FORM TWO ENGLISH NOTES

LISTENING AND SPEAKING FOR FORM TWO

PRONUNCIATION

STRESS
Not all syllables in a word are given equal emphasis. By the same token, not all words in a sentence are
said with equal length.

The relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or certain words in a sentence is
what we refer to as stress.

You say a syllable or a word is stressed when it is said louder or longer than the rest.

Stress is studied in two levels:

(a) Word level; and

(b) Sentence level.

Stress at the Word Level

A part of a certain word when said louder or longer then it is stressed.

Rules of Word Stress

1. For two-syllable nouns and adjectives, stress the first, for example
Cloudy carton table
2. For verbs with two syllables and prepositions, emphasize the second syllable, for example
3. Words with three syllables.
(a) Those ending in –er, -ly, emphasis put on the first syllable, for example,
(b) Stress the first, for those ending in consonants and in –y, for example,
(c) Stress the last syllable if the word ends in –ee, -ese, -eer, -ique, -ette, for example,
(d) Look at the ones with the suffixes below, where stress is placed on the second,
-ary: library
Cial: judicial, commercial
-cian: musician, clinician
-tal : capital, recital

Stress is important in studying the heteronyms. A pair, or group of words is referred to as heteronym
when those words are spelled the same way but have different pronunciation and meaning. We have two
main categories of heteronyms:

(a) Noun- verb pairs; and

(b) Verb -and-adjective pairs.

We stress the first syllable if noun and the second if verb.

Examples of noun-and-verb pairs are included in the table below:

Noun Verb Noun Verb

Abuse Graduate
Record Cement
Convert Wind
Abuse Sin
Contest Produce
Duplicate Excuse
Polish Insult
Rebel Permit

In sentences;

(a) Many factories produce the produce we import.

(b) Allan became a convert after deciding to convert to christianity.

Sentence Stress

Sentence stress is accent on certain words within a sentence.

Most sentences have two basic word types:

(a) Content words which are the key words carrying the sense or meaning- message.

(b) Structure words which just make the sentence grammatically correct. They give the sentence its
structure.

Look at the sentence below:

Buy milk feeling tired.

Though the sentence is incomplete, you will probably understand the message in it. The four words are
the content words. Verbs, nouns, adjectives, are content words.

You can add words to the sentence to have something like:

Will you buy me milk since I am feeling tired?

The words: will, you, me, since, I, are just meant to make the sentence correct grammatically. They can
also be stressed to bring the intended meaning.

Now let’s study the sentence below:

Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.

Each word in the sentence can be stressed to bring the meaning as illustrated in the table.

Sentence Meaning
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. She doesn’t think that, but someone else does.
 Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. It is not true that Joan thinks that.
Joan doesn’t thinkAkinyi stole my green skirt. Joan doesn’t think that, she knows that.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. Not Akinyi, but someone else. Probably Njuguna
or Adhiambo.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyistole my green skirt. Joan thinks Akinyi did something to the green skirt,
may be washed it.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. Joan thinks Akinyi stole someone else’s green skirt,
but not mine.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. She thinks Akinyi stole my red skirt which is also
missing.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. Joan thinks Akinyi stole my green shirt. She
mispronounced the word.

Exercise 1

1. The words that follow can be nouns or verbs dependingon the stressed syllable. Use each as
both the verb and noun in a single sentence.

(a) Cement
(b) Address
(c) Permit
(d) Content
2. Underline the part of the word in boldface you will stress in each of the following sentences.
(a) The boy has been asked to de.sert the de.sert.
(b) My handsome es.cortwilles.cort me to the dance.
(c) After updating my re.sume, I will re.sume my job search.
(d) They have to con.testin the annual Math con.test.
(e) If you con.vict me, I will remain a con.vict for 5 years.

Exercise 2

Each word in the sentences below can be stressed to bring the meaning. What will be the meaning
when each word is stressed?

(a) I love your sister’s handwriting.

(b) You came late today.
INTONATION
 It is the rise and fall of voice in speaking.
 Intonation is crucial for communication.
 In English there are basically two kinds of intonation: rising and falling.
 We can use arrows to show the intanotion – whether rising or falling. ↘ represents falling intonation
while ↗ represents the rising one.

Falling Intonation

 Falling intonation is when we lower our voice at the end of a sentence.

 This usually happens in:
(a) Statements, for example,
 I like↘ bananas.
 It is nice working with ↘you.
 She travelled to↘ Eldoret.
(b) W/H Questions
 What is your ↘name?
 Where do you ↘live?
 How old are↘ you?
 Who is this young↘ man?
(c) Commands
 Get out ↘now.
 Give me the ↘money.
 Close your ↘books.
(d) Exclamatory sentences e.g.
 What a wonderful ↘present!
 How ↘nice of you

Rising intonation
 When we lower our voice.
 Used in:
 General Questions e.g.
Do you visit them↗ often?
Have you seen ↗her?
Are you ready to ↗start?
Could you give me a↗ pen, please?
 Alternative questions e.g.
Do you want ↗coffee or ↘tea?
Does he speak↗ Kiswahili or ↘English?
 Before tag questions e.g.
This is a beautiful ↘place, ↗isn’t it?
She knows↘ him,↗ doesn’t she?
 Enumerating e.g.

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 ↗One, ↗two,↗ three, ↗four,↘ five.
She bought ↗bread, ↗cheese, ↗oranges, and ↘apples.

Exercise

Using an arrow, determine whether rising or falling intonation is used in the sentences.

(a) This music sounds good.

(b) I love watching horror movies.
(c) My sister’s name is Amina.
(d) Blue is my favourite colour.
(e) Is that tv good?
(f) Do you like that movie?
(g) Are you hungry?
(h) Get me my shoes.
(i) Study your lessons now.
(j) Are you insane?
(k) How many more hours before you are done with your work?
(l) Which novel is the best for you?
(m) He is a little bit nervous, isn’t he?
(n) You should listen to your parents’ advice.
(o) Did you finish your homework?
(p) Water is good for the body.
(q) This is good!
(r) What a crazy show.

PUNS/WORD PLAY

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 A pun is a form of word play that suggests several meanings, by either exploiting the multiple
meanings of a word, or substituting a word for another similar sounding word, the result of which is
humorous.
 A pun is also known as paronomasia.
 There are two main types of puns:
(a) Homophonic puns

This is where a word is substituted for another similar sounding word or word pronounced almost in the
same way . For example,

Fishermen are reel men.

Explanation: There is a twist on the word ‘reel’ which is originally supposed to be spelt ‘real’.

Can you now explain the pun in the following homophonic puns?

1. What do sea monsters eat for lunch? Fish and ships.

2. I am on a seafood diet. Every time I see food, I eat it.
3. Did you about the Italian chef with terminal illness? He past away.
4. Beauty is in the eye of the beer holder.
5. What tea do hockey players drink? Penalttea
6. What do ghosts serve for dessert? I scream.
7. What did the tree sya to the autumn? Leaf me alone.
8. What did the boy cat say to the girl cat on valentine’s day? You’re purr-fect for me.
9. What day does an Easter egg hate the most? Fry-days.
10. Why did the scientist install a knocker on his door? He wanted to win the No-bell prize!

(b) Homographic puns

Homographic pun is formed by using a word that has multiple meanings. You might not tell what exactly
what the speaker means.

For example;

Rose is the flower of my life.

Explanation: The word ‘Rose’ is a female name. it could be the person the speaker loves.

It is also a type of flower.

The other examples are;

1. My math teacher called me average. How mean!

2. What do prisoners use to call each other? Cell phones.
3. No matter how much you push the envelope, it’ll remain stationery.
4. Have you ever tried to eat a clock? It’s very time consuming.
5. A waist is a terrible thing to mind.
6. I am reading a book about anti-gravity. It’s impossible to put down.

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 7. What part of football ground is never the same? The changing room.
8. I want to tell you a chemistry joke but I know I will not get a reaction.
9. Why did the bee get married? Because he found his honey.
10. Did you hear about the guy who got hit in the head with a can of soda? He was lucky it was a soft
drink.

Features of Puns

Puns are characterized by;

1. They are short.

2. They are humorous.

Functions of Puns

They serve functions such as:

(a) Teaching pronunciation. For example, homophones.

(b) Enhancing creativity. One has to think in order to form their puns.
(c) Entertaining. When said one wonders what the speaker intends, the audience will laugh.

Exercise

Explain the pun in:

(a) I used to be a banker but I lost interest.

(b) A bicycle can’t stand on its own because it is two-tired.
(c) I don’t trust these stairs because they are always up to something.
(d) Santa’s helpers are known as subordinate clauses.
(e) The man who drank battery acid got charged.

TONGUE TWISTERS

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 A phrase or a sentence which is hard to speak fast because of alliteration or a sequence of nearly
similar sounds is the tongue twister.
 It is worth noting that there is usually the use of mnemonic feature (sound devices or sound patterns)
in the tongue twisters.
 Let us read the following tongue twisters fast.
 She sells sea shells on the sea shore.
 Any noise annoys an oyster but noisy noise annoys an oyster more.
 Kindly kittens knitting mittens keep kazooing in the king’s kitchen.

Sound Patterns in Tongue Twisters

1. Read the tongue twister below fast.

She saw a fish on the seashore and I am sure the fish she saw on the sea shore was a saw-fish.

In the words: she, shore and sure, there is the repetition of the consonant sound /ᶴ/ at the beginning of the
words. This is alliteration.
Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant sound in the nearby words.
Can you identify any other instance of alliteration in the above tongue twister?
2. Read this other tongue twister and take note of the highlighted letters.
A skunk sat on a stump and thank the stump stunk, but the stump thank the skunk stunk.
The sound pattern here is consonance.
Consonance is the repetition of the inner consonant sound in the nearby words. An inner sound is
that which comes after the first.
There is another instance of consonance. Can you illustrate it?
3. Repetition
 In most tongue twisters, there is repetition of words or phrases. In (1) above, the words ‘saw’, ‘fish’,
etc. have been repeated.
 Now pick out the words and phrases repeated in these tongue twisters.
(a) If you tell Tom to tell a tongue twister, his tongue will be twisted as tongue twister twists
tongues.
(b) The sixth sick Sheik’s sixth sheep’s sick.
4. Assonance
Let’s look at:
How much wood could a wood chopper chop, if a wood chopper could chop wood?
There is repetition of the /u:/ in the words; wood,could. This is assonance.
Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in the nearby words.

Features of Tongue Twisters

A tongue twister will have the following features:

(1) it is short and brief.

(2) It is alliterative.

Functions of Tongue Twisters

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1. They entertain. When one confuses the pronunciation of sounds, the audience will laugh.
2. They teach pronunciation. We can, for example, learn the pronunciation of the sounds /f/ and /v/, /s/
and /ᶴ/ etc.
3. Enhance creativity.

Exercise 1

With illustrations, identify the sound patterns in:

(a) It’s not the cough that carries you off, it’s the coffin they carry you off in!
(b) If two witches were watching two watches, which witch would watch which watch?
(c) If a black bug bleeds black blood, what colour of blood does a blue bug bleed?
(d) I wish to wash my Irish watch.

Exercise 2

Read the item below and then answer questions after it:

We surely shall see the sun shine soon.

(a) Identify the genre.

(b) Which two sounds has the item been used to teach?

RHYME

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 Rhyming words are the words that sound the same at the ends. Examples of rhyming words are:
 When a poem has rhyming words at the end of its lines, these are called ‘end rhymes’. Look at these
two lines:
That keep me locked up tight
All of the things that make me feel not right
The words ‘tight’ and ‘right’ rhyme.
 By contrast, internal rhyme/ middle rhyme, is a rhyme that occurs either when:
 Two or more rhyming words occur within the same line;
 Two or more rhyming words appear in the middle of two separate lines, or sometimes more;
 A word at the end of a line rhymes with one or more in the middle of the following line.

