IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

10 REASONS TO FAILURE MAIN FUNCTION OF DARKROOM

1. Poor people skill • To prevent/protect film from exposure to
2. A negative attitude white light and ionizing radiation during
3. A bad fit handling and processing
4. Lack of focus
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
5. A weak commitment
AGENCY (OSHA)
6. An unwillingness to change
• It requires RT to wear face mask
7. A shortcut mind set
• RATIONALE: fumes are carcinogenic
8. Relying on talent alone
9. A response to poor information DARKROOM DISEASE
10. No goals • people who are hypersensitivity to fumes
RADIATION TECHNIQUE EXPOSED FILM
DARKROOM • 2-8 times more sensitive to subsequent
• a scientific laboratory exposure than unexposed film
• where radiography starts and ends • RATIONALE: it contains the latent image
• location: adjacent or in proximity to the
LATENSIFICATION
exposure room
• Increase in sensitivity after exposure to
• can be place in exposure room but it
white light or ionizing radiation
should contain 1.5 mm Pb thickness, or the
• 2 to 8 times increase in sensitivity
concrete wall thickness is 6”
LOADING BENCH
AUTOMATIC MANUEL • also called “workstation”
PROCESSING PROCESSING • The top part is hardwood-teak covered
Manual Processing
Automatic Processor with Linoleum (Formica)
Unit
Loading Bench Loading Bench • Linoleum: prevent static electricity
Hopper, drawers and Hopper, drawers and artifacts (characteristic artifacts)
cupboards for film cupboards for film • Measurement:
storage storage ► Length 2.5 m
Cassette Racks Cassette Racks ► Width 600 mm
Cassette Hatches Cassette Hatches
► Heigh 900 mm
Darkroom Sink
Hangers for ► Side to side 3 to 4 cassette
suspending film
Processing chemicals Extra notes: the new reference states that there
+ storage place is 4 insertion tank (wetting, developing, stop bath
Dryer and 2 fixing) and 1 master tank
Negatoscope
CLOTHING REQUIREMENT FOR PROCESSING:
In OPERATING ROOM and EMERGENCY ROOM, the scrub suit should be 100% natural fiber
it should have their own darkroom (cotton) to prevent static artifact specifically
smudge artifact
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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

Static Electricity Artifacts Gross Control of Temperature

• also called characteristic artifacts • automatic processor temperature control
• a plus (+) density artifacts that uses warm water
• caused by low humidity or moisture Fine (thermostatically) Control of Temperature
(dryness) leading to friction • automatic processor temperature control
▪ NOTE: Humidity and temperature that uses tap or cold water
are inversely proportional
• appearance: TREE, CROWN and SMUDGE NEGATOSCOPE
a. Tree • a wet film illuminator situated on wet
▪ cause: interleaving paper section of the darkroom
▪ similar to the structure of pine tree
HANGER STORAGE
b. Crown
▪ cause: newly opened boxes that is • Stored on metal wall brackets
because of the friction since • Each one projects about 230 mm from the
mahirap kuhanin wall and can hold max of 12 hangers
▪ round with a thorny spike • Two brackets should be placed 100mm
c. Smudge apart from each other
▪ cause: due to rough surface • Height from workbench is about 750 mm
▪ irregular shape of smoke like • Types of hangers used:
▪ solution: Formica for tabletop and ► Channel Hangers – sliding folder like
protective coating for IS ▪ Disadvantage: Fingerprint marks
► Tension Hangers – perdible like
OPEN BOXES
► Hanger bars and clips
• are usually affected on excessive humidity
or moisture as compared to closed boxes FILM HOPPER
CLOSED BOXES (UNOPENED) • also called FILM BIN
• due to metal foil and polyethylene bag, • stores the unexposed films intended for
they have an immunity for excessive immediate use
humidity and temperature, and • this film bin should not be place together
unnecessary exposure to white light with the darkroom chemicals as the
Potassium14 emits naturally occurring
DARKROOM SINK radioactive element that can contaminate
• Place adjacent to the processing unit the unexposed film
• Hot and cold water should be supplied • under the loading bench
• Cupboards under the sink for storage of • cone shaped drawer hinged at lower edge
equipment and chemical stocks • inside is painted black
• Measurement: • prominent warning should be written on
► Deep 250 mm outside that it should not be opened in
► Taps 400 mm sink white light therefore it has an interlock
► Other Dimension 750 x 450 mm • instead drawers and cupboards can also
be used to store unused films
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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

