ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Name: [Link] Srinivas

[Link]: 22BD1A052D

Class: CSE-B

1)STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF

ECOSYSTEM
STRUCTURE:
Structure of an ecosystem involves the information of the available plant and animal species
on this [Link] provides us with the information of amount of distribution of nutrients in a
particular habitat,also the climatic conditions in that area.

According to structural point of view ,all ecosystems consist of abiotic and biotic components.
Abiotic factors include rainfall,temperature,sunlight,atmosdpheric humidity, soil
conditions,ingorganic substances like carbon di oxide ,water, nitrogen ,calcium
,phosphorous,potassium [Link] factors include the producers(plants),the
consumers(herbivores,carnivores) and the decomposers(eat the tertiary consumers)

BIOTIC FACTORS

PRODUCERS:
Producers include all the green plants, which manufacture their food through photosynthesis.

CONSUMERS:
Primary consumers include herbivourous animals like deer, goats, mice and animals
Secondary consumers(carnivores) include all the flesh eating animals like
lions,snakes,tigers
Teritatiory consumers feed on other carnivores,these are known as top carnivores

DECOMPOSERS:
 Decomposers are those that feed on dead organisms for ecample,mscavengers like
vultures and vrows, and further breaking down of the dead matter by other decomposing agents
like bacteria and various microorganisms.

Biotic factors are dependent on abiotic factors,like the producers i.e Green Plants are
dependent on Sun light for their food via [Link] dead remains of
primary,secondary,teritiary and producers are all taken in by Decomposers.

The entire structure can be visualized as a total function under FOOD CHAIN
Food chain is the sequence of eating and being eaten lead to the transfer of energy form one
level to [Link] energy that occurd during the process of a food chain form one level to
another is known as FLOW OF ENERGY.

FOOD WEB is the interrelation or combination of multiple food [Link] food web each of the
carnivores may consume more than one type of [Link] two types of food chains are
recoginzed.

● Grazing Food Chain:

In Grazing Food chain,the first level starts with plants as producers ,carnivores as
consumers and herbivores as intermediate [Link] is a loss of energy at each level
which may be through respiration,excretion or [Link] levels involved in a
food chain range are three to five and energy is lost at each level.

DECOMPOSERS->PRODUCER->PRIMARY CONSUMERS->SECONDARY
CONSUMERS->TERITIARY CONSUMERS->DECOMPOSERS

● Detritus Food Chain:

Detritus food chain is based on autotrophs energy capture initiated by grazing animals
and involves the decomposition or breaking down of organic wastes and dead matter
derived from the grazing food-chain.

DEADLEAVES->WOODLOUSE->BLACKBIRD

FUNCTIONS

● It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders
stability.
 ● It also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components.
● It maintains a balance among the various torphic levels in the ecosystem.
● It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
● The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involves the
exchange of energy.

2)NITROGEN AND PHOSPHOROUS

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
NITROGEN CYCLE:

It is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into multiple chemical forms as it
circulates among atmosphere, terrestrial, and marine exosystems. Important processes in the
nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification and denitirfication

NNItrogen cycle contain several stages:

● Ammonification
● Nitrification
● Denitrification
Ammonification:
When plants and animals die, or when animals emit wastes, the nitrogen in the organic
matter re0enters the soil where it is broken down by other microorganisms, known as
decomposers. Thisdecompostion produces ammonia which is then available for other biological
processes.

The decomposers in this case are different bacteria and fungi that feed on these compounds,
releasing ammonia, which in turn forms ammonium compounds in the soil to be taken up by
plant.

Organic N2 —--> NH4+

 NITRIFICATION:

While ammonia can be used by some plants, most of the nitrogen taken up by plants is
converted by bactria from ammonia - which is highly toxic to many organisms - into nitrite(No2-)
,and then into nitrate (NO3-0,This process is calle dnitrification, and these bacteria are knowna
sn itrifying bacteria.

It is a oxidation of ammonium ions to nitrite and subsequent oxidation of nitrite to nitrate/

The oxidation of ammonia into nitrite is performed by two groups of organisms, ammonia
-oxidizing bacteria(AOB) and ammonia-oxidizing archaea(AOA).