 Read the poem below and then try to identify the instances of rhyme in it.
Mystic Travel
Mystic travel time
Too endless islands in your mind

Tiny lights majestic and free

Open the skies soar me

Travel your minds unseen road

To mysterious lands secrets untold

The mountains valley lay quiet

As a shower carries away

The warmth of an evening breeze

Built from within a day

Heat dances shadows on the lakes fiery bay

Constructing temples where gods could play

Today is the finest piece

For tranquil emptiness

Suggestions of fluent sensations

Congregated illusions of masturbations

Sympathize the richness of the truth

Energize the expected thoughts of youth

Reading the poem aloud, we can point out several rhyming couplets. They include among others:

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  Free and me
 Away and day
 Sensations and masturbations
 Truth and youth

Internal Rhyme in Separate Lines

Here is are two examples of pairs of lines with middle rhymes in separate lines.

I see a red boat that has a red flag

Just like my red coat and my little red pail

The words ‘boat’ and ‘coat’ rhyme.

I’d like to jump into the ocean

But don’t dump me instead.

The rhyming words are ‘jump’ and ‘dump’.

Now read the stanza below from the poem ‘The Raven’ and identify all the pairs of rhyming words.

Once upon a midnight dreary, while i

Pondered, weak and weary
Over many a quaint and curious volume of
Forgotten lore.
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly
There came a tapping
As if someone gently rapping, rapping at
My chamber door
’’Tis some visitor,’’ I muttered, ’’tapping at
My chamber door;
Only this, and nothing more.’’
Rhyme Scheme

 This is a way of describing the pattern of the end rhymes in a poem.

 The points below will help you in reading and notating the rhyme scheme.
 Each new sound at the end of a line is given a letter.
 The letters start with ‘a’ , then ‘b’, and so on.
 If an end sound repeats the end sound of an earlier line, it gets the same letter as that earlier line.
 Here are four different stanzas, each with a different rhyme scheme, that can help you understand
rhyme scheme.
1. From Voices in My Head, by Ivor Davies
Suddenly a voice appears
I hear it in my mind
Within my head not in my ears
Not of the normal kind

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 The rhyme scheme is: abab
It is regular rhyme scheme as it is easy to predict when the sound will next appear.
2. From Falling Raindrops’ Prayer for the Broken.
I pray for the crying
For the hurt and the dying
For those burned and screaming
For each helper crying

The rhyme scheme is aaaaa

This too is regular.
3. From the poem by Robert Broadbent.

Early or late,
Patient …can’t wait
Lost or your found
The world goes around

The rhyme scheme here is aabb. This is a Regular scheme

4. From Happy Holidays by John Lumber.
Christmas Eve
Oh how supreme!
When Santa comes
Every night!
Then, next day,
I just can’t wait,
When the tree is all alight.

The rhyme scheme is abcdedd. This is irregular.

The irregular rhyme scheme occurs when you can’t predict when the end sound will be repeated.

Why Rhyme?
(a) Rhyme creates rhythm in the poem.
(b) It also makes reading or reciting the poem interesting.
(c) The poem is also made easy to memorize.

Exercise 1

Describe the rhyme scheme of the poem below by Robert Broadbent.

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One Day at a Time

Happy or sad
Good days or bad
Cherry or down
The world goes around

Give up or try
Out going or shy
A smile or a frown,
The world goes around

Early or late,
Patient …can’t wait,
Lost or your found,
The world goes around

Angry, serene
Out spoken, unsent
Tense or unwound,
The world goes around

All future days,

Are hidden in haze,
Don’t worry, just learn,
To let the world turn.

Exercise 2

The incomplete poem below has the rhyme scheme: aabccbddebfe. Complete it with appropriate
words.

Death did not take Paris silently

Rumbled the grave screaming _______________________
No child slept easy that _______________________
Twenty minutes of terror waking
Wee ones from sleep in cold sweats __________________________
Stealing their peaceful birthright.

Indelible imprints of ______________________

Ingrained in young psyches forever;
Post traumatic stress syndrome.
They may age, but they will not ____________________
The bloody death that evil begets
Shadows lurk in dreaming’s gloam.

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(By Catie Lindsey)

SONGS

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 (a) LULLABIES
 they are sung by a nanny, sibling, aunty, etc.in order to:
1. Send the baby to sleep.
2. Calm the crying baby.
3. Give promise to the crying baby. The promise can be that one of the parents is coming
back.
 They are normally sung softly so as to lull the baby.
 If you have to clap, or hum, or whistle to the rhythm, do it softly and slowly.
 In the case where a child cries, rock the baby as you sing.
 You can also gently tap the back of the baby.
 They are normally short.
 They are also repetitive.
 Read the song below and then attempt the questions that follow.
Sleep baby sleep
Sleep baby sleep
Your father tends the sheep
Your mother shakes the dreamland tree.
i. Identify two features of lullabies in the above song.
ii. Give the main reason for singing the above song.
iii. How would you do the following as you sing the song:
a) Clap to the rhythm of the song.
b) Rock the baby as you sing.
(b) CHILDREN SONGS
 They are sung by children during their playtime.
 Also referred to as play songs.
Features of Children Songs
1. Repetition is used. A word, sentence, and even a whole stanza can be repeated.
2. They are often short.
Functions of Children’s Songs
1. They help in developing children’s language skills as they listen to familiar words in the songs.
2. Help develop children’s listen skills, thus concentrate.
3. Encourage creativity in children. At times you find children adding words that were not initially
mentioned in the original versions of the songs.
4. Some teaching counting of numbers.

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  Now read the song below. You can practice singing it.
In and out the bamboo forest
In and out the bamboo forest
In and out the bamboo forest
You are my partner.
Beat a beat on my shoulder
Beat a beat on my shoulder
Beat a beat on my shoulder
You are my partner.
(c) Teasing Songs
 Sung to make fun of someone.
(d) Religious Songs
 Sung and performed during religious occasions.
 Sung mostly at places considered holy grounds.
 Sung softly and slowly.
(e) Love Poetry/Songs
 They are based on romance.
 Sung by one to the loved one.
 They are sung softly and slowly as they should present romantic elements.
 They are sung to:
1. Express romance.
2. Mend the damaged relationship between lovers.

(f) Cradle Songs/Poetry

 Performed to mark the birth of a child.
 In most cases, a child is wished a successful life in future.
 Mostly performed by women and girls.
 During this time, a child or child’s mother is presented with gifts.
(g) War Poetry
 Performed by warriors during war.
 Sung loudly to show bravery.
 During the singing, weapons are held in the hands of the performers.
(h) Hunting Songs
 Hunters perform hunting songs.

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  Sung on the way to and from hunting trip.
 Hunting tools carried in the process.
 Just like war songs, they are sung loudly.
 They are on the way to hunt to encourage themselves on the possibility of killing fatter and
enough animals.
 Also to pass time on their way.
(i) Satirical Songs
 One’s folly is criticized in this song.
 They are meant to help the wicked in some areas to change.
(j) Epics/Heroic Poetry
 They are elaborate and talk about the lives of heroes known to the community.
 The heroic deeds of the heroes are mentioned.
(k) Dirges
 Also referred to as funeral songs or funeral poems.
 They are sung after learning about the death of someone.
 Can also be sung during the funeral ceremony.
 Should also be sung softly to show the sadness that result from losing someone’s beloved
one.
 In some cases, weapons are held during the performance.
 There is the use of apostrophe. This is style of addressing an object or a death as if it is alive
and can respond.
 While women sing, men chant.
(l) Panegyrics
 In its specialized form panegyric is a type of song and one meant to praise someone.
 The praise song can be sung by someone else or sung by one for self praises. Sometimes
these are self-praises
 Formalized praises are directed publicly to kings, chiefs, and leaders, composed and
recited by members of a king’s official entourage.
 One can be praised in case of:
i. personal achievement in war ; or
ii. Achievement in hunting.

 Look at the panegyric in the next page.

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Ogun kills on the right and destroys on the right.
Ogun kills on the left and destroys on the left.
Ogun kills suddenly in the house and suddenly in the field.
Ogun kills the child with the iron with which it plays.
Ogun kills in silence.
Ogun kills the thief and the owner of the stolen goods.
Ogun-kills the owner of the slave—and the slave runs away.
Ogun kills the owner of thirty ’iwofa’ [pawns]—and his money, wealth and children disappear.
Ogun kills the owner of the house and paints the hearth with his blood.
Ogun is the death who pursues a child until it runs into the bush.
Ogun is the needle that pricks at both ends.
Ogun has water but he washes in blood.

ETIQUETTE

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TELEPHONE ETIQUETTE
Telephone etiquette are the rules that demonstrate the proper and polite way to use your phone/telephone.

It starts from how you prepare for phone calls to when you end the call.

Preparation for Phone Call

The following should be done before placing a call:

 Ensure you have enough time. It will not auger well to suddenly end the conversation because of
insufficient airtime.
 Go to a place where there is silence. Too much noise will distract your attention.
 Think through exactly what you want to say. Write it down if possible so you don’t forget what to
say or ask and look as though you didn’t have anything to say.

Tips to Display When Making a Call

Whether at work, at home, or on your mobile phone, remember to display the tips below at all times:

1. Identify yourself at the beginning of the call.

2. Speak clearly and slowly especially when leaving the message.
3. Speak with a low tone of voice. Be sure to know how loud you may be.
4. Always end with a pleasantry, for example,’ Have a nice day.’
5. Let the caller hang up first.
6. Stay away from others while talking on the phone. They don’t need to hear your private
conversation.

What to Avoid

1. Avoid being distracted by other activities while speaking. Some of these activities include:
 Rustling papers
 Chewing
 Driving
 Speaking with someone
 Shopping
 Working on the computer
2. Avoid allowing interruptions to occur during the conversation.
3. Do not engage in an argument with the caller.
4. Talking too loudly.

Not at these Places

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The following are places you should not make a call. You should even have your cell phone in a silent
mode or switch it off altogether.

 Bathrooms
 Hospitals
 Waiting rooms
 Meetings
 Museums
 Places of worship
 Lectures
 Live performances
 Funerals
 Weddings

Telephone Conversations

Here we shall focus on majorly business telephone conversations. It should be noted that there are
patterns that are followed; but not all will follow this rigid pattern. The six patterns include:

1. The phone is answered by someone who asks if he/she can help.

2. The caller makes a request either to be connected to someone or for information.
3. The caller is connected, given information or told that that person is not present at the moment.
4. The caller is asked to leave a message if the person who is requested for is not in.
5. The caller leaves a message or asks other questions.
6. The phone call finishes.

Exercise 1

Read the telephone conversation below and then answer questions that follow.

Pauline: (a form two student, Wajanja School) ring ring… ring ring …

Secretary: Hello, Wajanja School, this is Ms Esther speaking. How may I be of help to you?

Pauline: Yes, this is Pauline Karanja a form two student calling. May I speak to the principal, please?

Secretary: I am afraid MsKaluma is not in the office at the moment. Would you like to leave a message?

Pauline: I would really want, thanks. When she comes back, tell her I wanted to ask for one day
permission. My brother is sick and I would like to request her that I report one day after the opening day.
It is I who will be left with my siblings as the brother goes to the hospital. That is all.

Secretary: Sorry for that, I wish him quick recovery. I would give her the message as soon.

Pauline:I would be grateful madam. Thanks again.

Pauline:Welcome Pauline. Just ensure you report as stated here.

Secretary: Ok have a nice day madam.

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Pauline:You too have a perfect day. Goodbye

(a) With examples, outline the patterns of telephone conversation in above.

(b) Identify evidences of telephone etiquette tips displayed by Pauline in the conversation
above.

Exercise 2

Your sibling is very sick. You are planning to make a doctor a phone call to come to your home to
provide medication.

(a) State any three preparations you would put in place before making this important call.
(b) Give four bad habits you would avoid when making this call.

Exercise 3

Joan has just called the parent to ask them to pay the school fee. Unfortunately, the parent is not happy
with the way she has made the call. Identify any four telephone etiquette tips shecould have failed to
display.