NOTE: Do not load the IS with a film for more than ► CONCRETE thickness: greater
5 minutes because it will moist and will stick to IS than 6 inches or 150 mm
► HOLLOW BLOCKS: 225 mm thick
INTERLEAVING PAPER wherein the holes should be filled
• a wax paper that is situated in between the with cement
unexposed film ► AUTOMATIC PROCESSOR: 24
• Purpose: to prevent the film to stick on inches/corner
one another
If the wall is made up of plywood and the plywood
• Problem: wax papers are filed in the top
is sandwiched by lead. What is the thickness of
therefore a waste bin should be place on
each Lead?
the loading bench to have an
▪ The total amount of Lead should be 1.5
UNCLUTTERED COUNTERTOP
mmPb therefore divide into two (0.75
mmPb each plywood)
IMPORTANCE OF PROCESSING ROOM OR
DARKROOM
A.) TOTALLY INSIDE
1.) LOCATION
• All automatic processor are located inside
• In proximity/near to exposure room
• ADVANTAGE: jammed films can be
2.) SIZE retrieved without exposure to white light
• Varies upon the needs of the department • DISADVANTAGES:
• Minimum floor area: 10sqm ► Increased heat/temperature, noise
• Ceiling height: 2.7 to 3.3m and humidity/moist
▪ due to sodium vapor safelight
B.) BULK INSIDE
▪ if the ceiling height is insufficient, the
• All automatic processor are located inside
safelight fog increases
but the drop tray is located outside
• 200 radiographs/day; should be 15ft x
• More advisable
9.5ft or greater
• ADVANTAGES:
Wet and Dry Section ► Easy retrieval of films
• 4 ft away from each other (3 to 4ft on ► Decreased heat/temperature,
noise and humidity/moist
other reference)
• purpose: to prevent contamination of C.) BULK OUTSIDE
the dry section • Only the feed tray is located inside
• Used only when the darkroom is small
3.) PROTECTS AGAINST RADIATION • ADVANTAGES: almost no heat, noise and
• Darkroom can be adjacent to exposure humidity
room only if: • DISADVANTAGES:
► WOOD: with 1.5 to 2 mm Pb ► Jammed films can’t be retrieved
thickness or equivalent through white light
► HIGH QUALITY BARIUM ► Repeat exposure when the films
PLASTER: 25 mm are exposed
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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

4.) VENTILATION STORAGE ROOM TEMPERATURE:

• Satisfactory working conditions for staff ▪ 10-21 oC or 50-70 oF
• Adequate processing conditions
• Efficient automatic processor DARKROOM TEMPERATURE:
performance ▪ OLD: 20 o or 67-83 oF
• Adequate removal of stale humid air and ▪ NEW: 18-20 oC or 65-85 oF
supply of fresh air
• Intake and extract fans can be used HUMIDITY FOR STORAGE ROOM AND
• Minimum of 1000 cu. ft air space per DARKROOM:
person ▪ 40-60%
▪ 30-60% (NEW FOR DR)
AIR CHANGES:
▪ 2 Exhaust fan (intake and outtake PSYCHROMETER
or extract fans) is required & it • A device used to measure humidity or
should be lightproof moisture
► should be open 24/7 to
prevent increase in HYGROMETER
humidity thereby creating • A device used to measure
evaporation & condensation environmental moisture
(moisture)
► prevents condensation 5.) CLEANLINESS
similar to dehumidifier • should be unclutter countertops
▪ Range: 5-10 room changes / hour • Avoid SMOKING, EATING and DRINKING
▪ Exhaust Fan purpose is to transfer • RATIONALE: to prevent artifacts
the excessive cold temperature to
the adjacent room to avoid build up EFFICIENT DARKROOM
of fumes • Pertaining to cleanliness
▪ Fumes present on chemical: can • Uncluttered counter tops
create chemical fog
6.) LIGHT-TIGHT ENTRANCE
▪ Dehumidifier: necessary
• mechanism in darkroom that prohibit the
especially to CT scan room since
lights to enter coming from the outside
the temperature decrease thereby
• Rubber stripper is used for light tight
the humidity (moisture in air)
entrance in the darkroom and
increases that goes to the integral
► function is to avoid friction on the
part of the CT machine or room
side surface of the door
• The door should not be heavy and Leaded
AIR MOVEMENT:
(the wall should have Lead)
▪ Air inside the darkroom
▪ Ceiling Fan ► make sure that the door has a
▪ Range: 15-25 ft/min sufficient distance to the exposure
area (approximately 6 ft)

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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

