| > ,then V-D is a smaller dominating set,contradicting the choice
2
n
of D as a γ [Link] γ= |D| ≤ .
2
Theorm 2.2.2:
Every graph G with no isolated vertices has a γ-set D such that svery v  D
has the property that there exist a vertex v’V-D that is adjacent to v but
to no other vertices of D.

13
The vertex v’ from Theorm 2.2.2 called a private neighbor of [Link] now on
we will assume that every γ-set is chosen to be one whose existance is
guarenteed by theorm [Link] allows us to prove the following triple
inequality.

Theorm 2.2.3:
Let G be a graph with no isolated [Link] γ≤γ t ≤2γ.

Proof:
The first inequality follows immediately from definition of domination num-
ber and total domination [Link] D be a γ-[Link] D is not a total domi-
nating set , it is because the subgraph induced by D has isolated [Link]
theorm 2.2.2 , each of these isolated vertices has a private neighbor .To
construct a dominating set , we simply add D to private neighbor for each
isolated vertex and call the new set as D’.Atmost |D| private neighbor could
have been added to form D’.That is |D’|≤2|D|.since is a total dominating
set,|D|≥γ t .
Therefore,γ t ≤2|D|=2γ.This proves the second inequality.

Theorm 2.2.4:
n
Let G be a graph of order n with no isolated [Link] γ t ≥
4

Proof:
Let S be a γ t - set. Then by definition ,every vertex of G is adjacent to
some vertex of [Link] is,N(S)=V(G).since every vertex v  S can have
atmost 4 neighbors,it follows that 4γ t ≥|V|=[Link] theorm follow by
dividing this inequality by 4.

14
 Section 2.3

INDEPENDENT DOMINATION

Definition:

A set S⊆V is independent if no two vertices of S are joined by an arc.

An independent set S is said to be maximum independent set if any
vertex set properly containing S is not independent.

A subset S of the vertex of a graph G is an independent dominating set

if both an independent and dominating set.

Independent domination number:

The independent domination number i(G) of G is minimum cardinality of
an maximum independent dominating set.
Fig A:

γ(G)={2, 4}
i(G)={2, 4}
therefore,γ(G)=2=i(G).
Fig B:

γ(G)={v5, v2}
i(G)={v3, v5, v1}
γ(G)=2 while i(G)=3

It is Clear that γ(G)≤i(G),for any graph G

For the path p5 ,γ( p5 )=i( p5 )(Fig A).While for the graph of G of G of Fig
B,γ(G)=2 and i(G)=[Link] {v5, v2} is a γ-set for G,While {v3, v5, v1} is
a minimum independent dominating set of G.

15
Theorm 2.3.1:
For any graph G,i(G)+i(G’)≤n-4+δ+1.
proof:
we know for any graph G,i(G)≤n-4
therefore,i(G)+i(G’)≤n-4+i(G’)
=n-4+n-(n-1-δ)
=n-4+δ+1.
therefore,i(G)+i(G’)≤n-4+δ+1.

Theorm 2.3.2:
If G is a K regular graph k¿0 then i(G)≤ n2 .
Proof:
with out loss of generality one can assume that G is [Link] S be an
i(G)-[Link] i(G)=|s|> n2 ,Then |V-S|<|s|.By assumption ,we have δ=4 and so
there exist atleast one vertex v in V-S such that d(v)>4,which is a
contradiction.
hence the theorm.

Theorm 2.3.3:
For isolated free graph G and G’,i(G)+i(G’)≤n.
proof:
If G is regular then by theorm 2,i(G)≤ n2 and i(G)+i(G’)≤[Link] other hand
,if G is not regular,then 4-δ≥1 and hence by theorm 1,i(G)+i(G’)≤n.

Corollary:
i(G)+i(G’)=n+1 implies either G or G’ is complete.
Proof:
Let i(G)+i(G’)=n+1 .
From theorm 2.3.3 G and G’must contain isolated vertices.
By theorm 1,n+1 =i(G)+i(G’))≤n-4+δ+1.
⇒ 4=δ
Thus either G or G’ is complete.
Converse is trivial.