MASTERY OF CONTENT

INTERVIEWS
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Have you ever attended the formal meetings where you are asked questions and are expected to respond
to them? More than once you will be invited to attend interviews. You can also invite someone to
interview. For this reason, you should some interview tips.

The two participants in an interview are the interviewer (at times a panel of interviewers), and the
interviewee.

Tips for the Interviewees

Job Interview Preparations

If you really want to be considered for a particular job following an interview, you have to adequately
prepare to succeed. The following are the preparations the interviewee would put in place before the
interview:

(a) Contact your referees to alert them that you will be interviewed and they are likely to receive a
call.
(b) Prepare your documents. Make sure they are neat and well arranged.
(c) Know the location where you are having the interview. It will help you know how long it will
take you to reach there.
(d) Do some research about the organization.
(e) Prepare what to wear and how to groom.
(f) Anticipate potential questions and prepare answers correctly.
(g) Arrive early enough for the interview.
(h) Prepare questions to ask the interviewer at the end. It will show how much you are interested in
working there.

During the Interview;

(a) Greet the interviewer.

(b) Knock on the door and wait for response before you enter. Shut the door behind you quietly.
(c) Wait until you are offered the seat before sitting.
(d) Sit or stand upright and look alert throughout.
(e) Make good eye contact with the interviewer to show you are honest.
(f) Explain your answers whenever possible and avoid answering questions with yes/no as answers.
(g) Answer questions honestly. Don’t ever lie!

Common Blunders you MUST Avoid

Avoid falling foul of the following:

1. Turning up late for the interview.

2. Dressing and grooming inappropriately.
3. Giving simple yes/no as answers.
4. Speaking negatively about your previous employer.
5. Sitting before invited.
6. Discussing time-off or money.

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As an Interviewer

Before the Interview:

1. Write down questions to ask.

2. Call the prospective employee’s referees.
3. Prepare the place for the interview.
4. Alert the interviewee about the interview. Mention the time and place.
5. Arrive early for the interview.

During the Interview:

1. Allow them enough time to respond to questions.

2. Encourage them to speak by, for example, nodding your head when they answer questions.
3. Speak and ask questions politely. Be friendly but formal as much as you can.
4. Make eye contact with the interviewee to show you are listening to them.

Exercise 1

you are the secretary of journalism Club at Maembe Dodo Mixed School. On Friday you would like to
interview your school Deputy Principal on the issue of Students’ Discipline.

(a) Write down any three questions you would ask him/her.
(b) Other than writing down questions to ask, how else would you prepare prepare for this day?
(c) State four things you would do as you interview him.

Exercise 2

Read the conversation below and then answer questions after it.

Ms Naomi: Welcome to our Doctor’s office.

Mr. Josh: Nice to be here.
Ms Naomi: I see from your resume that you are a cardiologist with 10 years of practice.
Mr. Josh: That’s right.
Ms Naomi: This interview is just to get to know you a little and then there are follow up interviews. So
what do you do in your free time?
Mr. Josh: I like golfing and swimming. I also like to read newspapers.
Ms Naomi:Why did you want to be a doctor?
Mr. Josh:Actually I love helping people get well. I think cardiology has made great strides recently and I
would like to share my findings with others.
Ms Naomi:Have you written in any scientific journals so far?
Mr. Josh:Not yet. But hopefully soon.
Ms Naomi:OK, we’d like to learn more about you. Let’s go for lunch wwith our colleagues, if that’s OK.
Mr. Josh:That’s fine, I am free.

(a) What two things qualify Ms Naomi as a good interviewer?

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(b) Identify two evidences of interview tips displayed by Mr. Josh.

READING FOR FORM TWO

READING SKILLS

SCANNING AND SKIMMING..

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Reading
 There is a lot of reading you will engage in. To cope with it all, you'll need to develop some
reading techniques.
 Here we'll talk about scanning, skimming and reading for study.
Scanning
 When you scan a text, you search for one particular item (or set of items) while ignoring everything
else.
 Suppose, for example, that you're writing an assignment on Effects of Drug Abuse, and you're
looking through a copy of Drug Addict’s Story, to see if there are any relevant material. You scan the
list of contents to find the part written Drug Abuse , then scan the materials listed there.
Skimming
 Whereas you scan for specific information, you skim a text to get a general idea of what information
it contains.
 In this case you might pick up the copy of Drug Addict’s Story in a library, skim through the
contents, turn to a couple of articles that interest you and skim through the paragraphs to get a sense
of what they are saying.
 You wouldn't read every word, or even look at every paragraph.
 You just read enough to find out whether the book/newspaper is worth reading/buying.

COMPREHENSION SKILLS
SUMMARY AND NOTE- MAKING.
SUMMARY

 An excellent summary is a summary written to show that you have read and understood
something.
 You will get assignments that ask you to read a certain material and summarize it.
How to produce a summary:
1.Read the material to be summarized and be sure you understand it.
2.Outline the major points.
3.Write a first draft of the summary without looking at the material.
4.Always use paraphrase when writing a summary.
5.Target your first draft for approximately 1/4 the length of the original.
6.Never put any of your own ideas, opinions, or interpretations into the summary. This means
you have to be very careful of your word choice.
7. Write in prose – not point form.

NOTE MAKING
How to Make Notes

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The following tips will come in handy when making notes:

1. Read the material carefully and thoroughly.

2. Underline the key sentences as you read. This will help in forming the title.
3. Make a rough note of the main points in a logical sequence.
4. Write the final notes.

You should have in mind that a note:

1. Should be short and to the point.

2. Contain all the important and relevant information.
3. Should have information systematically divided and subdivided.
4. Should have a short title. Avoid long sentences as titles.
5. Must be written in points only.

Notes Template

TITLE …………………….

(a) ………………………………………….
(b) …………………………………………
(c) ………………………………………..
(d) ………………………………………..

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GRAMMAR FOR FORM TWO
PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUNS

(a) COLLECTIVE NOUNS

 A collective noun is a word for a group of specific things or people regarded as an entity.
 Collective nouns are grouped under three categories:
i. Category of people
ii. Category of animals
iii. Category of things
1. Category of People

The collective used here are:

 An audience of listeners
 A babble of barbers
 A bench of bishops
 A blush of boys
 A promise of barmen
 A board of directors
 A class of students
 An army of soldiers
 A band of musicians
 A bunch of crooks
 A cast of actors/players (also a company or cry of)
 A choir of singers
 A crew of sailors
 A crowd of people/ spectators
 A flock of tourists
 A gang of labourers

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  A gang of thieves
 A goring of butchers
 A group of dancers
 A pack of thieves
 A panel of experts
 A regiment of soldiers
 A staff of employees
 A tabernacle of bakers
 A team of players
 A thought of barons
 A tribe of natives
 A troop of boy scouts
 A troupe of artists/dancers

2. Category of Animals

Those used for animals include:

 An army of ants
 A catch of fish
 A drove of goats/bullocks
 A fall of lambs
 A flight of birds
 A flock of birds
 A flock of sheep
 A haul of fish
 A herd of buffaloes/cattle/deer/elephants/goats
 A hive of bees
 A host of sparrows
 A kennel of dogs
 A knot of frogs
 A litter of cubs
 A litter of kittens/puppies
 A murder of crows
 A pack of wolves
 A pack of hounds
 A swarm of bees/flies
 A team of horses
 A team of ducks/horses/oxen
 A tribe of goats
 A troop of lions/monkeys
 A zoo of wild animals

3. Category of Things
 An album of autographs/photographs/stamps

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  An anthology of poems/stories
 A basket of fruits
 A bowl of rice
 A bouquet of flowers
 A bunch of keys
 A chest of drawers
 A cloud of dust
 A convoy of lorries
 A fleet of ships/lorries
 A forest of trees (also; stand, clump, grove of)
 A galaxy of stars
 A group of islands
 A hedge of bushes
 A library of books
 A nest of rumours
 A pack of cards
 A pack of lies
 A pair of shoes
 A range of mountains
 A rouleau of coins
 A stack of wood
 A string of pearls
 A wad of notes

Exercise 1
What name is given to a group of:

1. Writers 6. Grammarians 11. Preachers

2. Widows 7. Shoemakers 12. Candidates
3. Witches 8. Girl guides 13. Matrons
4. Tailors 9. Foresters 14. Magistrates
5. Judges 10. Prisoners 15. Lawyers

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 (b) COMPOUND NOUNS
 A compound noun is a noun that is made with two or more words.
 There are three forms for compound nouns:
 Open or space – space between words, for example, man servant
 Hyphenated – hyphen between words, for example, sister-in-law
 Closed or solid – neither space nor hyphen between words, for example, witchcraft
Compound Nouns Combinations

The following are the compound noun combinations with examples:

Noun + Noun

Football
Eyelid
Adjective + Noun

Greenhouse
Hotdogs
Verb + Noun

Washing machine
Dinning table
Noun + Verb

Haircut
Rainfall
Verb + Preposition

Check-out

Noun + Prepositional Phrase

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Master of ceremonies
Sister-in-law
Preposition + Noun

Underdog

Noun + Adjective

Spoonful

Plural Forms of Compound Nouns

 In general, we make the plural of the compound noun by adding –s to the most significant one. Look
at the table

Singular Plural
Head teacher Head teachers
Passerby Passersby
Mother-in-law Mothers-in-law
Wallpaper Wallpapers

 There are variations with those ending in –ful, like spoonful. You can either say spoonsful (new
style), spoonfuls (old style). It is advisable you remain consistent in your choice.

Compound Noun New Style Old Style

Spoonful Spoonsful Spoonfuls
Bucketful Bucketsful Bucketfuls
Cupful Cupsful Cupfuls
Truckful Trucksful Truckfuls
Mouthful Mouthsful Mouthfuls

 There are those nouns that have no obvious significant word. They will require you to consult the
dictionary to find their plural. For example,
 Go-betweens
 Good-for-nothings
 Grown-ups
 Higher-ups etc
 For compound nouns made of noun +noun, the first noun is taken as an adjective, and does not take
an –s. examples
 Apple trees
 Toothbrushes
 Bus stops , etc

Exercise

Using compound nouns, shorten the underlined phrases in the sentences below.

(a) She is cleaning a room for stores.

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(b) He bought a new ruler for measuring up to 30 cm.
(c) June is the assistant class secretary for form two.
(d) We had to stop at the station for the buses.
(e) Get me size of cables.
(f) They bought it as there was reduction in cost.
(g) Students are given two breaks of twenty minutes.
(h) These are the plugs with three pins.
(i) The mechanic has carried two metal boxes for the tools.
(j) Are you the wife of my son?

(c) POSSESSIVES
 A noun can be a possessive when it can also have “of a” or ”of the” preceding it. For example,
The watch of a girl – a girl’s watch.
The milk of the cow – the cow’s milk.
Singular Possessives
 A singular noun is usually made possessive by adding ‘s to the end of the noun. For example,
The man’s wheelbarrow is lost.
 Most proper nouns are made possessives by adding ‘s to the end of the word, for example,
Khalwale’s shirt is dark.
 A singular noun that ends in s can be made possessive by either adding ‘s to the end of the word, or
by only adding ‘ to the end of the word. Example,
Matthews’ job is good.
Matthews’s job is good.
Plural Possessives
 A plural noun that ends in s can be made possessive by only adding ‘ to the end of the word. Example
All the technicians’ fingers were cut.
 A plural noun that ends in other letters apart from s can be made possessive by adding ‘s to the
word. For example,
The women’s team will play next week.
Possessive Pronouns
 Most possessive pronouns do not use an apostrophe to indicate possession. Examples
 That is its tail.
 His is the new one.
 Ours has been received.
 Some possessive pronouns use ‘s, for example,
Grade “A” is everyone’s dream.
This is someone’s wrist watch.
Note: “it’s” is a contraction for “it is” and not a possessive.

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PRONOUNS
(a) NUMBER AND PERSON IN PRONOUNS

Pronoun Number

 A pronoun can be singular or plural.