TYPE OF DARKROOMS REVOLVING (ROTATIONAL) DOOR

SINGLE DOOR DARKROOM ▪ the fast access types
▪ the simplest type ▪ enclosed with glass capsule that is
▪ need to provide a passbox cabinet heavily tinted (lightproof)
▪ latch or lock from inside ▪ lightproof access to the room
▪ capable of releasing the lock from ▪ contain glass for the personnel with
outside in case of emergency claustrophobia
▪ should have an emergency exit ▪ MEASUREMENT:
▪ ideally no one should work alone in ► extends about 15 inches
a dark room into each adjoining room
▪ Disadvantage: white light exposure ► 3 feet in diameter
▪ RATIONALE: avoid RT in entering ▪ RATIONALE: can enter and exit at
the darkroom the same time

LIGHT-LOCK DOOR or DOUBLE DOOR PASSBOX

DARKROOM • also called FILM CASSETTE TRANSFER
▪ used only when there is darkroom CABINET or CASSETTE HATCH
personnel exclusive in d darkroom • allows the film to transfer without
▪ consist of interlocking and should entering the darkroom
be lightproof • the two compartments are labelled
▪ if door 1 is open, door 2 is closed exposed and unexposed
• should open on the loading bench
LABYRINTH/MAZE/ ZIGZAG TYPE
• two light tight and x-ray proof doors
▪ easy access darkroom as it does not
► 1.5 to 2.0 mmPb thickness
contain door (simultaneously)
• contain an interlocking or alarm to
▪ light is reflected at least 3 times
prevent both doors from being opened
with which the intensity is reduced
simultaneously
to a harmless level
▪ have heavily build curtain
7.) ILLUMINATION
▪ black paint for the interior of the
WHITE LIGHT ILLUMINATION
passages; hallway only not the
▪ Overhead light
entire darkroom (matte black)
▪ 2 to 4 fluorescent lamps
► safe lamps fitted along the
▪ Fluorescent bulb: contain minimal
passageway
after glow
▪ used only when the darkroom is
▪ 48 inches/8 m2
large due to area consumption
▪ PURPOSE is for QAQC:
▪ MEASUREMENT:
▪ Maintenance
► Vertical height 2m
▪ Emergency cases
► Length 3m
▪ Cleaning
► Width 700mm
▪ RATIONALE: it requires more NOTE: Incandescent bulb is not used because of
space (space consumption) its greater after glow (phosphorescence)
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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

SAFELIGHT ILLUMINATION COMBINATION SAFELIGHT

▪ In the darkroom there should be at • is a unique two-compartment unit
least 2 safelights depending on its size features a safelight (direct safelight only)
▪ follow the safelight fog testing (half the at the bottom and a normal room light at
film or create a quarter with 1 minute the top
interval) • advantage: you cannot open both at the
▪ INVERSE SQUARE LAW is applicable same time
Direct Safe Lighting (Fixture Type)
WATTAGE:
▪ best for loading & unloading areas
▪ 7.5 watts (3 ft distance)
▪ closest to the personnel
► Single coated film
▪ light from safe lamp directly falls
onto the work surface (Example: ► Panoramic film
Beehive safe lamp) ► Mammographic film
▪ possess filter to reduce the ▪ 15 watts (4 ft distance)
wavelength, energy, intensity and ► duplitize film
brightness of the color ► intraoral film
▪ minimum Distance: 1.2m or 3 to 4 ▪ 25 watts
from the working surface (for ► Double filter
manual) or
Because of the LED, the intensity increases with
Indirect Safe Lighting the small wattage.
• directs the light towards the ceiling ► Tungsten Bulb
wc reflects light back into the room
► Anker Bulb
• closest to the ceiling
► Sodium Vaporization Bulb
• uses ceiling type safelight – Sodium
Vapor safelight DO NOT USE CHRISTMAS LIGHT because the
► uses 6ft distance intensity is highest
► disadvantage: slow warm
up then you need to open SAFELIGHT FILTER
the window or shutter to ▪ Filters out intensity (strength) and
intensify but forget to close energy (color)
the area producing safelight
fogging 1. WRATTEN 6B FILTER
• intended to provide general ▪ Amber filter or Kodak Mor-lite
illumination of the dark room ▪ more than 550nm to prevent
(large area) safelight fogging
• suspended at least 2.1m above the ▪ Filters only the intensity and
floor level wavelength of th e red, orange &
• Note: one for every 6.5m2 of floor yellow colors
space there is an indirect safe light ▪ Red, orange, and yellow pa din
► should not be less than 2 yung lumalabas
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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