NH4+ ----> NO2- —-> NO3-

Nitrosomonas Nitrospira
Nitrosospira Nitrobacter
Nitrosococcus Nitrococcus

DENITIRFICATION:

Nitrogen makes its way back into the atmosphere through a process called
denitrification, in which nitrate (NO3-) is converted (reduced) back to gaseous
nitrogen(N2).Denitrification occurs in anaerobic [Link] involved are Paracoccus
denitrificans, Thiobacillus denitrificans, Pseudomonas.
 NO3- —-->NO2- —> NO —>N2O —> N2

Importance of Nitrogen Cycle:

Helps plants to synthesise chlorophyll from the nitrogen compounds.

1. Helps in converting inert nitrogen gas into a usable form for the plants through the
biochemical process.
2. In the process of ammonification, the bacteria help in decomposing the animal and plant
matter, which indirectly helps to clean up the environment.
3. Nitrates and nitrites are released into the soil, which helps in enriching the soil with the
necessary nutrients required for cultivation.
4. Nitrogen is an integral component of the cell and it forms many crucial compounds and
important biomolecules.

PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE:

Phosphorous has no gaseous phase and thus no atmospheric component; that is, it is
not moved by wind or rain. As a result, phosphorus tends to cycle only locally(phosphate rock)
The importance is that all living organisms require phosphorous, which becomes incorporated
into ATP,the compound that provides energy for most metabolic [Link] is also a
key component of other biological molecules such as DNA and RNA and the phopholipid bilayer
of cell membranes, and it is an essential mineral that in many animals helps maintain a strong,
helathy [Link] form is phosphate.,Phosphorous is release form rock by weathering,
leaching, erosion and mining.

Process:
● Weathering and erosion of sedimentary rocks release phosphorus into the soil. Plants
have themetabolic means to absorb diffolved ionized forms of phosphorus, them ost
important of which occurs as phosphate,HPO4 2- or H2PO4-
● Herbivores obtain their phosphorus only form eating plants and carnivores obtain it by
eating herbiores. When plants and animals excrete wastes or die, the phosphorus
becomes abailable to decomposers, which release it back to the soil.
● Leaching and runoff eventually wash much phosphate into aquatic systems, where
plants and algae utilize it. In addition, rivers transport phosphorus to laes or oceans
where it is often quickly taken up by phytoplankton.
● Phosphate that is not taken up into the food chain settles to the ocean floor or lake
bottom, eventually forming sedimentary rock, Phosphorus can remain locked in
sedimentary rock for millions of yeras, becomding available again through the geological
process of uplift, which exposes the element to weathering,
● Plants can take up phosphate rapidly and efficiently. In fact, theycan do this so quickly
that they often reduce soil or water concentrations of phosphorus to extremely low
levels, so that phosphorus becomes [Link] more phosphorus that is added to an
aquatic system, themore that production of algae and aquatic plants increases.
CASE STUDY:

In an case study, overabundance of phosphorus caused the rapid growth of algae and other
plants in an experimental lake in [Link] only does phytoplankton biomass increase with
increased phosphorus but also the composition of the algal community changes from green
algae to blue-greaan [Link] a result, the phosphorus-laden lakes become clogged with a
scum of blue-green [Link] the algae die, they sink to bottom where bacteria decompose
them, using the dissolved [Link] levels drop, resulting in fish [Link] process by whic
elevated nutrient levels leads to an overgrowth of algae and the subsequent depletion of water
oxygen levels is known as eutrophication.
3)CONVENTION AND NON
CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES
Everything around us need energy to perform any task like electricity ,fuel are all the forms of
[Link] can be classified into conventional source of energy and non-conventional
sources of energy.

Conventional sources of energy refer to the traditional and widely used methods of generating

power, while non-conventional sources of energy typically refer to newer, alternative methods. Here

are some key differences between the two:

​ Availability: Conventional sources of energy, such as fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas),
are finite resources that took millions of years to form. Their availability is limited, and they
are being depleted at a rapid rate. In contrast, non-conventional sources of energy, like solar,
wind, and hydroelectric power, are renewable and virtually inexhaustible, as they are derived
from natural and ongoing processes.
​ Environmental Impact: Conventional sources of energy are often associated with significant
environmental consequences. The burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases, such
as carbon dioxide, which contribute to climate change. It also causes air pollution, water
pollution, and soil degradation. Non-conventional sources, on the other hand, generally have
a lower environmental impact. They produce little to no greenhouse gas emissions during
operation, and their use can help reduce pollution and mitigate climate change.
​ Energy Efficiency: Non-conventional sources of energy can often be more energy-efficient
compared to conventional sources. For example, solar panels can directly convert sunlight
into electricity, while traditional power plants that burn fossil fuels experience energy losses
during the conversion process. Non-conventional sources also tend to have higher
conversion efficiencies in terms of energy output per unit of input.
​ Cost: Conventional sources of energy have been dominant for a long time and have
well-established infrastructures, making them relatively cheaper in terms of initial investment
and operational costs. Non-conventional sources, such as solar or wind power, have seen
significant cost reductions in recent years but may still require higher upfront investments.
However, as technology advances and economies of scale improve, the costs of
non-conventional sources are decreasing, making them increasingly competitive.
​ Reliability: Conventional sources of energy generally offer more reliable and consistent
power generation, as they are not dependent on weather conditions or natural variations.
Non-conventional sources like solar and wind energy can be intermittent, as they rely on the
availability of sunlight and wind. However, advancements in energy storage and grid
management systems are addressing these challenges, improving the reliability of
non-conventional sources.
 ​ Geographical Suitability: Conventional sources of energy, such as fossil fuels, can be
extracted from various regions worldwide. However, the distribution of these resources is
uneven, leading to economic and geopolitical implications. Non-conventional sources, such
as solar and wind, are more geographically diverse and can be harnessed in many regions,
allowing for greater energy independence and reducing dependence on specific locations for
energy supply.

It's important to note that the transition from conventional to non-conventional sources of energy is

underway due to the growing recognition of the environmental impacts and the need for sustainable

energy solutions. However, conventional sources of energy still play a significant role in meeting

global energy demands, and the balance between the two will vary based on factors such as regional

availability, infrastructure, and policy frameworks.

Alternative energy sources, also known as renewable or sustainable energy sources, offer a

diverse range of options for meeting our energy needs while minimizing environmental impact.

Here are some common types of alternative energy sources and their importance:

​ Solar Energy: Solar power harnesses energy from the sun using photovoltaic (PV) cells
or solar thermal collectors. It is a widely available and abundant source of energy. Solar
energy systems can be deployed at various scales, from residential rooftops to
large-scale solar farms. Solar power helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions, promotes
energy independence, and can provide electricity in remote areas without access to a
centralized power grid.
​ Wind Energy: Wind power converts the kinetic energy of wind into electricity through
wind turbines. Wind farms can be located on land or offshore in areas with consistent
wind patterns. Wind energy is clean, abundant, and a rapidly growing source of power. It
contributes to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, diversifying the energy mix, and
creating jobs in the renewable energy sector.
​ Hydropower: Hydropower utilizes the energy of flowing or falling water to generate
electricity. It can be harnessed through large-scale hydroelectric dams or smaller-scale
run-of-river systems. Hydropower is a mature technology and has been a significant
source of renewable energy for many years. It offers reliable and dispatchable power,
helps with water management and flood control, and contributes to decarbonizing the
electricity sector.
​ Geothermal Energy: Geothermal power harnesses heat from the Earth's interior to
generate electricity or provide heating and cooling. It involves tapping into geothermal
reservoirs through wells or using heat pumps in shallow ground systems. Geothermal
 energy is reliable, available 24/7, and emits very low greenhouse gas emissions. It is
particularly suitable for regions with geothermal resources, such as volcanic areas.
​ Biomass Energy: Biomass refers to organic matter, such as agricultural residues, forest
waste, and dedicated energy crops, that can be converted into biofuels or used for direct
combustion. Biomass energy can be in the form of bioenergy, biofuels (like biodiesel and
bioethanol), or biogas generated from anaerobic digestion. It offers a way to utilize
organic waste, reduces reliance on fossil fuels, and can contribute to rural development
and waste management.
​ Tidal and Wave Energy: Tidal and wave energy technologies capture the energy from
ocean tides and waves to generate electricity. Tidal power utilizes the gravitational pull
of the moon and the sun, while wave power harnesses the kinetic energy of ocean
waves. These sources are predictable and have the potential to provide a significant
amount of clean energy, though the technologies are still in the early stages of
development.

The importance of alternative energy sources lies in their ability to mitigate climate change,

reduce reliance on finite fossil fuel resources, enhance energy security, and promote sustainable

development. They offer the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions,

improve air quality, and foster economic growth through the development of green technologies

and job creation in the renewable energy sector. Transitioning to alternative energy sources is a

critical step toward achieving a more sustainable and resilient energy system.