 Singular pronouns are:
 I, me, he, him, his, she, her, it, anyone, this, etc
 Plural pronouns are:
 We, us, they, them, these, all, those, etc

Pronoun Person

 Pronouns are divided into three grammatical persons. These divisions are:
 First person
It refers to the one or ones speaking.
The pronouns used here are I, me, mine, we, us, ours
 Second person
The one spoken to, or directly addressed, is referred to here.
The pronouns in the second person are you, yours
 Third person
It refers to the one or ones spoken about.
Some pronouns used in the second person are it, its, they, theirs, them
Examples in Sentences
i. She likes me.
ii. Fred bought him an umbrella.
iii. Yours is the smallest.

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 (b)INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
 An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount.
 Some common indefinite pronouns are:

 All  Each  Nobody

 Another  Either  None
 Any  Enough  One
 Anybody  Everybody  Several
 Anyone  Everyone  Some
 Anything  Everything  Somebody
 Anywhere  Few  Someone
 Both  Many  Somewhere etc

 Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. Some of them can, however, be used as
singular and plural depending on the context.
 A singular pronoun takes a singular verb. Examples,
i. Each teacher has written her/his lesson notes.
ii. There are two cups. One is mine.
 By the same token, a plural pronoun takes a plural verb for agreement. Examples,
i. Many have been here.
ii. Both are my friends.

Meaning of Some Typical Indefinite Pronouns

Singular Indefinite Pronouns

Pronoun Meaning Example in a Sentence

Another Additional That cook was stubborn. Can you
help me get another?
Anybody/anyone No matter what person Is there anyone at home?
Anything No matter what thing Is there anything left there?
Each Every one of two or more Each has to pay for the damage.
Either One of the two Either is ok.

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 Enough As much as needed There is enough money to take us the
whole week.
Everybody/everyone All people Since everyone has arrived has left,
you can lock the gate.
Everything All things Everything that belongs to them have
been swept by flood.
Neither Not one and not the other of the two I always advise Muktar and Asiya
but neither listens to me.
Nobody/no-one No person I have written to many people but
no-one has replied.
Nothing Not anything Nothing has been heard from them
since.
One An unidentified person or thing One has not been found.
Other A different one from the one that has One of the twins is brown while the
been mentioned other is dark.
Somebody/someone Unknown or unspecified person Someone is missing.
Something An unspecified thing I hope she is cooking something.

Plural Indefinite Pronouns

 Both
 Many
 All

Exercise 1

Complete the sentence with the most appropriate indefinite pronoun from the list given below.

Everyone Nothing Anybody

Somewhere Anywhere Something
Everybody Anything

1. Would like ______________ to drink?

2. I couldn’t see _____________ in the dark.
3. Does _________ know her?
4. Don’t ask where she has gone. Dorothy can go __________ she feels like going.
5. The weapons were found ____________ here.
6. There is ____________ to watch.
7. Since _____________ has left, the shop can be closed.
8. We will get you _____________ you are. You can’t hide for long.
9. ____________ has approved our proposal.
10. We were told that there is a good school _____________ near here.
Exercise 2

Rewrite each sentence using the word in brackets.

1. He said nothing useful. (anything)

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 2. There is no anything left. (nothing)
3. Can anyone answer this question? (no-one)

VERBS

(a) AUXILIARY VERBS

 Auxiliary (or Helping) verbs are used together with a main verb to show the verb’s tense or to form a
negative or question.
 There are two categories of auxiliary verbs:

(i) Primary Auxiliaries

(ii) Modal auxiliaries

(a) Primary Auxilliaries

 The most common auxiliary verbs are have, be, and do.
 The three have their forms as shown below.

Verb Forms
Be  Be
 Am
 Is
 Are
 Was
 Were
 Been
 Being

Have  Have

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  Has
 Had

Do  Do
 Does
 Did

Examples in Sentences

1. Emiliana is running away from us.

2. If she doesn’t come on time, she’ll have to do all the work.
3. Does your name begin with an “F”?
4. The boys have finished the race.
5. I am writing you a notice
6. The milk has been drank by the cat.
7. I have purchased a new pair of shoes to replace the ones that were lost in my luggage.
8. We hope you don’t drop out of school.
9. She was asking Wachira a question.
10. Richard has been working hard the whole year.
11. Sarah doesn’t ski or roller skate.

(b) Modal Auxiliary Verbs

 Unlike the primary auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliaries never change form.
 Look at the list of modal auxiliary verbs follows:

 Can  Must  Should

 Could  Need  Will
 May  Ought to  Would
 Might  Shall

Functions of Auxiliary Verbs

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Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, add functional or grammatical meaning to the clauses in
which they appear. They perform their functions in several different ways:

 They express tense. For example past, present and future.

 Make sentences grammatically correct.
 They quantify verbs.
 Sentences are emphasized through them.

Auxiliary verbs almost always appear together with a main verb, and though there are only a few of them,
they are among the most frequently occurring verbs in the English language.

Auxiliary Verb Exercises

Fill in the blank with the correct auxiliary verb from the choices presented:

1. What ________________ the kids doing when you last saw them? (was, were, are, did, been)
2. Carla ________________ always wanted to try skydiving. (was, doesn’t, has, is, have)
3. Where __________________ you go on your summer vacation? (were, been, are, did, does)
4. Why do you think she __________ call you like she said she would? (didn’t, is, hasn’t, has been,
have)
5. Mary _____________ going to be upset when she hears what happened. (will, don’t, is, didn’t,
has)
6. Jeremy _____________ want to go to the movies; he wants to stay home instead. (doesn’t, isn’t,
wasn’t, hasn’t, was not)
7. I _________________ appreciate his jokes. They weren’t funny. (did, have, been, didn’t, haven’t)
8. I really like fish but I _______________ care for meat. (weren’t, been, don’t, is, was)
9. Where _____________ you going when I saw you last night? (were, was, is, do, did)
10. Tara ________________ called yet; she’s late as usual. (are, were, has, hasn’t, wouldn’t)

Answers: 1 – were, 2 – has, 3 – did, 4 – didn’t, 5 – is, 6 – doesn’t, 7 – didn’t, 8 – don’t, 9 – were, 10 –
hasn’t

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(b) PERFECTIVE ASPECT
 Also called complete aspect, is the aspect of a verb which expresses a completed action.
 The completed action can be:
 In the past, for example,
 We had met.
 She had left.
 They had drunk.
 In the present, examples,
 I have seen it.
 He has taken his bag.
 It has drunk its milk.
 In future, for example,
 She will have left.
 They will have gone.
 Helsy will have completed.

How to Form the Perfective Aspect

 Formed by using the auxiliary verb have and the past participle form of the main verb.
Past Perfect Tense
 Expresses action completed in the past.
 There could be one action completed before the one started.
Examples in Sentences
1. When he arrived, I had already eaten.
2. John had finished high school by the time I joined form one.
3. Gregory had seen them.

The Present Perfect Tense

 Expresses the action completed in the present, before the next one starts.
 Examples of sentences in this tense are:
 He has played.

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  We have finished.
 I have jumped already.

The Future Perfect Tense

 The future perfect tense refers to a completed action in the future. When we use this tense we
are projecting ourselves forward into the future and looking back at an action that will be
completed some time later than now. It is most often used with a time expression.
 The future perfect is composed of two elements
the simple future of the verb "to have" (will have) + the past participle of the main verb

Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative

I will have jumped I won't have jumped Will I have jumped? Won't I have jumped?

You will have jumped You won't have jumped Will you have jumped? Won't you have jumped?

He will have jumped He won't have arrived Will he have arrived? Won't he have arrived?

We will have jumped We won't have jumped Will we have jumped? Won't we have jumped?

They will have jumped They won't have jumped Will they have jmped? Won't they have jumped?

Function

Examples

 I will have been here for six months on June 23rd.

 By the time you read this I will have left.
 You will have finished your report by this time next week.
 Won't they have arrived by 5:00?
 Will you have eaten when I pick you up?

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(c) PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
 It expresses an on-going action.
 The action could have been in the past, present, or will happen in future.
 Verbs in this aspect are recognizable by the present participle (-ing)

Progressive Aspect with Past Tense

We use the pattern:

Was or were + present Participle,

Examples

 We were travelling.
 She was writing.

Progressive Aspect with Present Tense

The pattern below is used

Is or are +present participle, for example

 She is writing.
 They are dancing.

Progressive Aspect With Future Time

To form this, we use the pattern:

Will be + present participle

 He will be cyling.
 They will be crying.

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(d)FUTURE TIME
 There are a number of different ways of referring to the future in English. It is important to
remember that we are expressing more than simply the time of the action or event.
 Future always refers to a time 'later than now', but it may also express our attitude to the future
event.

All of the following ideas can be expressed using different tenses:

(i) Simple prediction: There will be strike next week.

(ii) Arrangements: She is running to Kilgoris tomorrow.
(iii) Plans and intentions: They are going to fly to London in December.
(iv) Prediction based on present evidence: I think it's going to rain!
(v) Willingness: She will pay your fee.
(vi) An action in progress in the future: This time next year he will be in form three.
(vii) An event or action that is a routine: You will be seeing Perpetua in the church tomorrow.
(viii) Obligation: You are to drive directly to my house.
(ix) An action or event that will take place immediately or very soon: The train is about to leave.
(x) Projecting ourselves into the future and looking back at a completed action: A month from now he
will have finished all his exams.

The four future verb tenses in English are:

 Simple future tense

 Future continuous tense
 Future perfect tense
 Future perfect continuous tense

Simple future tense

The simple future refers to a time later than now, and expresses facts or certainty.

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Examples in Sentences

(i) I will see you later.

(ii) She will do it. Do not worry.

How to Form the simple future

 The simple future tense is composed of two parts: will / shall + the infinitive without to.
 study the table below:

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I will visit I won’t visit. Will I visit?

I will not visit. Won’t I visit?

She will visit. She won’t visit. Will she visit?

She will not visit. Won’t she visit?

They will visit. They won’t visit. Will they visit?

They will not visit. Won’t they visit?

Contractions in simple Future

I will = I'll
We will = we'll
You will = you'll
He will = he'll
She will = she'll
They will = they'll
Will not = won't

Future continuous

 The future continuous refers to an unfinished action or event that will be in progress at a time later
than now.
 The future continuous is made up of:
the simple future of the verb 'to be' + the present participle (base+ing)
 The future continuous is used for quite a few different purposes. These functions include:

(i) To project oneself into the future. Example

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 This time next month she will be writing her final paper.

(ii) To predict or guess about future events. Example

You'll be missing these meals once leave high school.

(iii) To ask politely for information about the future. Example

Will you be attending my weeding this weekend?

(iv) To refer to continuous events expected to happen in the future. Examples

I'll be tracing him next month.

Future perfect

 The future perfect tense refers to a completed action in the future.

 In using this tense, we project ourselves forward into the future and looking back at an action that
will be completed sometime later than now.
 It is most often used with a time expression.
 To form it, include:
the simple future of the verb "to have" (will have) + the past participle of the main verb

Examples in Sentences

(i) Won’t you be here for my party for three hours next week?
(ii) You will have evacuated the building by the time the constructors arrive.
(iii) She will have left by the time we arrive.

Future Perfect Continuous

 This tense is used to project oneself forward in time and to look back.
 It refers to events or actions in a time between now and some future time are unfinished.
 It is most often used with a time expression.
 The future perfect continuous is composed of two elements
the future perfect of the verb "to be" (will have been) + the present participle of the main verb
(base + ing)
 Study the examples below:

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(i) I will have been doing my degree at the university for two years by 2019.
(ii) By 2030 he will have been driving his car for 15 years.
(iii) Next year I will have been learning in this school for three years.

ADJECTIVES
ORDER OF ADJECTIVES

 Adjectives denoting attributes usually occur in a specific order.