▪ appearance: orange or brownish 8.) COLORS OF WALL

▪ safe for monochromatic film (blue- • PASTEL AND LIGHT COLOR: reflectance
sensitive film) Ca tungstate – of safelight – distribute the safelight
420nm throughout the room
▪ Do not use green sensitive film • ENAMEL AND EPOXY (with primer): easy
like orthochromatic film to clean and durable
► do not use epoxy when concrete
2. GBX2 FILTER (hollow blocks) is used
▪ Kodak filter or Red Filter ► used in metal and wood
▪ Multi-purpose filter ► enamel is used for wood and
▪ more than 600nm or 620nm concrete but walang kasama na
▪ Filters out intensity and color of epoxy
Yellow and Orange thereby • MATTE FINISH NOT GLOSSY: it will not
producing purely red color reflect white light
▪ Safe for orthochromatic film • NEON COLOR: prohibited
(blue/green sensitive film) rare • Bright Color vs Dark Color: bright color
earth screen – 545nm is the best choice
+ monochromatic film Calcium
tungstate (blue-sensitive film) 9.) ELECTRICAL WIRING
▪ APPEARANCE: red color • Should be appropriately installed to avoid
static discharge that will create static
SPECTRAL MISMATCH will produce lesser speed
artifacts
and density to compensate increase the mAs
► Will produce great image quality because SAFELIGHT
slower speed and higher mAs will bring • DIRECT SAFELIGHT
great resolution but higher px dose
o Fixture type safelight
o Light is distributed directly
PANCHROMATIC FILM o Most common in the hospital
• Sensitive to all visible light spectrum
• ADVANTAGE: all kinds of film can be used • INDIRECT SAFELIGHT
• DISADVANTAGE: no safelight is used o Ceiling type safelight
o Light goes up first, then reflected
CALCIUM TUNGSTATE o BULB: Sodium vapor
• For blue-sensitive film o DISTANCE: 6 ft
o DISADVANTAGE: it takes time to
RARE EARTH warm up
• For green sensitive film

If sensitivity if the film is asked the answer should

be less than

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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

QUALITY CONTROL FOR THE DARKROOM C.) AUTOMATIC PROCESSOR TEMPERATURE

AND AUTOMATIC PROCESSOR • Weekly
A.) DARKROOM ENVIRONMENT • Greater than ± 0.3 oC/0.5oF
• Daily • High temperature = High activity (high
• Maintained clean, well ventilated, oxidation) = High density caused by
organized and safe chemical fog = Low contrast
• Heat fog, also called thermal fog, caused by
B.) SAFELIGHT TEST
the ambient temperature of environment
• Semi-annual (every 6 months)
• SAFELIGHT FOG: greater than 0.05 OD D.) REPLENISHMENT RATE
► Always check the DISTANCE, ► Weekly
WATTAGE and FILTERS used ► Within ±5% manufactures
► WRATTEN 6B: >550 nm specification
► GBX 2: > 600 nm ► use a graduated cylinder to
► ACCEPTABLE LEVEL for safelight, monitor the replenishment rate if
chemical and heat fog: 0.04 OD the replenisher goes to developer
► Most common source of fog is and fixer solution not to the
safelight fog graduated cylinder
Procedure OXIDIZED DEVELOPER
• FIRST METHOD. Film is divided into by a • An old or exhauster develop whose
cardboard then the right side will be reducing property has been reduced
exposed but make sure it has a latent brought about by aerial or chemical
image then exposed it by 2 minutes then oxidation
full exposure of film • Decreased the activity of developer,
• SECOND METHOD. Four exposure is done activator/buffer, preservative except for
every 60 seconds (film is divided into 4) restrainer
• All solution should be replaced except for
NOTE: Acceptable base density, manufacture restrainer
density & dye density is 0.14
► 0.04 + 0.14 RESTRAINER
► Acceptable base + fog = 0.18 / 0.20 / • Controls the activity of the developing
0.25 agent
USE DENSITOMETER TO CHECK THE
CONTAMINATED SOLUTION
DENSITY OF THE FILM
• Entire solution is ineffective
• Can’t be replenished
• Should be replaced

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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