Theorm 2.3.4:
Every maximal independent set of graph G is minimal dominating set.
Proof:
Let S be a maximal dominating [Link] G must be a dominating [Link]
not ,there exist a vV/S that is not dominating by S and so S∪{v} is an

16
independent set of G,violating the maximality of [Link] ,S must be a
minimal dominating set of [Link] not ,there exist a vertex u of S such that
T=S/{u} is also a dominating set of [Link] means that as u not belonging
to T,u has a neighbor in T and hence S is not independent,a
[Link] Every maximal independent set of graph G is minimal
dominating set.

17
 Section 2.4

CONNECTED DOMINATION(CDS)
Definition:
consider a graph G=(V,E).Let D be dominating [Link] D induces a
connected subgraph,then it is called a connected dominating set.

Connected domination number:

A connected domination number of a graph G is minimum cardinality of
connected dominating [Link] is denoted by γ(G).
A CDS that has size equal to domination number is called a minimum CDS.

An example of equality in domination,total domination,connected

domination:

Let `(G) denote the maximum leaf number of a graph G,which is maximum
number of leaves in a spanning tree.

Theorm 2.4.1
For any graph of order n,γ c =n-`(G).

18
proof:
It is easy to see that for any tree T,γ c (T)=| V(T)-`(T)|.
More over , a CDS for spanning tree T of G is also a CDS for G.
therefore,

γ c ≤n-`(G).

Now consider a minimum CDS D of [Link] H be a spanning tree of

G[D],where G[D] is subgraph of G induced by [Link] H to every vertex
in V-D to obtain a spanning tree of [Link] every vertex in V-D is a leaf of
T.
Conversely,
Every leaf of T is in [Link] if t has a leaf x not in T-D,than D-{x}
would be a CDS for T and hence a CDS for G,contradicting the minimality
of D.

Graph of G in proof of theorm given below:

Theorm 2.4.2:
Let G be a graph Of Order n≥[Link] both graph G and its complement
G’ are [Link] γ c (G)+ γ c (G’) ≤ n(n-3)

Proof:
We know that a tree has atleast 2 [Link] above Theorm,
γ c (G) ≤ n-2
Moreover, G is connected and hence
n-1 ≤ |E(G)|
therefore γ c (G) ≤ n-2=2(n-1)-n ≤ 2|E(G)|-n
similarly,

19
γ c (G’) ≤ 2|E(G’)|-n
Thus,
γ c (G)+ γ c (G’) ≤ 2(|E(G)|+|E(G’)|)-2n
=2*nC2 =2n =n(n-3).

20
 Section 2.5

(1,2)-DOMINATION IN GRAPHS
Definition:
A (1, 2)-Domination in graphs in a graph G = (V, E) is a set S having the
property that for every vertex v in V-S there is atleast one vertex in S at
distance one from v and a second vertex in S at distance atmost two from
[Link] order of the smallest (1,2) Dominating set of G is called
(1,2)-Domination number of G and we denote it by γ(1, 2).
Example:

Here V={1, 2, 3}
S={2, 3}
V-S={1}
Note:-
From the definition of (1,2) Dominating set,we see that a (1,2) Dominating
set contains atleast 2 vertices ,(1,2)-Domination number of a graph will
always greater than or equal to 2 and (1,2) Dominating set occurs in grph
of order atleast 3.
Theorm 2.5.1
All (1,2) Dominating set are dominating sets.
proof:
The result is trivial from the definition of (1,2) Dominating [Link] the
converse need not be true.
Example:

21
For this {1, 4} is dominating [Link] it is not a (1,2) Dominating
set.{2, 3, 4} is a (1,2) Dominating set and Dominating set also.