 In general, adjectives follow the following order:

Order Examples
Quantity Thirty, many, some
Opinion Nasty, dirty, beautiful
Size Short, tiny, huge
Shape Square, round, circular
Age Young, new, 20-year-old
Colour Green, indigo, pink
Origin/Nationality Kenyan, English, Chinese
Purpose Serving, sleeping,
Material Glass, earthen, metallic
Noun

Examples in Sentences

i. Hamisi has decided to sell his flashy new German car.

ii. I met several charming Indian ladies.
iii. There are three big football balls in the store.
iv. She has bought a few small white sleeping mats.

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ADVERBS
(a) ADVERBS OF PLACE
 They talk about when the action happened, will happen, or happens.
 They are placed after the main verb or object.
 Examples of adverbs of place are:
 Up
 Down
 Far
 Overseas
 Nearby
 North, etc
Examples in Sentences
1. She went there.
2. The supermarket is nearby.
3. She went overseas.
4. The bedroom is upstairs.
(b) ADVERBS OF DEGREE
 An adverb of degree tells us the intesity at which at which an action occurs, or degree of an
adjective or another adverb.
 Examples of adverbs of degree are:
 Extremely
 Quite
 Very
 Almost
 Just etc

Examples in Sentences
1. It very cold outside.
2. This water is extremely hot.

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PREPOSITIONS

COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS

 A complex preposition consists of two or three word combinations but acting as a single unit.
 Below are the examples:
 In accordance with
 On behalf of
 In aid of
 In line with
 With respect to
 By mean of
 In relation to

Examples in Sentences

1. I am writing in regard to what we discussed yesterday.

2. He came on behalf of his boss.
3. A word can be distinguished on the basis of stress.

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CONJUNCTIONS

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
 A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate clause (dependent) to a main clause (independent
clause).
 A subordinating conjunction is always followed by a clause.
 It reduces the importance of one clause so that the reader understands which of the two ideas are
important.
 Separate the subordinate clause from the main clause with a comma when the sentence begin with a
subordinate clause.
 The following is a list of common subordinating conjunctions:

 After  Before  Once  Unless

 Although  Even if  Provided  Until
 As  Even though  Provided that  When
 As if  How  Since  Whenever
 As long as  If  So that  Where
 As much as  Inasmuch  Than  Whereas
 As soon as  In order that  That  Wherever
 As though  Lest  Though  While
 Because  Now that  Till  Why

Examples in Sentences
i. When the door was knocked, Joan rose to open it.
ii. It is hard to give up drugs once you get addicted.
iii. Because I was sick, I went to see the doctor.
iv. Although it was cold, he took off his coat.
v. I can’t take you out since I have no money.

Exercise

Combine the pair of sentences using subordinating conjunction. Choose the conjunction from the
list below.

Rather than Whereas Before

While Now that Whether or not

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Once Even though Since

1. Henry passed the exams first time. Jane had to retake the exams twice.
2. My sister likes Math. I prefer Chemistry.
3. It was raining. I didn’t get wet.
4. I will be late today. There is jam in town.
5. Njuguna passed the test. Njuguna did not revise.
6. I will leave. There is someone to take care of the baby.
7. John is a boy. Mary is a girl.
8. Go to play. Call your sister.
9. I didn’t give the money to my sister. I gave the money to my cousin.
10. You know him personally. You have to agree that he has done a lot for this country.

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INTERJECTIONS
 A word(s) used to exclaim or protest or command.
 An injection conveys an emotion. The emotion can be of joy, disgust, surprise, excitement, etc.
 This word is normally placed at the beginning of a sentence.
 A forceful injection is followed by an exclamation mark.
 A less forceful injection is followed by a comma.

Examples in Sentences

i. Wow! I have won it!

ii. Jeepers, that was too close.
iii. Indeed, I like it.
iv. Good! I can now relax.
v. Oh, I didn’t know about that
vi. No, leave me alone.

Interjections which are Sounds

Interjections that follow are of sounds:

 Phew
 Ah!
 Mmm!
 Humph

Exercise

Fill the blanks with appropriate interjections.

1. __________, I can’t see you tomorrow.

2. _________, I will wait for you.
3. __________ ! The train is leaving!
4. ___________ I can now go and play.
5. _________ ! I am lost in this big town!
6. _________, that is wonderful.

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PHRASES
(a) CONSTITUENTS OF VERB PHRASES
 A sentence must have a verb.
 A verb phrase has a verb as the head word.
 A verb phrase consists of a main verb plus auxiliary veb(s).
 Look at the sentence below.
These girls are annoying.
Are annoying is the verb phrase.
Are is an auxiliary verb.
Annoying is the main verb.
 The main verb normally comes at the end of the phrase.

More Examples In Sentences

1. The prices have fallen.

2. They could be running from me.
3. They have been asking this question over and over again.
4. She should have been writing the book.

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(b)CONSTITUENTS OF ADVERB PHRASES
 An adverb phrase is a word group with an adverb as the main word.
 An adverb phrase can modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

Constituents of Adverb Phrases

An adverb phrase can consist of:

 An adverb
 Pre modifier, which can be an adverb, adjective, or a preposition.
 Post modifier

Adverb Phrases Examples

i. Quite slowly
Quite is the pre modifier, while slowly is the adverb
ii. On Friday night
Pre modifier is the preposition on . night is the post modifier

Examples in Sentences

i. The project was done very slowly.

ii. We talked all day long.

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CLAUSES

(a) INDEPENDENT AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

Independent Clauses

 A clause is independent when it meets the following conditions:

 It has a subject
 It has an action—what the subject is doing.
 It expresses a complete thought.

Examples

1. We left home.
2. He lives in Nairobi.

Subordinate Clauses

 A subordinate clause (or dependent) clasuse cannot stand alone as a sentence since it does not express
a complete thought.
 A dependent clause begins with a subordinate conjunction or relative pronouns or a relative adverb.
 It leaves one wondering “what happened?”
Examples
1. Where she went
2. Before Khamisi arrived.
3. After she abused me.

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(b)COMPOUND SENTENCES
 A compound sentence has two independent clauses.
 An independent clause, as earlier discussed, has a subject and and a verb and expresses a
complete thought.
 The two independent clause forming a compound sentence are joined using a coordinating
conjunction. At times, a semi colon is used.
 The coordinating conjunctions are:
 For
 And
 Nor
 But
 Or
 Yet
 So

These conjunctions can be best remembered by a handy mnemonic: FANBOYS.

 Here is an example of a compoud sentence:

He works in Wajir, but he stays in Isiolo.
 The sentence has two independent clauses: he works in Wajir and he stays in Isiolo.
 But is the coordination conjunction joining the two clauses.

Other Examples

1. Rose wanted to buy a dress, but she didn’t have enough money.
2. They did not go to church, yet their parent advised them to.
3. Do you want to go to Rongo or Homabay?

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(c) COMPLEX SENTENCES
 A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and at least one dependent clauses.
 A dependent clause lacks one of the elements that would make it a complete sentence.
 The clauses making up the complex sentence are combined using a subordinating conjunction.
 Here is an example for you:
Mobile phones have helped a lot since they came to the market.
 The independent clause mobile phones have helped a lot is joined to the dependent
clause since they came to the market.

More Examples in Sentences

1. Although deer eat my crops, they are cute.

2. Before you leave, give me your address.
3. While I prefer a permanent house, my wife prefers a semi permanent one.

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(d)ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
 A sentence can either have a verb in active form or passive form.

Active Voice

 In a sentence with an active verb, the subject performs the action denoted by the verb.
 Here is a sentence where the subject is performing the verb’s acton.
James is writing the notes.
 James is the subject doing the action “writing”.
 Since the subject James does the action, the sentence is said to be in the active voice.

More Examples

1. Richard locked the door.

2. Akoth painted the room.
3. He is buying the phone.

Passive Voice

 A normal order of many active sentences can be changed, such that the subject is no longer
active.
 In the case above, the subject is being acted upon by the verb.
 Here is an example for you:
The notes were written by James.
 The subject is the notes.
 it is passive as it is acted upon by the verb.
 Since the subject is being acted upon, the sentence is said to be in a passive voice.

More Examples

1. The door was locked.

2. The room was painted by Akoth.
3. The phone is being bought by him.

Changing a Sentence from Active Voice to Passive Voice

Follow the steps below in order to change the sentence from active to passive voice:

 Move the active sentence’s direct object in the subject’s slot.

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  Place the active sentence’s subject into a phrase beginning with the preposition “by” .
 Add a form of the auxiliary verb “be” to the main verb and change the main verb’s form.

Exercise

Change the sentences below to passive voice.

1. Juliet changed the flat tire.

2. Gregory painted the entire house.
3. Who taught you Physics?
4. No one answered my call.
5. Who stole my bag?
6. The hunter killed the antelope.
7. They will send her a success card.
8. The terrible news shocked everyone.

GRAMMAR ANSWERS
PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUNS

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

1) Worship 14) Bench

2) Ambush 15) Eloquence
3) Coven
4) A disguising
5) Bench
6) A conjunction
7) Blackening
8) Company
9) Stalk
10) A pity/a gang
11) Converting
12) Slate
13) Riches

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 (a) COMPOUND NOUNS
a) She is cleaning a room for stores.
She is cleaning a storeroom.
b) He bought a new ruler for measuring up to 30 cm.
He bought a 30-cm ruler.
c) June is the assistant class secretary for form two.
June is the assistant form two class prefect.
d) We had to stop at the station for the buses.
We had to stop the bus station.
e) Get me size of cables.
Get me cable size.
f) They bought it as there was reduction in cost.
They bought it as there was cost reduction.
g) Students are given two breaks of twenty minutes.
Students are given two-twenty minute breaks.
h) These are the plugs with three pins.
These are the three-pin plugs.
i) The mechanic has carried two metal boxes for the tools.
The mechanic has carried two metal toolboxes.
j) Are you the wife of my son?
Are you my daughter-in-law?

PRONOUNS

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

Exercise 1

1) Something
2) Anything
3) Anybody
4) Anywhere
5) Somewhere
6) Nothing
7) Everyone/everybody
8) Anywhere
9) Everyone/everybody
10) Somewhere

Exercise 2

1) He didn’t say anything useful.

2) There is nothing left.
3) No-one can answer this question.

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SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

1. Henry passed the exams first time. Jane had to retake the exams twice.
Henry passed the exams the first time while/whereas Jane had to retake them twice.
2. My sister likes Math. I prefer Chemistry.
Whereas/while my sister likes Math, I prefer Chemistry.
3. It was raining. I didn’t get wet.
Even though it was raining, I didn’t get wet.
I didn’t get wet even though it was raining.
4. I will be late today. There is jam in town.
I will be late today since there is jam in town.
Since there is jam in town, I will be late today.
5. Njuguna passed the test. Njuguna did not revise.
Even though Nuguna did not revise, he passed the test.
6. I will leave. There is someone to take care of the baby.
Now that there is someone to take care of the baby, I will leave.
7. John is a boy. Mary is a girl.
John is a boy while Mary is a girl.
8. Go to play. Call your sister.
Before you go to play, call your sister.
9. I didn’t give the money to my sister. I gave the money to my cousin.
Rather than giving the money to my sister, I gave it to my cousin.
10. You know him personally. You have to agree that he has done a lot for this country.
Whether or not you know him personally, you have to agree that he has done a lot for this
country.

INTERJECTIONS

1) No, 4) Phew
2) Well 5) Alas
3) Hurry 6) Ahh

7)

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

1. The flat tire was changed by Juliet.
2. The entire house was painted by Gregory.
3. By whom were you taught Physics?
4. My call was not answered by anyone.
5. My bag was stolen by whom?
6. The antelope was killed by the hunter.
7. A success card will be sent to her.
8. Everyone was shocked by the terrible news.