Regenerate response

4)PROS AND CONS OF MINING

Mining, as an economic activity, has both pros and cons. Let's explore some of the key
advantages and disadvantages of mining, along with relevant case studies:

Pros of Mining:

​ Economic Benefits: Mining can contribute to economic growth and job creation in
regions where mineral resources are abundant. For example, the mining industry
 in Australia has been a significant driver of economic development, contributing
to export revenues, employment opportunities, and infrastructure investment.
​ Resource Development: Mining allows the extraction of valuable minerals and
resources that are essential for various industries, including construction,
manufacturing, and energy production. For instance, the mining of iron ore in
Brazil has played a crucial role in supporting the country's steel industry and
global exports.
​ Technological Innovation: Mining operations often drive technological
advancements, leading to improved extraction methods, automation, and safety
practices. These innovations can have spill-over effects into other sectors. The
development of autonomous mining trucks and drilling systems is an example of
technological innovation in the mining industry.

Cons of Mining:

​ Environmental Impact: Mining activities can result in significant environmental

degradation, including deforestation, habitat destruction, soil erosion, and water
pollution. For instance, the extraction of oil sands in Alberta, Canada, has caused
deforestation and water contamination, negatively impacting local ecosystems.
​ Land Disruption and Rehabilitation: Mining operations can disrupt local
communities, including displacement of indigenous people, loss of land rights,
and conflicts over resource ownership. Additionally, the rehabilitation of mined
areas to restore ecosystems and biodiversity can be challenging and often
requires long-term monitoring and investment.
​ Climate Change Contributions: Certain mining practices, such as coal mining and
some forms of metal extraction, release greenhouse gases and contribute to
climate change. For example, coal mining in countries like China and the United
States has been a significant source of carbon dioxide emissions.

Case Studies:

​ The Mariana Dam Disaster (Brazil, 2015): The collapse of the Fundão tailings
dam, owned by the mining company Samarco, resulted in one of the largest
environmental disasters in Brazil. The incident released millions of cubic meters
of mining waste, causing extensive damage to ecosystems, water pollution, and
the loss of human lives. This case highlights the environmental risks associated
with mining and the importance of stringent safety measures.
​ The Mir Diamond Mine (Russia): The Mir Mine, located in Siberia, is one of the
world's largest open-pit diamond mines. It has contributed significantly to
 Russia's diamond production and export revenues. The case study showcases
the economic benefits of mining but also raises concerns about the
environmental impact of open-pit mining and land disturbance.
​ The Pebble Mine (United States): The proposed Pebble Mine in Alaska has been
a contentious issue, with proponents emphasizing economic benefits, such as
job creation and resource development, while opponents raise concerns about
potential impacts on salmon fisheries, water quality, and the local ecosystem.
This case highlights the complex trade-offs and conflicts that can arise when
considering mining projects in ecologically sensitive areas.

It is important to recognize that the impacts and considerations associated with mining
can vary significantly depending on factors such as the type of minerals being extracted,
the mining techniques employed, and the regulatory frameworks in place. Responsible
mining practices, including stringent environmental regulations, community
engagement, and sustainable resource management, are crucial in mitigating the
negative impacts and maximizing the benefits of mining activities.
5)IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
BIODIVERSITY:

Biodiversity is a term made up form two words. Bio-life and [Link] ter biodiversity
refers to the variety of life on [Link] is again classified into:
● Genetic Biodiversity
● Species Biodiversity
● Ecosystem Biodiversity
GENETIC BIODIVERSITY:
Genetic diversity is the variation in genes and genotypes within a species.
SPECIES BIODIVERSITY:
 Species Diversity is the variety of species within a habitat or a [Link] is the biodiversity
observed within a community.