FUNCTION OF REPLENISHMENT RATE G.) DEVELOPER SPECIFIC GRAVITY

• Maintain or bring back the activity of • Quarterly/Every 3 months/Weekly
chemical on its original activity or • Not greater than 0.004 concentration
composition
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
E.) DEVELOPER SOLUTION pH • The amount of water versus chemical
• Quarterly/Every 3 months/Weekly
• NORMAL pH: 10 to 11.5 or 9.6 to 10.6 HYDROMETER
• ALKALINIZER: Sodium hydroxide, • A device that measures specific gravity
Sodium carbonate and Sodium Metaborate
H.) PROCESSOR CONTROL CHART
F.) FIXER SOLUTION MONITORING
• Quarterly/ Every 3 months/ Weekly • Daily
• NORMAL pH: 4 to 4.5 or 4.2 to 4.9 • Early in the morning
• ACIDIFIER: Acetic acid and Sulfuric acid • After the automatic processor reached its
maximum capacity or has been warmed up
pH RANGE • The value yesterday and today should not
• 7-14: alkaline, base chemical be greater or lesser than 0.15 OD
• 7: neutral, water • Not greater than 0.15 OD from baseline
• 0-7: acid, acidic chemical measurements
• Speed and contrast indication

QUALITY CONTROL
SCHEDULE DEVICE STANDARD
TEST
Darkroom Maintained clean, well ventilated,
Daily in morning Thermometer
Environment organized and safe

Safelight Test Semi-annually Penetrometer Less than 0.05 optical density as fog

Automatic Processor Should not vary more than +- 0.5 F

Weekly
Temperature or 0.3 C
Should fall with +-5% of
Replenishment Rates Weekly manufacturer’s specification for
replenishment type
Developer Solution pH Quarterly Maintained between 10 to 11.5

Fixer Solution pH Quarterly Maintained between 4 to 4.5

Developer Specific Should not vary mire than +-.0.004

Quarterly
Gravity from manufacturer’s specification
Speed and contrast indicators
Processor Control
Daily should not vary from +-0.15 optical
Chart Monitoring
density fr. baseline measurements
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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

FILM SENSITOMETRY NOTE: Diagnostically acceptable density of mAs

• Quantitative measurement of response of is 0.25 to 2.0 or 2.4 OD
film to exposure and development
• used early in the morning when the HISTORICAL BITS
processor is at reach maximum capacity or 1895 – photographic plates
had been warm up 1914 – cellulose nitrate film base
• DEVICES USED: 1918 – duplitized films
► Sensitometer: optical step wedge 1924 – cellulose triacetate film base
► Penetrometer: 1933 – tinted film base
▪ Aluminum step wedge 1936 – direct film exposure
▪ Alternative for sensitometer 1940 – film suitable for both direct & indirect
► Densitometer: measures the exposure
density of exposed film 1958 – fast light-sensitive film
► Step Table 1960’s – polyester film base and film for rapid
► Sensitometric strips processing
• CONTROLS:
FILM BASE
► Film speed
• Foundation of the radiographic film
► Film contrast
► Film latitude
ARCHIVAL QUALITY
► Contrast using hydroquinone
• Permanence of the image
POWER OF HYDROGEN (pH)
INTENSIFYING SCREEN
• also called Potential Hydrogen
• 15-20 times less radiation
• qualitative method of measuring the
• Used since beginning
alkalinity or acidity of the solution
• BASE: cardboard and high-quality plastic
(polyester)
PHENIDONE
• ADVANTAGES:
• Film speed indicator
o Reduces radiation dose
• First to produced
o Decreases technical factors
• Gray shade
• DISADVANTAGES:
• Dmin = 0.25 to 1.2 OD
o Increased quantum mottle
• Controls the toe of the characteristic curve
o Blurred image

HYDROQUINONE
NO INTENSIFYING SCREEN
• Film contrast indicator
• ADVANTAGE: No quantum mottle
• Second to produced
• DISADVANTAGE: Increases patient dose
• Black tones
• Dmax = greater than 1.3 upto 3.0 OD REMNANT RADIATION
• Controls the shoulder of the characteristic • Radiation that is not absorb by the patient
curve and form the latent image
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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