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WRITING FOR FORM TWO

SPELLING

COMMONLY MISSPELT WORDS

The table below contains words that are normally misspelt.

absence definition knowledge profession

accidentally describe laboratory professor
accommodate description laid prominent
accumulate desperate led pronunciation
achievement dictionary lightning pursue
acquaintance dining loneliness quantity
acquire disappearance lose quizzes
acquitted disappoint losing recede
advice disastrous maintenance receive
advise discipline maneuver receiving
amateur dissatisfied manufacture recommend
among dormitory marriage reference
analysis effect mathematics referring
analyze eighth maybe repetition
annual eligible mere restaurant
apartment eliminate miniature rhyme
apparatus embarrass mischievous rhythm
apparent eminent mysterious ridiculous
appearance encouragement necessary sacrifice
arctic encouraging Negroes sacrilegious
arguing environment ninety salary
argument equipped noticeable schedule
arithmetic especially occasionally seize
ascend exaggerate occurred sense
athletic excellence occurrence separate
attendance exhilarate omitted separation
balance existence opinion sergeant
battalion existent opportunity severely
beginning experience optimistic shining
belief explanation paid similar
believe familiar parallel sincerely
beneficial fascinate paralysis sophomore
benefited February paralyze specifically
boundaries fiery particular specimen
Britain foreign pastime statue
business formerly performance studying

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calendar forty permissible succeed
candidate fourth perseverance succession
category frantically personal surprise
cemetery generally personnel technique
changeable government perspiration temperamental
changing grammar physical tendency
choose grandeur picnicking tragedy
chose grievous possession transferring
coming height possibility tries
commission heroes possible truly
committee hindrance practically tyranny
comparative hoping precede unanimous
compelled humorous precedence undoubtedly
conceivable hypocrisy preference unnecessary
conferred hypocrite preferred until
conscience immediately prejudice usually
conscientious incidentally preparation village
conscious incredible prevalent villain
control independence principal weather
controversial inevitable principle weird
controversy intellectual privilege whether
criticize intelligence probably woman
deferred interesting procedure women
definitely irresistible proceed writing

Task
Write the correct spelling for:

1) absense 19) annualy

2) acceptible 20) apparant
3) accidentaly 21) arguement
4) accomodate 22) athiest
5) acheive 23) aweful
6) acknowlege 24) becuase
7) acquaintence 25) becomeing
8) aquire 26) begining
9) aquit 27) beleive
10) acrage 28) bouy
11) adress 29) busines
12) adultary 30) calender
13) adviseable 31) camoflage
14) agression 32) catagory
15) allegience 33) cauhgt
16) allmost 34) cemetary
17) alot 35) changable
18) amatuer 36) cheif

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 37) collaegue 88) lisence
38) colum 89) maintainance
39) comming 90) millenium
40) commited 91) mischievious
41) conceed 92) mispell
42) congradulate 93) neccessary
43) consciencious 94) neice
44) concious 95) nieghbor
45) concensus 96) noticable
46) contraversy 97) occassion
47) cooly 98) occasionaly
48) decieve 99) occurence
49) definate 100) occured
50) definately 101) ommision
51) desparate 102) orignal
52) diffrence 103) outragous
53) dilema 104) parliment
54) disapoint 105) passtime
55) disasterous 106) percieve
56) drunkeness 107) perseverence
57) embarass 108) personel
58) equiptment 109) playwrite
59) excede 110) posession
60) exilerate 111) potatos
61) existance 112) preceed
62) experiance 113) presance
63) extreem 114) privelege
64) facinating 115) professer
65) firey 116) promiss
66) flourescent 117) pronounciation
67) foriegn 118) prufe
68) freind 119) questionaire
69) guage 120) readible
70) greatful 121) realy
71) garantee 122) recieve
72) guidence 123) reciept[
73) harrass 124) recommend
74) heighth 125) refered
75) heirarchy 126) referance
76) humerous 127) relevent
77) hygene 128) religous
78) hipocrit 129) repeatition
79) ignorence 130) restaraunt
80) immitate 131) ryme
81) imediately 132) rythm
82) independant 133) secratary
83) inteligence 134) sieze
84) judgement 135) seperate
85) liesure 136) sargent
86) liason 137) similer
87) libary 138) skilfull

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 139) speach 149) usible
140) sucessful 150) vaccum
141) supercede 151) vehical
142) suprise 152) visious
143) tomatos 153) wether
144) tommorrow 154) wierd
145) twelvth 155) wellfare
146) tyrany 156) withold
147) underate 157) writting
148) untill

Answers

1. absence 38. column

2. acceptable – 39. coming
3. accidentally/accidently 40. committed
4. accommodate 41. concede
5. achieve 42. congratulate
6. acknowledge 43. conscientious
7. acquaintance 44. conscious
8. acquire 45. consensus
9. acquit 46. controversy
10. acreage 47. coolly
11. address 48. deceive
12. adultery 49. definite
13. advisable 50. definitely
14. aggression 51. desperate
15. allegiance 52. difference
16. almost 53. dilemma
17. a lot 54. disappoint
18. amateur 55. disastrous
19. annually 56. drunkenness
20. apparent 57. embarrass
21. argument 58. equipment
22. atheist 59. exceed
23. awful 60. exhilarate
24. because 61. existence
25. becoming 62. experience
26. beginning 63. extreme
27. believe 64. fascinating
28. buoy 65. fiery
29. business 66. fluorescent
30. calendar 67. foreign
31. camouflage 68. friend
32. category 69. gauge
33. caught 70. grateful
34. cemetery 71. guarantee
35. changeable 72. guidance
36. chief 73. harass
37. colleague 74. height

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 75. hierarchy 117. pronunciation
76. humorous 118. proof
77. hygiene 119. questionnaire
78. hypocrite 120. readable
79. ignorance 121. really
80. imitate 122. receive
81. immediately 123. receipt
82. independent 124. recommend
83. intelligence 125. referred
84. judgment 126. reference
85. leisure 127. relevant
86. liaison 128. religious
87. library 129. repetition
88. license 130. restaurant
89. maintenance 131. rhyme
90. millennium 132. rhythm
91. mischievous 133. secretary
92. misspell 134. seize
93. necessary 135. separate
94. niece 136. sergeant
95. neighbor 137. similar
96. noticeable 138. skilful
97. occasion 139. speech
98. occasionally 140. successful
99. occurrence 141. supersede
100. occurred 142. surprise
101. omission 143. tomatoes
102. original 144. tomorrow
103. outrageous 145. twelfth
104. parliament 146. tyranny
105. pastime 147. underrate
106. perceive 148. until
107. perseverance 149. usable/useable
108. personnel 150. vacuum
109. playwright 151. vehicle
110. possession 152. vicious
111. potatoes 153. weather
112. precede 154. weird
113. presence 155. welfare
114. privilege 156. withhold
115. professor 157. Writing
116. promise

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BUILDING SENTENCE SKILLS AND PARAGRAPHING

DEVICES OF DEVELOPING PARAGRAPHS

1) Giving Reasons

 Giving reasons is one way to illustrate or develop paragraphs.

 Many topic sentences give the writers’ personal opinion. Suppose, for example, that your
write a paragraph with the topic sentence Living in the village is more comfortable than in
towns.
 To make others accept your opinion, you have to explain why you think that is the case.

Reasons answer the question why? Why do you think life in villages is more comfortable? You
could have reasons as follow:

Reason: Food is fresh from the garden.

Reason: There is no rent and to pay.

Reason: The challange of traffic jam does not exist in the villages.

 Can you write a paragraph using the reasons and topic sentence above?
 Reasons are not just stated; they are supported by details. Some details may be facts, some
opinions..

2) Comparing and Contrasting

 Some writing topics will ask you to consider the relationship between two things,
for example, the houses in your village and those in the town you currently reside.
 Those kind of topics may allow you to organize your paragraph either around the
similarities between these two subtopics or around the differences between them.

Sample Paragraph

Comparison Paragraphs Organized by Similar Points

Consider the following paragraph:

The houses in my village and the houses in the town I currently

reside have several things in common. First, both are small and have
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 very few people staying in them. For example in the houses in the
village, between 5-10 people stay in such houses. Similarly, in the
houses in my present reidential area, Faruku, a household has about
eight people. A second way in which the two are similar ……..

Comparison Conjunctions

 In the comparison paragraphs there are various conjunctions that contribute to

paragraph coherence.
 Here is a list of comparison conjunctions you can use:

Short Conjunctions Longer Expressions

In the same way,

Similarly,
X is similar to Y in that (they)...
Likewise,
X and Y are similar in that (they)...
...the same...
Like X, Y [verb]...
...the same as...
In like manner,
...also...
One way in which X is similar to Y is (that)...
..., too.
Another way in which X is similar to Y is
both
(that)...

Contrast Conjuctions

Here are some contrast conjunctions that you can use:

Short Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions

However,

In contrast, On the other hand,

By contrast, even though + [sentence]

..., but although + [sentence]

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 whereas + [sentence]

unlike + [sentence]
..., yet
while + [sentence]

nevertheless,

3) Using Idiomatic Expressions

 Read the paragraph below. The words in boldface are the idiomatic expressions.

When I entered university, I lived in a small town near Ngunjiri. That was the first time I lived
alone. I felt it was a feather in my cap. I had nothing but a small bicycle. But I felt happy every
day. I wasn’t afraid to lose my shirt because I always lived on a shoestring. I didn’t become hot
under the collar because everyone helped me kindly.I found a part-time job in supermarket. The
owner was a bit of a stuffed shirt. So I tried to keep his shirt on and to handle our customers
with kid gloves.The experience taught me a sense of responsibility.

4) Using Facts/Statistics
 Another way to develop a paragraph is to include Include Facts and Statistics.
 Offer precise data from your own knowldege, or from authoritative sources, possibly in numerical
form.
 Summarize the results, or quote your sources.
 Facts and statistics are the kinds of evidence many readers consider convincing proof of
generalizations and opinions.
 Facts and statistics also help readers understand a subject/topic.
5) Using Rhetorical Questions

 A rhetorical question cannot be answered to you but the reader might answer the question to
himself/herself.
 A question which is posed without the expectation of an answer is called a “rhetorical
question.”

PUNCTUATION

QUOTATION MARKS

 Quotations marks ( “” ) are a pair of punctuation marks used primarily to mark the beginning
and end of a passage attributed to another and repeated word for word.

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 They are also used to indicate meanings and to indicate the unusual or uncertain status of a
word.
 Single quotation marks (') are used most frequently for quotes within quotes.
 Use quotation marks to cite something someone said exactly. Examples

 "I'm coming right now," she said.

 Kim told me, "Don't leave your shoes at the door. They will be stolen."
 Harry told me not to forget my soccer jersey.

 When rephrasing what someone told you, no quotation marks are needed. Example,

She said she was coming then.

 If quoting others within a quote, both single and double quotation marks are used to set the
two separate quotations off from each other.

APOSTROPHE

 An apostrophe (') is used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word, the
possessive case, or the plurals of lowercase letters.
 Examples of the apostrophe in use include:

• Omission of letters from a word: Are you comin’.

• Possessive case: Joel's house has been painted black.

• Plural for lowercase letters: They were told to mind their p's and q's.

 The apostrophe has two different, but important uses in English: possession and
contractions.

The contraction Apostrophe

The apostrophe is placed where the omitted letter would be in that case.

Type Without contractions Contractions

NOT is not, has not, had not, did not, would not, can not isn't, hasn't, hadn't, didn't, wouldn't, can't

IS she is, there is, he is, it is, Mary is, Jim is, she's, there's, he's, it's, Mary's, Jim's,

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 Type Without contractions Contractions

Germany is, who is Germany's, who's

AM I am I'm

WILL I will, you will, she will, we will, they will I'll, you'll, she'll, we'll, they'll

I would, you would, he would, we would, they

WOULD I'd, you'd, he'd, we'd, they'd
would

HAVE I have, you have, we have, they have I've, you've, we've, they've

ARE you are, they are, we are you're, they're, we're

The possessive apostrophe

In most cases you simply need to add 's to a noun to show possession

Examples

 Boy’s voice
 Teacher’s students

HYPHEN
 A hyphen is used between the parts of a compound word or name or between the syllables of
a word, especially when divided at the end of a line of text.
 Examples of this in use include:

• Between a compound noun: father-in-law

• Within a compound word: back - to - back

 In general, hyphens are used to join two words or parts of words together while avoiding
confusion or vagueness.