ECOSYSTEM BIODIVERSITY:
Ecological biodiversity reffers to the variations in the plant and naimal species living together
and connected by food chains and food webs.
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY:
● Integral part of Cultural Identity-
Human cultures co-evolve with their environment, and therefore the conservation of
biological diversity can also be important for cultural [Link] indigenous
communities have close relationships with nature and rely on biodiversity for their
culturel, spiritural, and traditional practices.
Ex:Bishnoi Tribe of India
● Used for Medicinal Purpose.
A wide variety of plants, animals, and fungi are used as medicine,eseential vitamins,
[Link] pharmaceuticals and medical treatments are derived form plants
and animals found in nature.
● Contribute to Climate stability
Biodiversity management can help mitigate the effects of climate change by sequetering
carbon and increasing energy efficiency [Link] release of CO2 through
deforestation and land use schnag accounts for up to 24% of total human-induced
greenhouse gas emissions.
● Provide More Food Resource
Biodiversity is essential to food and [Link] supplies many vital ecosystem servies,
such as creating and maintaining healthy soils, pollinating plants, controlling pests and
 providing habitat for wildlife, including for fish and other species that are vital to food
production and agricultural livelihoods.
● Relationship between Biodiversity and Industry
Biological sources provide many industrial materials. The numerous industrial raw
materials, including rubber, cotton, leather, food , paper, timber, water fiber, oil, and dyes,
are supplied by the biological resources.
● Economic Benefits of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is a source of economic wealth for many regions of the world.
Ex:Tourism and Recreation
● Helps In Pollution Management
It plays an important role in maintenance of gaseous composition of the atmosphere,
breakdown of wastes and removal of pollutants.
● Forming a healthy Ecosystem
Biodiversity contributes to the stability and resilience of ecosystems. A diverse
range of species ensures that ecosystems can better withstand disturbances
such as climate change, natural disasters, and disease outbreaks. Each species
plays a unique role in maintaining ecosystem balance, and the loss of even a
single species can have cascading effects throughout the entire ecosystem.
● Acts as a Source of Recreation
Forest,wildlife, national parks,biosphere reserve, sanctuaries are the primespot for
ecotourism,photography, painting, film making and literary works.
● Soil Quality improvement

Preserving and protecting biodiversity is crucial for the long-term sustainability

of our planet and the well-being of all living beings, including humans. It requires
collective efforts, conservation measures, sustainable practices, and policies that
prioritize the value and importance of biodiversity.

6)CAUSES FOR LOSS OF

BIODIVERSITY
● Growth in Human population:
Due to growth in human population ,it gradually increased the rate of consumption of
natural resources and its impact on biodiversity is disturbing the balance of biodiversity,It has
accelerated the loss of species and habitation in different parts of the world.
 ● Tropical regions

In tropical regions ,the weathering process is very fast and we can see maximum
diversity here in these [Link] regions which occupy only about one-fourth of the total
area of the world, contain about three-fourth of the world human population.
Overexploitation of resources and deforestation havae bec ome rampant to fulfill the
needs of large population.
As these tropical rainf roasts contain 50 percent of the species on the earth, destruction of
natural habitats have proved disastrous for the entire biosphere.
 ● Natural calamities such as eaethquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, forest fires,[Link]
damage to the flora and fauna of the earth, bringing change the biodiversity of respective
affected regions,
● Pesticides and other pollutants such as hydrocarbons and toxic heavy jmetals destroy
the weak and seneitve species.
● A natural biotic community of the ecosystem suffered example of damage because of
the introduction of exotic [Link] species which are not the natural inhabitants of
the local habitant but are introduced into the system are called exotic species.
● Durint the last few decades,some animals like tigers,elephants, rhinoceros,
crocodiles,minks and birds were hunted mercilessly by poachers for their
horn,tusks,hides,[Link] hasbeen in the rendering of certain types of organisms as
endangered category.

The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources(IUCN) has

classified the threatened species of plants and animals into three categories for the purpose of
their conservation
● Endangered Species
● Vulerable Species
● Rare Species

ENDANGERED SPECIES:
It includes those species which are in danger of extinction .The IUCN publishes
information about endangered species worldwide as the Red List of threatened species.
VULNERABLE SPECIES:
 This includes the species which are likely to be in danger of extinction in near future if
the factors threatening to their extinction [Link] of these species is not assured as
their population has reduced greatly.
RARE SPECIES:
Population of these species is very small in the [Link] are confined to limited areas
scattered over a wider area.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY:

Biodiversity is important for human existence,All forms of life are so closely interlinked that
disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in the others.
If species of plants and animals become endangered,they cause degradation in the
environment,which many threaten human being’s own existence.

Ways to conserve:
● There is an urgent need to educate people to adopt environment friendly practieces and
reorient their activities in such a way that our development is harmonious with other life
forms and is sustainable.
● The involvement and cooperation of local communities and individuals.
● The development of institutional structures at local levels is necessary.
● The critical problem is not merely the conservation of species nor the habitat but the
continuation of process of conservation.

The Government Of Indian along with 155 other nations have signed the Convention of
Biodiversity at the Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June [Link] world
conservation strategy has suggested the following steps for biodiversity conservation:

● Efforts should be made to preserve the species that are endangered.