DUPLITIZED FILM AUTOMATIC PROCESSOR

• Double emulsion film 1942
• ADVANTAGES: • PAKO
o Double the film speed • 1st automatic processor
o Decreases patient dose • Specialized hanger
• DISADVANTAGE:
o Parallax effect/crossover 1956
• EASTMAN
FACTORS THAT AFFECT FILM SPEED • Roller transport system
• Number and size of silver halide crystals
Single Capacity Processor
TINTED FILM BASE • Processor capacity: 100 film per hour
• Decreases the possibility of parallax • Processing cycle (dry-to-drop time): 7
effect/crossover minutes
• Reduces eye fatigue and eye strain
Double Capacity Processor
• Increases contrast under the negatoscope
• Processor capacity: 200 film per hour
• processing cycle (dry-to-drop time): 3.5
FAST LIGHT SENSITIVE FILM
minutes (4min)
• Decrease X-ray – Increase Film Speed
• High concentration or spec gravity
• Increase Patient Dose – Increase Image
• High temperature
Quality – Decrease Parallax Effect
• Decrease Patient Dose – Decrease Image
1965
Quality – Increase Parallax Effect
• First automatic processor with rapid
processing
PATIENT DOSE
• 90 secs
• Directly proportional to the image quality
• Increase IS Speed – Decrease Patient Dose
1987
– Decrease Image Quality – Increase
• KONICA
Quantum Mottle
• 45 secs
GRID • Special chemicals
• To improve image contrast
• Increase Grid Ratio – Decrease Scattered
Radiation – Decrease Fog – Decrease
Density – Increase mAs
• DISADVANTAGE: increase patient dose

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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM VS VISIBLE 2.) ORTHOCHROMATIC

SPECTRUM • COLOR: Green sensitive
• GRAINS: Tabular
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• SCREEN PHOSPHOR: Rare Earth (specific
• The range of frequencies over which an emission)
electromagnetic radiation can be
• Sensitive to green light by rare earth
propagated
• Note: x-ray films are more sensitive in 3.) PANCHROMATIC FILM
visible light than x-rays
• Sensitive to all visible light spectrum

VISIBLE SPECTRUM
GRAIN TECHNOLOGY
• The range of wavelength of the 1.) GLOBULAR GRAIN
electromagnetic spectrum over which an
• Spherical in shape
unaided human eye can perceive changes
• Has bigger volume
as an alteration in color
• For blue-sensitive film
SENSITIVITY
• Response of x-ray film to wavelengths of 2.) TABULAR GRAIN
visible light • Tabletop-like structure
• Provides bigger surface
SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY • For green sensitive film
• The range of wavelength of the
electromagnetic radiation that the film CALCIUM TUNGSTATE
will respond • Broad band colors (Blue, Indigo, Violet)
• LINE EMISSION: not specific emission
PEAK SENSITIVITY
• The range of wavelength in which the film
RARE EARTH
will exhibit its highest response
• OXYBROMIDE: Blue
• OXYSULFIDE: Green
CUT-OFF SENSITIVITY
• LANTHANUM: Blue
• The range of wavelength in which the film
is no longer sensitive • LINE EMISSION: specific emission

TYPES OF FILM ACCORDING TO SPECTRAL LANTHANIDE

SENSITIVITY • ATOMIC #: 57-71
1.) MONOCHROMATIC FILM • Yttrium: 39
• COLOR: Blue sensitive • Lanthanum: 57
• GRAINS: Globular • Gadolinium: 64
• SCREEN PHOSPHOR: Calcium tungstate
(not specific emission)
• Sensitive to spectrum wavelength of
photons
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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

GENERAL TYPES OF FILM HIGH RESOLUTION INTENSIFYING SCREEN

1.) DIRECT EXPOSURE/NON-SCREEN • Slow speed
• Uses thicker emulsion
• Outdated technology 2.) THERAPY LOCALIZATION FILM
• ADVANTAGES: • It serves as a guideline
o Decreased parallax effect or • Wide range of exposures
crossover • Direct exposure
o Decreased quantum mottle • Fine grain
o Increases image quality • ADVANTAGE: increase resolution
• DISADVANTAGES: • DISADVANTAGE: radiation is
o Increased patient dose continuously emitted
o Increased development time
• APPLICATION: SIMULATOR
o Intraoral dental radiography • It used in Cobalt 60

2.) SCREEN FILM LETHAL DOSE

• Indirect exposure o • Dose required to kill cancer cells
• Uses thinner emulsion
• More sensitive to light TOLERANCE DOSE
o Light: 90-99% • It should be greater than lethal dose
o X-ray: 1-10%
• ADVANTAGES: TREATMENT FOR BREAST CANCER
o Decreased patient dose • Surgery – mastectomy
o Decreased developing time • Radiation Therapy – regional
• DISADVANTAGES: • Chemotherapy – metastases
o Increased quantum mottle
o Blurred image PALLIATIVE TREATMENT
• Lengthening the life in short term basis
CLASSIFICATION OF FILM
CURATIVE TREATMENT
ACCORDING TO USE
• Lengthening of life in long term basis
1.) MAMMOGRAPHIC FILM
• For breast examination
3.) DENTAL X-RAY FILM
• Fine grains
• Intraoral Film – for direct exposure
• Single emulsion
o Peripheral Film
• Greater detail
o Bitewing/Interproximal
• High exposure dose
o Occlusal Film
o RATIONALE: high mAs
• Extraoral Film – for screen-film
• Increased patient dose – Decreased
o Panoramic
parallax effect – Increased detail
• Increased IS speed – Decreased light
emission – Decrease OD – Increased mAs
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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