Examples

 go-down
 up-to-date

 There are some cases where hyphens maintain written clarity such as where there are letter
collisions, where a prefix is added, or in family relations. Many words that have been
hyphenated in the past have since dropped the hyphen and become a single word (email,
nowadays).

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Examples

 co-operate
 post-colonial
 great-grandmother

 Hyphens are also used in numbers

Examples

 Thirty-six
 Three-fifths

 Use a hyphen when a number forms part of an adjectival compound

Examples

 The school allows a 30-minute break.

 Most of us were born in the tweentienth-century.

1. STUDY WRITING
(a) SUMMARIES

SUMMARY

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 An excellent summary is a summary written to show that you have read and understood something.
 You will get assignments that ask you to read a certain material and summarize it.

How to produce a summary:

1.Read the material to be summarized and be sure you understand it.

2.Outline the major points.

3.Write a first draft of the summary without looking at the material.

4.Always use paraphrase when writing a summary.

5.Target your first draft for approximately 1/4 the length of the original.

6.Never put any of your own ideas, opinions, or interpretations into the summary. This means you have to
be very careful of your word choice.

7. Write in prose – not point form.

(b)DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS

 This type of essay requires the writer to describe something.

 The writer should be quite vivid in their description.
 The writer should also be observant.

Describing a person

 When you are describing a person, you are telling the reader something about him or her. The
quality of your description will depend on your observation and on how well you can express
yourself in writing.

Example:

Victor Kumasi

We hear about him a lot. He is always the first to arrive in the classroom. This has made him our
class teacher’s favourite. When it comes to running, I don’t know what to say; he runs faster than
most of the athletes we admire. The only surprising thing is that he never speaks English. Even at
that he remains the most loved in the whole school.

Describing a place

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In describing a place, you need to use your five senses. just consider :

 What you see

 What you hear
 How it smells
 The taste
 How it feels like

2. CREATIVE WRITING

IMAGINATIVE COMPOSITIONS
Elements of Imaginative Compositions

In order to write a good story, use these important elements:

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a) Characters: Refers to those who act in the story. They should be people, animals or objects
that think and talk.

b) Setting: Describes time and place of the story for example: classroom, lakeside, town etc.

c) Plot: Refers to the series of actions that the characters go through as they try to solve a
problem. In the plot, we have the:

1. Introduction: This is usually short. It presents the character, the situation or the problem, and part
of the setting.
2. Development: This simply shows how the situation affects the characters and what they do to try
and solve the problem.
3. Conclusion: This shows the solution of a problem. It is usually short. It may lead to a happy, sad
or surprise ending.

When writing a story, remember to organise the flow of your events so that the reader’s interest
is maintained throughout the story. The element of suspense should also be created and
maintained so that the reader will want to find out what is most likely to happen in your story.

You can create suspense by:

1. Including mystery
2. Changing the scene
3. Creating unexpected events
4. Including dialogue
5. Giving surprise ending
6. Moving from one character to another

3. INSTITUTIONAL WRITING
(a) Business Letters
 Usually from one organization/company/institution to another, or between such and their customers
and other external parties.
 A business letter is any letter with two addresses, salutation, RE, and ends with a sinature, and whose
contents are professional in nature.
 It is more formal than personal letters.
 You must have the formatting down.

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 Some types of business letters are:
 Sales letters
 Order letters – sent by consumers or businesses to manufacturers, retailers or wholesalers to
order goods and services. The contents include quantity, name, etc of the product.
 Complaint letters – use a tone that will make your complaint be satisfied.
 Inquiry letters. Written to elicit information from the recipient.
 Letters of Recommendation. Usually written by previous employer describing the sender’s
relationship with and opinion of the job seeker.
 Others include: cover letters, acknowledgment letters, letters of resignation, follow-up letters,
and adjustment letters.
Business Letters Format
 There are two layouts of business letters: Block and Indented layouts.
 When you choose to use block layout, all the information is written flush left.
 Provide your address first.
 Then skip one line and provide the date.
 Skip one more line and provide the inside address of the addressee.
 Note that when using letterhead, there is no need of writing your address. Only begin with the
date.
 Skip yet another line and write salutation. This is followed by a colon. Comma is used for
personal correspondence.
 Write “RE” and write the subject.
 Write the body. Skip lines between the paragraphs.
 After the body, write complementary close, followed by a comma, sign, then type your
name and title(only if applicable)
 When you choose to use indented layout:
 Your address appears on the right.
 Date on the right.
 Addressee’s address, salutation on the left.
 Typing do not start from the flush left.
 No skipping lines between paragraphs.
 Type the closing and signature in the center.

Note: Block format looks professional.

Sample Business Letter

Kamato Academy,
P.O. Box 789 – 20100,
OGONGO – KENYA

January 3rd , 2016

The Director
Kamato Academy
P.O. B ox 789 – 20100

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OGONGO – KENYA

Dear Ms Jane:

RE: RESIGNATION FROM KAMATO ACADEMY

I am writing to provide formal notice of my resignation from Kamato Academy. My last day will be 31 st
January this year.

I trust four weeks is sufficient notice for you to find a replacement for my position. I would be pleased to
help train the person you choose to take my place before I finally leave.

Thank you for offering me the job for the past two years. My experience as a teacher, head of various
departments and patron of clubs and societies here has been positive and I am confident that I will use
most of the skills I have learnt at Kamato Academy in future.

If you have any concerns, please let me know. I will be more willing to listen to you.

All the best,

[sign]
D’Matteo Kichapo
TEACHER ASSISTANT

Kipchoge Muslims School

P.O. Box 567 – 30300
WAJIR KENYA

July, 13th 2016

Manager,
Leakey Village Inn
P.O. Box 1234 – 103450
Kirema – Kenya

Dear Sir,

Reservation of Rooms for Motivational Camp

I am writing on behalf of the Scouts Club of Kipchoge Muslims School. We are organizing a
two-day-one-night motivational camp and have selected your hotel as the venue for the camp.
The tentative dates for the camp are 23 and 24 August 2016. We would like to know if you will
be able to accommodate us for the period.

Altogether, there will be forty students and four teachers on this trip. We will need two rooms for
the teachers (twin sharing). For the students we would need fourteen rooms only (twin sharing as

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 well). Please include an extra bed in each room to accommodate a third person.

We plan to arrive at 2 o'clock in the afternoon of Friday 3 August. We hope you will be able to
serve some light refreshments. We will begin our program at 4 p.m. We will require the use of a
conference room that can accommodate 40 people. We would like a microphone, projector and
screen, a stage and a rostrum. Since the students will be working in groups, we would like eight
tables arranged in two rows. We also hope that water can be made available in the room at all
times so that students can have a drink right there and do not have to leave the room too often.

Regarding meals, we expect to have dinner at 7 p.m., breakfast at 7 a.m., the next morning and
lunch at 11 a.m., just prior to our departure. We hope to be able to check out by midday on
Saturday 4 August.

We would like to know your rates for students, and whether you have a special rate for group
bookings. Also, what are your charges for the use of the conference room and the equipment?
Please let us know if payment can be made by credit card or cheque.

We look forward to hearing from you soon. Please contact us if you need us to furnish you with
further details.

Thank you.

Yours faithfully,

(b)POSTERS
 A poster is any piece of printed paper designed to be attached to a vertical surface e.g. a wall.
 A poster is intended to convey message at the same time appeal to the audience.
 A poster can be professionally used for advertisements, announcements, or to share information.
 A poster can focus on topics like:
(i) Child labour
(ii) Drug abuse
(iii) Corruption

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 (iv) Prostitution
(v) Domestic violence
(vi) Road accident, etc.

How to Create Posters

 Find a good idea for a poster. You can focus on cars, sports, etc.
 Create an image or picture with a clearly inspiration point. If for example, talking about child labour,
one can draw a child working in the fields, and being whipped.
 Balance between the picture and the writings.
 Emphasize the most important information. You can write them in different ink, or underline them.
 The picture/image and the writing should be within the borderline.
 Be concise.

Activity

Let the students choose any of the topics above and design their posters in groups. Ensure there is a
balance between the picture and the words. After they finish, allow them pin their posters on the wall.

Exercise

The habit of shirking assignments in your class has become rampant. You don’t like it and you want to
design a poster to warn your classmates against it. Design that poster.

(c) ADVERTISEMENTS
 Advertising is how a company/individual encourages people to buy their products, services or ideas.
 An advertisement (short form: ad)is anything that draws excellent attention towards these things.
 Ads appear on television, as well as radio, newspapers, magazines and as billboards in streets and
cities.
 They try to get people to buy their products, by showing them the good rather than bad of their
products.

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 First impression is very important and there is usually no second chance at making a good first
impression.
 An advertisement should catch the attention within seconds – if it doesn’t, then it is considered failed.
 It is crucial to showcase your product in a very clever way.

How to Create an Advertisement

 Grab the attention of the audience by coming up with a tagline that is catchy. You can consider using:
 Humour
 Thyme
 Puns
 Metaphor
 Alliteration, etc
 Type the name of the business.
 Have a picture to reinforce your message.
 Balance between the picture and the wordings.

Activity

Let the students design their own adverts. They can advertise things like;

(a) New books

(b) New brand of pen
(c) Anything

4. PERSONAL WRITING
(a) PERSONAL JOURNALS
 A personal journal is a record of individual’s impression of a given event, occurrence or a person.
 Record what strikes you the most.
 What you record could have happened to you or to others.

Contents of A Personal Journal

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1. Date
2. Day
3. At times, the calendar
4. Entry

Sample Personal Journal

MY PERSONAL JOURNAL

Calendar
February, 2016
Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
1 2 3 4 5
6
7 8 9 10 11 12
13
14 15 16 17 18 19
20
21 22 23 24 25 26
27
28
(circle/underline the date)

ENTRY
Today was particularly my best in the month of February, in fact from January. Can you
believe Tom, of all the form two students, has been appointed the new class prefect. This
has marked the end of bad news and opened the door to fortunes. I will do all I can to
improve that class!

I had never given it thought until I was told my name had been mentioned by the deputy
principal. It was my friend, Huggies who told me it was me and not any other Tom. Of
course I am the only Tom in that great class. I must express my happiness at this. A small,
small class prefect in a big, big classroom.

My happiness cannot allow me write more than I have written, my dear journal. Let the rest
be said tomorrow. Goodnight.

(b)SHOPPING LISTS
 A shopper needs to write a list of all the items to be purchased.
 Written before a shopping trip to a shop, grocery, or supermarket.
 Writing a shopping list will help cut down on money wastage and time for thinking on what to buy
while at the shopping center.

Contents of A Shopping List

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 A shopping list contains the following:
1. Title. A title must have what the shopping is intended for and the words “shopping list”.
2. Budgeted amount. Write how much you have at hand to do shopping. Don’t use more than
what you have. Budget carefully. You can’t also remain with a certain amount. If you are left
with too much from what you were to use, it will also mean you don’t know how to budget.
3. Item category. Items are normally put under different categories. It is a good idea to group
related items together for ease in shopping. Items are categorized as;
 Snacks e.g. cake, chips, etc.
 Toiletries e.g. soap, toothpaste, tissue papers, etc.
 Foodstuff
 Drinks/beverages
 Electronics
 Clothing
 And others
4. Item. Write items under the right category.
5. Description. Write the type of item you want. Prices might also be different. If for example
you want to buy juice, write the type you want, for instance, savanna, pineapple. Their prices
vary.
6. Quantity. Say how many or how much you need to buy. If a liquid use mililitres, litres etc. if
solid, grams, kilograms, will do.
7. Price. The amount to be spent on each item is written in this column.
8. Total. Write the amount in total to spend. Never spend more than budgeted for.

 More creative individuals add to their shopping lists:

 Expected balance/change
 Where shopping to be done. For example: shopping to be done at Uchumi Supermarket.
 Who to do shopping, among other things.