● Prevention of extinction requires proper planning and management.
● Varieties of food crops, forage plants, timer trees, livestock, animals and their wild
relatives should be preserved.
● Each country should identify habitats of wild relatives and ensure their protection.
● Habitats where species feed, breed, reast and nurse their young should be safeguarded
and protected.
● International trade in wild plants and animals be regulated.
To protect, preserve and propagate the variety of species within natural boundaries, the
Government of India passed the Wild Life (Protection) Act,1972,under which national parks and
sanctuaries were established and biosphere is preserved.

There are some countries which are know by Mega Diverity Centres.(Countries situated in
tropical regin, they possess a large number of the world’s species diversity.)There are 12 such
countries namely Mexico,Columiba, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Democratic Republic of
Congo,Madagascar, China, India,Malaysia, Indonesia and Australia in whic these centre are
located.

In order to concentrate resources on those areas that are most vulnerable, the Internaitonal
Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources has identified certain areas as
biodiversity hotspots.

Hotspots are defined according to their [Link] are important because these
determine the primary productivity of an [Link],but not all, of th ehotpsots rely on
species -rich ecosystems for food,firewood, cropland, and income from timber.

In Madagascar,for example, about 85percent of the plants and animals are found nowhere else
in the world, Other hotspots in wealthy countries are facing different types of pressures.
The islands of Hawaii have many unique plants ans animals that are threatened by introduced
species and land development.

7)CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is the addition particle,gaseous and chemical into the atmosphere that have the
potential to adversely affect human [Link] of Air Pollution:
● Combustion
● Metallurgic processing
● Chemical Industries
 ● Cosmetics
● Processing Industries
● Welding, stone crushing, gem grinding etc

Natural air pollutants include pollen, marsh gas,volcanic gas, synthesis of harmful chemicals
by electric storm and solar [Link] of industries in one area is another major cause
of air polluting cotton dust in Ahmedabad,Surat and nearby area.

Particulate Matter:
● It consist of soot, flyash and dusts of various types fur, spores and pollen grains
● Suspended particulate matter is maximum in [Link] is different into an aerosol(less than
1ppm),dust(more than 1Um) and mist (liquid,more than 1Um).
● Particles of 2.5pm and lesser diameter are the most hard for human health
● Pneumoconiosis, byssinosis, emphysema, siderosis.
● Pesticide rich mist.
● Dust contain heavy metals like Pb,Cu,Fe,Hg

CARBON MONOXIDE:50% emissions are from [Link] smoke, produces

carboxyhemoglobin or COhb
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION:

● Low sulphur fossil fuel

● Reduction in emissions
● Zoning of industries away from huan settlements for dispersing pollution sources
● Destroying pollutants by thermal or catalytic combustion
● Changing pollutants to less toxic forms.
● By precipitation of pollutants
●
CONTORL OF VEHICULAR AIR POLLUTION:

● Switch over of public transport from deise/petorl to CNG

● Phasing out of old vehicles.
● Compulsory use of unleaded petrol and reduced sulphur content of diesel.
● Compulsory regular check-up of pollution emission of vehicles and enforcement and euo
!! norms.
● Fitting the vehicles with catalytic [Link] became the first city of the world to
use CNG for its public transport system and auto

8)SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid wase management defins solid waste as solid or semi-solid domestic waste, sanitary
waste, commercial waste,institutioanl waste, catering and market waste and other non
residential wastes, street sweepings, silt removed or collected from the surface drains,
horticultrue waste, agricultre and dairy waste, treated bio-medical waste excluding industrial
waste, bio-medical waste and e-waste, battery waste, radio-active waste generated in the area

India produces 277.1 million tonnes of solid waste every year, which is likely to touch
387.8 million tonees in 2030 and 543.3 million tonnes by 2050 due to “rapid
urbanisation, population growth and economic development.”
The silver lining, though, is the fact that while India’s total waste production is the
highest, Bermuda and the US topeed the list when it came to per person generation of
waste every [Link] Bermuda generated 4.54kg of waste per person each day,US
produced 2.24 kg per [Link] 0.57 kg per person, Indian was below the global
average of 0.74 kg per [Link] 2050,however, India’s figure is projected to increase
by 900gm every [Link] a daily basis, the country produces more than 1.50 lakh metric
tonee(MT) of solid waste.