4.) VIDEO FILM 9.) DOSIMETER/PERSONNEL MONITORING

• Single emulsion FILM
• It uses multiformat camera and laser • Measures radiation absorbed dose
camera
THEMORLUMINESCENT DOSIMETER (TLD)
5.) PHOTOFLUOROGRAPHIC • Frequently used
• Abreugraphy • Monthly
• Manuel Diaz Abreu • Lithium fluoride
• Single emulsion • No dosimeter film
• For chest x-ray examination
o Mass CXR OPTICALLY-STIMULATED LUMINESCENCE
o PTB (OSL)
o Lung cancer • Monthly
• Miniature fluorography • Aluminum oxide
• No dosimeter film
6.) CINE/ROLL FILM
• Single emulsion film FILM BADGE
• With sprocket holes • It used dosimeter film
• Movie film • Wear inside the apron
• Angiographic film
• Cardiac catheterization PEN DOSIMETER
• Width – 16 mm & 35 mm • Daily exposures
• Image – 7 x 10 mm & 24 x 35mm • Reset
• Uses tagaro viewer
• Frame Rate – 30-60 frames/sec PHILIPPINE NUCLEAR RESEARCH INSTITUTE
• 100-300 rolls • Where the record of exposure is submitted
• Black and white
• 35% actual images 10.) AUTOMATIC SERIAL CHANGER
• Serial radiography
7.) SPOT FILM • Angiography
• For special procedures • Special procedure
• Width – 100 mm • Special protective coating
• Frame Rate – 10 frames/sec o To prevent scratches

8.) COPY/DUPLICATING FILM 11.) INDUSTRIAL FILM

• Reversal film • Mega electron volts
• Single emulsion • High energy/radiation radiography
• It uses UV lamp and light
• Black light bulb

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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

12.) POLAROID VERTICAL/EDGE/STRAIGHT/UPRIGHT

• Paper-based • Storage of film
• Thermal paper • RATIONALE:
• DSA and UTZ o To prevent film to stick to one
another
13.) LASER FILM
o To prevent pressure artifacts
• No darkroom, fixer and developing
solution
STORAGE TEMPERATURE
• Laser printing
• 10-21 oC/50-70 oF
o MRI
• 40-60% humidity
o CT Scan
o Digital Radiography
MAXIMUM STORAGE
o DSA
• 30-45 days at 21 oC/70 oF
• Red – sensitivity
• Greater than 1 year at 10 oC/50 oF
• Infrared light
• 0 oC – stop film aging process
o Film can be used but should be
FILM STORAGE AND HANDLING
warm up to room temperature at
1.) UNEXPOSED FILM
35 oC/85 oF
• Stored in original packaging
• Increased Temperature – rapid aging
• RATIONALE: expiration date
process
• Expired Film – Decreased
Sensitivity/Loss Speed – Increased mAs
ENVIRONMENT
• Age Fog/Expired Film – Loss Contrast –
• Very important to film
Poor Image Quality

2.) EXPIRED FILM POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES OF STORING

• Should be discarded UNEXPOSED FILM IN ENVIRONMENT WITH
• Silver recovery IMPROPER TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE
o Fixer – 50% Ag HUMIDITY
o Film – 50% Ag • Temperature too high: increased fog
level
3.) ARCHIVAL FILM
• Temperature too low: increased static
• 5 years/10 years
discharges
• Can be sold
• Humidity too high: increased fog level
• Humidity too low: increased static
4.) SCRAP FILM/SPOILAGE
discharges
• 50% Ag recovery
STATIC ARTIFACTS
5.) GREEN FILM
• Positive artifacts (black)
• The most precious in terms of Ag recovery
• 100% Ag recovery NECKLACE
• Ag remain intact • Negative artifacts (white)
15
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY DEVELOPER