Sample Shopping List

BACK TO SCHOOL SHOPPING LIST

BUDGETTED AMOUNT: Sh. 6 100

NO ITEM ITEM QUANTITY DESCRIPTION PRICE

CATEGORY IN KSH.
1 Stationery Exercise books 8-200 pages Crown 800
Ruler 2 Helix 100

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 Mathematical set 1 Oxford 300
Pens 10 Bic 200
2 Clothing Blouse 1 Short sleeved 500
Skirt 1 Dark grey 500
Cardigan 1 Indigo one 600
Neck tie 1 Red stripped 200
3 Books Set Books 3 The River and 600
the Source
Betrayal in the 500
City
Mstahiki Meya 600

4 Drinks Soda 3-1 Litre Coke 300

Juice 2L Delmonte 300
5 Snacks Crackers 50g Cheez it 110
Cookies 100 g Oreo 200
Pretzel 100 gm Bold Gold 200
TOTAL 6010
Expected Balance: Sh. 90

Exercise

You are form two class prefect. Your class is throwing the end of the year class party. Before this
happens, there is contribution by all the class members. If the total amount raised is sh. 9 000 which you
are supposed to budget for, prepare the shopping list of the item you would buy.

5. SOCIAL WRITING
(a) INVITATIONS
 Sending invitations is the appropriate way to communicate to your guest what is it that you are
celebrating and what the event is all about.
 There are two types of invitations:
 Informal invitations
 Formal invitations
 Invitations also take form of: invitation cards or invitation letters.

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 (i) Invitation Cards
 They are designed to invite individuals to various ceremonies and parties.
 When designing an invitation card remember to :
 Provide the name of the host for the party.
 Extend the invitation by choosing appropriate formal wording, such as, “request your presence”
or less formal wording, such as “totally invites you”.
 Include honorifics (Dr./Mr./Ms/ etc.) before the guest’s name especially if formal.
 Answer the question “what?” Tell the guest what the event is for. Is it for birthday party, wedding
party, birth of a new baby, fundraising etc. if, for example, it is a birthday party ensure you tell
them who is it for and age the person is celebrating. By the same token, if it is graduation, tell
them who it is for and mention the education milestone they completed. The purpose of the event
is stated clearly.
 Be clear about the date and time of the event. Day of the week should also be included. Example
Saturday, 16th May 2016 at 4.00 pm.
 Be clear on the venue. Tell them where the party will be held. If the party is held off-site (not
where is known to all), you can even give directions.
 Write “RSVP”. Under this, write the name of the people to be contacted and their contact details.
You can write the phone number to allow them contact you so as to inform you ahead of time
whether or not they will be attending. RSVP is French abbreviation for “respondez sil’vous plait”
which simply means “please respond”.
 Give instructions to your recipients on for example, how to dress, or bring something, if to bring
another guest, or any other thing to do.
 You can also include the teaser. Include something that will drive them to the party even before
the actual day. You can mention things like drinks, dance, etc. These make them looking towards
attending the party.
 Include simple but a picture that ties with the party. You can have a picture of a cake if birthday
party.

Sample Invitation Card

Informal Invitation Card

Because you have believed in

Them,
Celebrated with them
Loved and encouraged them,

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 We, Ruth Kimani and John Kimani
Ask you to join us in honouring our
Children

Jenifer Wanjiku
And
Joseph Njoroge

As they celebrate the beginning of

Their adventures together
On Saturday, January 11th , 2016
At 9.00 am

Ceremony followed by dinner,

Drinks, and awkward but
Enthusiastic dancing

RSVP:
Mr. john Kimani or Ms Ruth Kimani
Mobile: 0711111111 Mobile: 0712121212

Formal Invitation Card

THE FAMILY OF MR AND MRS KAIMOSI

Calls for the contentment of

Dr/Pst/Mr/Mrs/Ms/Eng/ ……………………………………………..
Company
At the marriage of
Arsenal Chelsea and Migingo Island
On Saturday, the second of January; 2016
At half past 4.00 in the evening
At their Kasarani home
Dress as you wish, dine as you like
Dance as you please

RSVP:
Mr. Kaimosi Mrs Kaimosi
Email: [email protected] Phone: 0716602808

(ii) INVITATION LETTERS

 An invitation letter, normally business, is written to invite people to various events, such as, seminars,
conferences, and many other functions.
 It takes the format of other business letters.
 In an invitation letter one should include the details required. Only the pertinent information
regarding the event should be included.
 They are written to invite:

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  A resource person to school
 Teachers, students, etc to seminars, conferences, drama festivals, etc

Elements of Invitation Letters

An invitation letter will include things like:

 Brief description of the institution/ organization. Let the recipient know what you do and to know
whether you have the right to hold such an event.
 Include all the pertinent information.

Jehova Jireh School,

P.O. Box 2345 – 30456,
BETHLEHEM –PALESTINE.

February 6th, 2016

The Chairperson,
NACADA,
P.O. Box 966 – 40500
NEBUCHADNEZER – CANAAN.

Dear Mr. Herod:

RE: INVITATION TO GIVE A TALK ON DRUG ABUSE

On behalf of Environmental Club, Jehova Jire School, it is my pleasure to extend the invitation to our school
parents’ day in the school refectory on Friday, 6th March, 2016 at 9.00 am. You are invited to give a talk on drug
abuse.

Jehova School is one of the three schools in Bethlehem in which students have continued to abuse drugs. However,
most of them are ready to respond to what they are told on dangers of hard drugs. Environmental club has been
given the power to curb the use of such drugs.

I do hope you will be able to confirm your attendance to this invitation. We look forward to your presence at this big
day.

Yours sincerely,

[sign]
Abraham Father Luke – ENVIRONMENTAL CLUB CHAIR

6. PUBLIC WRITING
(a) TELEPHONE MESSAGES
 People who work in offices often answer phones for others especially in their absence.
 When you answer such calls, you need to take the messages for them.
 The telephone messages have the following elements:
(i) Name of the person the caller wanted to talk to.
(ii) The name of the caller.

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 (iii) Date and time of the call.
(iv) Telephone number of the caller.
(v) Details of the message. Here you write something like: She called to ask whether you
will attend the fundraising ceremony at Migingo Hotel.
(vi) The name of the receiver of the call.
 Look at the telephone note pad below.

SUKUMA WIKI HIGH SCHOOL

TELEPHONE MESSAGE NOTE PAD
DATE: ____________________________
TIME: __________________ AM/PM
TO: ______________________________________
FROM: ____________________________________
TELEPHONE: ___________________________
Telephoned Please call
Called to see you Will call again
Wants to see you Returned your call

MESSAGE: ………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
RECEIVED BY: _________________________________________

Exercise

Your name is Elliot Kumo. As the youth leader in your ward, you have the responsibility of ensuring the
garbage in your area are collected by the company known as Matakataka Chafu Garbage Collectors. One
day they fail to do that and you decide to call the manager to complain about this and that they should
bring the truck the next day to pick up the garbage. Unfortunately, the secretary called Amina Salim picks
the call. In a telephone message note pad, write the message Amina will take.

Answer

MATAKATAKA CHAFU GARBAGE COLLECTORS

TELEPHONE MESSAGE NOTE PADS
DATE: 15TH January, 2016
TIME: 9.00 AM/PM
TO: Makau Collins – Manager
FROM: Elliot Kamau – Youth Leader, Kijiko Ward

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 TELEPHONE: 254-720467987
Telephoned √ Please call
Called to see you Will call again
Wants to see you Returned your call

MESSAGE: He called to complain about the failure of garbage truck to pick up their
garbage today. He is wondering whether the truck could stop tomorrow and pick it up.

RECEIVED BY: Amina Salim

SECRETARY

(b)FILLING FORMS
 Filling forms might seem easy to majority of people but this is usually not the case.
 To fill the form as required, you need to consider the points below:
 Go through the whole form before you start filling it in.
 Read the instructions and ensure you understand them.
 Fill one section at a time to avoid confusion.
 Fill all the blanks unless stated for official use only.
 If there is a part

Sample Form

EMBE DODO MIXED SECONDARY SCHOOL

(Email: [email protected], phone: 071666666, Website: www.embedodo.go.ke)
‘ Making future from the present’
STUDENT’S ADMISSION FORM
INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
1. Use black ink only.
2. Fill all the blanks you are required to.
3. Complete each section in BLOCK letters.
(a) Student’s Personal Details
Student’s Name: ………………………………………………………………………
Date of Birth: …………………………………………………………………………..
Gender: …………………………………
Religion: …………………………………..
Name and classes of brother(s)/sister(s) in school
Sibling’s Name Sibling’s Class

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 (b) Parent’s Details
Parent/Guardian’s Name:
………………………………………………………………………………..
Profession: …………………………………………………………….
Address: ……………………………………………………………
Mobile Number: ………………………………………………….
(c) Academic Details
Class in which Admission is sought:
……………………………………………………………………..
KCPE Marks: ……………………………………………………………………..
Last Term Grade: ……………………………………………………………..
(d) Health
Have you been diagnosed with cancer or HIV/AIDS? Yes/No
If yes for how long
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Do you suffer from any heart disease? Yes/No
(e) Declaration
I declare that what I have written here is the true and I am responsible for any eventuality that
might result from this.
Sign: ______________________________
Name: ___________________________________________________
Date: ______________________________

(f) For Official use only

Qualified for admission: _________________________
Remarks:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Signature of the officer: _________________________________________

(c) LETTERS OF APOLOGY

 We all make mistakes from time to time. When that happens, it is worthwhile that the situation be
mended early.
 One way to mend the situation is by writing a letter apologizing for the wrong done.
 A letter of apology is written in order to:
 Lay out your mistakes clearly;
 Ask for forgiveness;

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  Exhibit regret;
 Provide assurances for change; and
 Allow for building of relationships.
 When writing a letter of apology:
 Begin the letter by saying you are apologizing.
 Admit you were wrong and accept the responsibility.
 Offer a way you can help resolve the situation.
 Reassure the person that you will do your best to prevent the problem from occurring again.
 Tell the person you are looking forward to rebuilding the damaged relationship.
 Apologize again to close the letter.
 Be sincere.

How to Write Apology

STEP EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

 Say you are sorry I am writing to apologize for
coming late to school.
 Clearly state the problem. My brother was recently
 Explain as much as you can what went admitted at the hospital. This
wrong. morning no one was left at home
with my youngest sibling. She
was crying and I had to first wait
for any of my relatives to come.
 Try to solve the problem. To mend this, I promise to come
 Give examples of how you can do this. early from tomorrow. I will let
my parents know that the next
time they leave they should leave
someone behind to babysit the
child.
 Apologize again Again, I am sorry for reporting
late. I hope that we can put this
issue behind us. I look forward to
rebuilding the relationship.

Exercise

One of the school rules state: “ONLY English and Kiswahili are the official languages to use at school”.
The school head of Languages department has caught you speaking in your mother tongue. Write him the
letter, apologizing for your action.

Answer

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KEMBOI HIGH SCHOOL
P.O. BOX 434 – 30300
ELDORET – KENYA

14TH January, 2016

THE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT – LANGUAGES

KEMBOI HIGH SCHOOL
P.O. BOX 434 – 30300
ELDORET – KENYA

Dear Mr. Kipchoge:

RE: APOLOGY FOR SPEAKING IN MOTHER TONGUE

I am sorry for breaking one of the school rules.

I knew that speaking in mother tongue is prohibited at school, when I spoke it. I am deeply sorry for
acting as though I am above the rules everyone should follow. It was impolite to both you and the other
teachers.

I promise to obey all the school rules now that I have learnt that no one is above the school rules. It was
inappropriate of me to speak the language not acceptable at school. I know that punishment meted on me
is completely deserved.

Once again, I am sorry for my stupid behavior. I will from now on speak in the two official languages.
I hope our differences have been put behind us and that our relationship remains undamaged.

Yours Sincerely,
[signature]
Kimita Keino
FORM 2 STUDENT

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