Of the total collected waste, only 20 present is processed and the remaining 80 percent
is dumped in landfill [Link] areas alone generate 1,70,000 tonees of waste per day.
There is also a significant disparity in the waste generated per person between small
otwns and cities,While people in small town could stack up about 0.17kg per person,their
city counterparts generate about 0.62kg per person.
 Municipal waste is roughly classified into five categories-
● Recyclable material(glasses,bottles,cans,paper,metals)
● Composite wastes(tetra packs,toys)
● Biodegradable wasted (kitchen waste and green waste such as flowers,
vegetables)
● Inert waste(rocks,debris)
● Domestic hazardous and toxic waste
The Clean Indian Mission was created to tackle these very issues related to waste
management, cleanliness and sanitation on a national [Link] waste management is one
among the basic essential servies provided by municipal authorities in the country to keep uban
centres clean.

However,it is among the most poorly rendered servies in the basket the systems
applied are unscientific outdated and inefficient;population coverage is low; and the porr are
[Link] is littered all over leading to insanitary living [Link] laws
governing the urban local bodies do not have adequate provisions to deal effectively with the
evergrowing problem of solid waste management.

Hyperconsumption is a curse of our modern [Link] generate monumental

amounts of waste, a sizeable portion of which is disposed in landfills and through
waste-to-energy [Link] billions of tones of garbage, including microplastics never
make it to landfills or incinerators and end up in the [Link] garbage chokes marine life and
disturbs zooplankton, which are vital to the elimination of carbon dioxide form the atmostphere

METHODS FOR WASTE MANAGEMENT:

Waste management is a collective activity involivng segregation,collectionk,
transportation, re-processing, recycling and dipsoal of various types of [Link] are the
types of methods:
● Landfill: This method involves burying off the waste on the vacant locations around
the [Link] dumping site should be covered with soil to prevent contamination.
Suitable trees should be planted to hold the [Link] of Landfills is that they are
designed carefully they can serve as economical and gite sanitized method for waste
[Link] is that mostly unplanned dumping occur in suburbs and slums
whic causes serious environmental and health [Link] of poisonous
gases,secretion of toxic liquid,destruction of vegetatio n.
● Incineration: It is controlled high temperature oxidation of primarily organic
compounds that produce thermal energy,CO2 and [Link] is that it is useful to
deal with arge quantities of organic hazardous waste and produces
[Link] is that the installation is expensive and generates ash and toxic
gases.
● Pyrolysis:In this process the solid is converted in to liquid state and liquid is converted in
to gas. These products of treatment can then be used for the production of energy.
 ● Gasification:The material to be treated is directly converted in to SynGas which has
hydrogen and carbon dioxide as its componenets.
● Bioremediation:It is the use of living organisms, primarily micoroorganisms, to degrade
environmental contaminants into less toxic forms,[Link] bacterium can
decompose synthetic [Link] techniques are more economical than traditional
methods and pollutants can be treated on site, thus reducing exposure risks for
personnel.

In India,nearly 50% of the household waste is wet organic waste,with low calorific [Link]
are seedbeds of methane and other greenhouse gases,which contribute to global
[Link] toxic chemicals poison the soil and their leached run-off makes its way into the
[Link] while they do generate energy,waste incinerators cause health issues such as
[Link] makes options such as waste to energy incinerators [Link] need to design
incinerators that are suited to Indian conditions.

Only about 75-80% of the municipal wste gets collected and out of this only 22-28% is
processed and treated and remaining is disposed of indiscriminately at dump [Link] is projectd
that by year 2031 the MSW generation shall increase to 165 million tonees and to 436 million
tons by 2050.
If cities continue to dump the waste at present rate without treatment, it will need 1240 hectares
of land per year and with projected generation of 165 million tons of waste by 2031, the
requirement of setting up of land fil for 29 years of 10 meters height will require 66,000 hectares
of land,

HOW WASTE IS TREATED IN INDIAN PROBLEMS:

● First,segregation of waste into organic, recyclable and hazardous categories is not
enforced at source.
● As a result, mixed waste lands up in the landfills, where waste-[ickers,in hazardous
conditions,try to salvage he recyclables,which are of poor quality and quantity by then.
● Second,idelly,waste management should not be offered free of cost to residents.
● Only if residents pay will they realise the importance of segregation amd recycling.
● Third,there is the issue of logistical contractors who are motivated to dump more
garbage in landfills as their compensation is proportional to the tonnage of waste.
● They are also prone to illegally dump waste at unauthorised sites to reduce
transportation costs.
● Fourth,and importantly,organic farming and somposting are not economically attractive
to the Indian farmers as cehmcial pesticide are heavily subsided,and the compost is not
efficiently marketed.
Solution:
● Consistent waste reduction and recycling activities mean there will be less waste
materials to be sent to landfills and incinerators
● As such,the emission of greenhouse gas and other forms of pollutant will be reduced by
a large [Link] and recycling of used items will also result in less production
of new products.
10)FOREST CONSERVATION ACT
It is an act provided for the conservation of forest and for matters connected there with [Link]
it enacted by parliament in the 31 year of the Republic in [Link] Act is called Forest
Conservation [Link] extend to the whole of India except the state of Jammu and
Kashmir,which has its own state [Link] shall be considered to have come into force on the 25
oct.1980.
This act has been passed with a view to check deforestation which has been taking place in
the country on la large scale and which had cause ecological imbalance and thus led to
environmental [Link] simply aim at putting restriction on the de reservation of forest or
use of forest land for non= forest purpose.

RESTRICTION ON THE DERESERVATION OF FORESTS OR USE OF FOREST LAND FOR

NON FOREST PURPOSE:
● Section 2 of the Act deal with restriction on the dereservation of forest or use of forest
land for non forest purpose.
● It provide that not with standing anything aontained in any other law for the time being in
force in a state, no state [Link] other authority shall make, except with prior approval of
the central govt .any order directing.
● That any reserved forest or any portion there of shall cease to be reserved
● That any forest land or any portion ther of may be used for non-forest purpose.
● That any forest land or any portion there of may be assigned by way of lease or other
wise to any private person or to any authority,coporation,agency,or any other
organisation not owned managed or controlled by govt.
● That any forest land or any portion there of may be cleared of trees which have grow
naturally in that land or portion for the purpose of using it for reforestation.

Non forest purpose means the breaking up of clearing or any forest land or portion ther for the
cultaivation of tea,coffee,spices,rubber,plamsk,oilbearing plant, horticulture ,crops or medicina
plant,any purpose other than reforestation,

DOES NOT INCLUDE WORK LIKE:

● Related to conservation,development and management of forest and wildlife.
● The establishment of check post,the line, wireless communication,struction of bridge and
culvert ,dam,waterholes,boundary mark pipeline or other like purpose.

APPEAL TO NATIONAL GREEEN TRIBUNAL(SECTION 2A)

Any person aggrieved by an order or decision of the state [Link] other authority made
under section 2 on or after the beginning of the national green tribunal act,2010 may file an
appeal to the national green tribunal in accordance with the provision of that Act.

CONSTITUTION OF ADVISORY COMMITTEE:

The central [Link] constiude a committee consistin of such number of person as it may
deem fit to advise that [Link] regard to-
 ● The grant of approval under section 2
● Any other matter connected wtih the conservation of forest which may be referred to it by
the central govt.
PENALTY FOR CONTRAVENTION OF THE PROVISION OF THE ACT:
Whoever contravenes the contravention or any of the provision of section 2 shall be
punishable with simple imprisonment for a period which may extend to 15 days

Offences by authority and [Link]:

Where any offences under this Act has been committed-
● By any dept of govt,the head of the govt.
● By any authority, ever person who at the time the offence was committed was directly
incharge of ans was responsible to shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shal
proceeded against and punished.
Accordingly,
However the head of the dept or any other person referred to above shall not be liable to
any punishment if he proves that-
● The offence was committed without his knowledge
● He excercised all diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.

Where an offence under this Act has been committed by a dept of govt or any authority and it is
proved that the offences committed with the consent to any neglect on the part of any officers
other than the head of the dpt or any person, then such officer of person shall also be deemed
to be guilty of that offence and shall be liable to be porceded against and punished accordingly.

POWER TO MAKE RULES:

● Section 4 of the Act vests the central govt with the power to makes rules for carrying
Out the provision of this Act.
● Every rule made under this Act shall be laid as soon as my be after it is made
before,each house of the parliament whic it sis in secession, for a toal period of 30 day
be comporisedc in one session or in two or more sessions.
FOREST CONSERVATION AND JUDICIAL ATTITUDE:
● In India the judiciary has shown deep concern for the forest conservation,
● The judiciary played a pivotal role in a maneer to interpret the forest laws to protect the
forest and environment.
● The judiciary shown judicial activism by entre training pulbic interest littigation under
article 32 and 226 of the act.
● The supreme court and high cours while protecting environment and promoting
sustainable development delivered many important judgement.
●