Theorm2.5.2
(1,2) Domination is not possible in complete graphs.
proof:
In a complete graph , each is adjacent to every other [Link] we cannot
find a (1,2) Dominating [Link] vertex can be found at a distance atmost
two from ant other vertex.

Note: Let G be a complete graph with n [Link] it will have nC2

edges and each vertex is of degree [Link] minimum number of edges to be
deleted so as to become the resulting graph (1,2) Dominating set is n-2
iIf we delete n-2 edges from a complete graph,then in the resulting graph
,we can find a (1,2) Dominating set.

Lemma 2.5.3:
If a graph G with n vertices,has a vertex of degree n-1,we cannot find a
(1,2) Dominating set.

In this graph,we cannot find a (1,2) Dominating [Link] each vertex is

adjacent to all other vertices.

RELATION BETWEEN DOMINATION NUMBER AND

(1,2)-DOMINATION NUMBER

In this section we consider different types of graphs and find out their
domination number and (1,2)-domination number and check the relation
between them.

22
consider the following graphs:

Here {2} is dominating set.γ(G)=1.

{2, 3} is a {1, 2}=2
that is,γ < γ (1,2)

Here {1, 3, 5},{2, 4, 6} are (1,2) Dominating

set,γ(G)=3
{1,4,6} is a (1,2) Dominating set.γ (1,2) =2.
that is γ=γ (1,2)

Here {1,2,3,4},{5,6,7,8} are dominating.γ(G)=4

{1, 2, 3, 4} is a (1,2)- dominating set.γ (1,2) =4
that is γ=γ (1,2)

Consider a complete bipartite graph given below.

23
 {1, 2} is a dominating set.γ(G)=2
{1,2,4,5}is a (1,2) Dominating set.γ (1,2) =3.
that is γ<γ (1,2)
In all the above casae,domination number is less than or equal to
(1,2)-domination number.
From the above examples we have following theorm.

Theorm 2.5.4
In a graph G,domination number is less than or equal to (1,2)-domination
number.
proof:
Let G be a graph and D be its dominating [Link] every vertex in V-D is
adjacent to a vertex in [Link] is,in D,for every vertex u,there is a vertex
which is at distance 1 from [Link] it is not necessary that there is a second
vertex at distance atmost 2 from [Link] if we find a (1,2)-dominating set,it
will contain more vertices or atleast equal number of vertices than the
dominating [Link] the domination number is less than or equal to
(1,2)-domination number.

24
 Section 2.6

Other varieties of domination

Paired Domination
Paired Dominating set whose indirect subgraph has a perfect matching from
the defnition it requires that there is no isolated [Link] Paired Dom-
inating set is Dominating set .Paired Domination number is minimum cardi-
nality of Paired Dominating set and γpr .

K-Domination
A K-Dominating Set is set of vertices of D such that each vertex in V(G)-D
is dominated by atleast k vertices in D for fixed positive integer [Link]
minimum cardinality of k-dominating set is called k-Dominating number
γk (G).

Locating Domination
In which we insist that each vertex in V-D has a unique set of vertices D
which dominate it.

Distance Domination
In which we insist that each vertex in V-D be within distance k of atleast
one vertex in D, for a positive integer K.

Strong Domination
In a graph G=(V,E),a set D of vertices is said to be strong dominating
set,for every v in V-D there exist a vertex u in D such that uv∈E(G) and
deg u¿=deg v,the subgraph of [Link] cardinality of minimum strong
dominating set is denoted by γs -set.

Distance 2-Domination
A set D is a Distance 2-dominating set if for every vertex u∈V-D,d(u,D)
<=2 and is denoted by γ<=2 (G).The Distance 2-Domination number γ<=2
of G is equals the minimum cardinality of distance 2-dominating set.

25
 CHAPTER 3

APPLICATION OF DOMINATION IN
GRAPH
Domination in graphs has applications to several fields. Domination arises
in facility location problems, where the number of facilities (e.g., hospitals,
fire stations) is fixed and one attempts to minimize the distance that a
person needs to travel to get to the closest facility. A similar problem
occurs when the maximum distance to a facility is fixed and one attempts
to minimize the number of facilities necessary so that everyone is serviced.
Concepts from domination also appear in problems involving finding sets of
representatives, in monitoring communication or electrical networks, and in
land surveying (e.g., minimizing the number of places a surveyor must
stand in order to take height measurements for an entire region).

School bus routing

Most school in the country provide school buses for transporting children to
and from school Most also operate under certain rules, one of which usually
states that no child shall have to walk farther than, say one quarter km to a
bus pickup point. Thus, they must construct a route for each bus that gets
within one quarter km of every child in its assigned area. No bus ride can
take more than some specified number of minutes, and Limits on the
number of children that a bus can carry at any one time. Let us say that
the following figure represents a street map of part of a city, where each
edge represents one pick up block. The school is located at the large vertex.
Let us assume that the school has decided that no child shall have to walk
more than two blocks in order to be picked up by a school bus. Construct a
route for a school bus that leaves the school, gets within two blocks of every
child and returns to the school.

26
Locating radar stations problem
The problem was discussed by Berge . A number of strategic locations are
to be kept under surveillance. The goal is to locate a radar for the
surveillance at as few of these locations as possible. How a set of locations
in which the radar stations are to be placed can be determined

Nuclear power plants problem

z similar known problem is a nuclear power plants problem. There are
various locations and an arc can be drawn from location x to location y if it
is possible for a watchman stationed at x to observe a warning light located
at y. How many guards are needed to observe all of the warning lights, and
where should they be located? At present, domination is considered to be
one of the fundamental concepts in graph theory and its various
applications to ad hoc networks, biological networks, distributed
computing, social networks and web graphs [1, 25, 27, 47] partly explain the
increased interest. Such applications usually aim to select a subset of nodes
that will provide some definite service such that every node in the network
is close to some node in the subset. The following examples show when the
concept of domination can be applied in modeling real-life problems.

Modeling biological networks

Using graph theory as a modeling tool in biological networks allows the
utilization of the most graphical invariants in such a way that it is possible
to identify secondary RNA (Ribonucleic acid) motifs numerically. Those
graphical invariants are variations of the domination number of a graph.

27
The results of the research carried out in show that the variations of the
domination number can be used for correctly distinguishing among the
trees that represent native structures and those that are not likely
candidates to represent RNA.

Modeling social networks

Dominating sets can be used in modeling social networks and studying the
dynamics of relations among numerous individuals in different domains. A
social network is a social structure made of individuals (or groups of
individuals), which are connected by one or more specific types of
interdependency. The choice of initial sets of target individuals is an
important problem in the theory of social networks. In the work of Kelleher
and Cozzens, social networks are modeled in terms of graph theory and it
was shown that some of these sets can be found by using the properties of
dominating sets in graphs.

Facility location problem

The dominating sets in graphs are natural models for facility location
problems in operational research. Facility location problems are concerned
with the location of one or more facilities in a way that optimizes a certain
objective such as minimizing transportation cost, providing equitable
service to customers and capturing the largest market share.

Computer communication network

Consider a computer network modeled by a graph G = (V,E), for which
vertices represents computers and edges represent direct links between pairs
of computers. Let the vertices in following figure represent an array, or
network, of 16 computers, or processors. Each processor to which it is
directly connected. Assume that from time to time we need to collect
information from all processors. We do this by having each processor route
its information to one of a small set of collecting processors (a dominating
set). Since this must be done relatively fast, we cannot route this
information over too long a path. Thus we identify a small set of processors
which are close to all other processors. Let us say that we will tolerate at
most a two unit delay between the time a processor sends its information
and the time it arrives at a nearby collector. In this case we seek a
distance-2 dominating set among the set of all processors. The two shaded
vertices form a distance-2 dominating set in the hypercube network in
following figure

28
Radio stations
Suppose that we have a collection of small villages in a remote part of the
world. We would like to locate radio stations in some of these villages so
that messages can be broadcast to all of the villages in the region. Since
each radio station has a limited broadcasting range, we must use several
stations to reach all villages. But since radio stations are costly, we want to
locate as few as possible which can reach all other villages. Let each village
be represented by a vertex. An edge between two villages is labeled with
the distance, say in kilometers, between the two villages

29
 Let us assume that a radio station has a broadcast range of fifty kilome-
ters. What is the least number of stations in a set which dominates within
distance 50 all other vertices in this graph? A set B,F,H,J of cardinality four
is indicated in the following figure 2.

Here we have assumed that a radio station has a broadcast range of only fifty
kilometers, we can essentially remove all edges in the graph, which represent

30
a distance of more than fifty kilometers. We need only to find a dominating
set in this graph. Notice that if we could afford radio stations which have a
broadcast range of seventy kilometers, three radio stations would sufficient.

Coding theory
The concept of domination is also applied in coding theory as discussed by
Kalbfleisch, Stanton and Horton and Cockayne and Hedetniemi . If one
defines a graph, the vertices of which are the n-dimensional vectors with
coordinates chosen from 1,..., p, p > 1, and two vertices are adjacent if they
differ in one coordinate, then the sets of vectors which are (n, p)covering
sets, single error correcting codes, or perfect covering sets are all
dominating sets of the graph with determined additional properties.

Multiple domination problem

An important role is played by multiple domination. Multiple domination
can be used to construct hierarchical overlay networks in peer-to-peer
applications for more efficient index searching. The hierarchical overlay
networks usually serve as distributed databases for index searching, e.g. in
modern file sharing and instant messaging computer network applications.
Dominating sets of several kinds are used for balancing efficiency and fault
tolerance as well as in the distributed construction of minimum spanning
trees. Another good example of direct, important and quickly developing
applications of multiple domination in modern computer networks is a
wireless sensor network.

? How many waste bins can be placed to reduce pollution in given

map(convent junction)?

31
Two waste bins can be placed in order to reduce pollution.

32
 CONCLUTION
The main aim of this project is to present the importance of graph
theoretical ideas in various areas oa science and engineering for domination
in graphs theoretical concepts for the [Link] overview is presented
especially to project the idea of graph [Link],the graph theory section of
each paper is given importance than to other [Link] may get
some information related to graph theory and its application some ideas
related to their research field.

In graph theory,there are many stability parameters such as vertex

domination number,independence number [Link] domination number of a
graph is a new vulnerability measure that considers the neighbourhood of
[Link] the definition of domination,ever vertex of a graph must be
protected by its [Link] this search,the main ideas is each u,vV
must be protected and are capable of dominating of both u and [Link] we
discussed about total domination,independent domination,(1,2) domination
in detail and also discussed varieties of domination and application of
domination in different fields.

33
 REFERENCE

[Link] Agnar Son,Raymond Green Law,Graph theory modelling,applications

and algorithms.
[Link] Chelvam and B Jayaprasad, On independent domination num-
ber.
3.R Balakrishnan,[Link],G Sethuraman-Graph theory and its applica-
tion.
4.G Suresh singh,Graph theory.
[Link]-Zhu Du,Ping -Jun Wan,Connected dominating set;Theory and appli-
cations.
6.V Swaminathan and [Link],Structural strong domination of graphs.
[Link] W Haynes,Stephen T Hedetniemi and Peter J Slater,Fundamentals
of domination in graphs.
[Link] paulson and Lilly T I,Domination in graph theory.
[Link] Amos,Universuty of Houston Downtown,On total domination in graphs.
[Link] Nosrati Kenareh,Domination in graphs.
11.V R Kulli and B Janakiram,the common minimal gominating graph.
[Link] Bibi,A Lakshmi and R Jothilakshmi,Applications of distance
2-dominating set of graph network.
[Link],A.H Nandhu Kishore,Applications of Dominating set of graph
in computer Networks.

34