• Inversely related • All or none phenomenon
• Increased Temperature – Increased Heat
Fog – Increased Possibility of Static RESTRAINER
Artifacts • Prevents chemical fog
• Increased Restrainer Activity – Increased
PACKAGING OF FILM Etol, Metol, Phenidone and Hydroquinone
• Photo-inert photoethylene bag or metal • FUNCTIONS:
foil o Control
o RATIONALE: to protect film from o Restrain
moisture and light o Regulate
FILM STORED o Prevent development fog
• Must be protected from: 3.) SAFELIGHT FOG
o Heat • Most common cause of fog
o Radiation
o Chemical fumes 4.) HEAT FOG
o Pressure • Increased Temperature – Increased Heat
EXPIRATION DATE Fog
• Adhere First In First Out (FIFO)
• RATIONALE: to beat the expiration date 5.) SECONDARY RADIATION FOG
• Increased kVp – Increased Scattered
HANDLING OF FILM Radiation – Increased Fog
• AVOID: • X-ray – polyenergetic heterogenous beam
o Hand cream • 20-150 energy/kVp
▪ RATIONALE: finger print o 20-70 – produces scatter radiation
marks (negative density o 80-120 – remnant radiation
mark)
o Rubber gloves mAs
▪ RATIONALE: static artifacts • Controls quantity, amount and number of
(positive density marks)
x-rays
• Cotton gloves can be used
APPEARANCE OF FOG
KINDS OF FOG THAT CAN • Gray shades
AFFECT THE FILM
1.) AGE FOG – expired film FACTORS THAT CONTROL SCATTER
2.) CHEMICAL/DEVELOPMENT FOG RADIATION
• Fumes 1.) kVp
• Contaminated developer solution (0.1 of • Increased kVp – Increased Scatter
fixer) Radiation – Increased Fog – Increased
Density

16
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

2.) PATIENT THICKNESS, SIZE AND DENSITY RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

• Increased Thickness, Size and Density – • Basic Parts: base & emulsion
Increased Scatter Radiation • Other Parts: adhesive layer & overcoat
• Thickness: 150-300 μm
3.) BEAM-RESTRICTING DEVICE/ • Manufactured in total darkness
COLLIMATOR • Biggest Size: 35 x 43 cm. or 14 x 17 in.
• Increased Collimation – Decreased Scatter • Smallest Size: 20 x 25 cm. or 8 x 10 in.
Radiation
PARTS OF RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
PATIENT 1.) TOPCOAT/SUPERCOAT/OVERCOAT
• Main source of scatter radiation • A protective covering of gelatin that
enclosed the emulsion
FOG • Composition: made up of gelatin
• Non information image • Purpose:
• Unwanted/supplementary density o Prevent damage to sensitive
• Decreased kVp – Decreased Scatter emulsion layer
Radiation – Decreased Fog – Decreased o Protects the emulsion from
Density – Increased mAs scratches, pressure &
contamination
POSITIVE-DENSITY ARTIFACTS o Allows rough manipulation of x-ray
• Before processing film before exposure
2.) EMULSION
NEGATIVE DENSITY ARTIFACTS • The heart of the radiographic film
• During processing • Active layer
• Radiation and light sensitive
SENSITIZED MARKS • Size: 3-5 or 10-20 micrometer
• Development tank • Composition: silver halide crystal &
• Wet pressure sensitation gelatin
• Silver Halide Crystal: recording medium
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM o The active ingredient of the
emulsion
IMAGE FORMING X-RAYS o Characteristic: high atomic
• Those that exit the patient and interact number
with the image receptor • Composition:
o Silver bromide: 98% or 90-99%
EXIT BEAM o Silver iodide: 2% or 1-10%
• The x-rays that remain as the useful beam
• Shapes: tabular (mostly used), cubic,
exits the patient
octahedral, polyhedral & irregular
• Gelatin: mechanical binder
IMAGE RECEPTOR
• The medium that converts the x-ray beam o It holds the silver halide crystal
into a visible image uniformly dispersed in place

17
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

o Characteristics: clear & 4.) UNIFORM LUCENCY/OPTICAL CLARITY

sufficiently porous • In order to be seen
o Principal Function: to provide • Transparency should be uniform
mechanical support for silver
halide crystals • No unwanted pattern or shading is found
on the image
INCREASED ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)
• Increased the possibility of forming the 5.) SEMIRIGID
latent image
• Bromide: 35 Z 6.) INERT TO PROCESSING CHEMICAL
• Silver: 47 Z • Does not change in form
• Iodide: 53 Z
• Gelatin: 7 Z 7.) CHEMICAL MEMORY
• Polyester: 7 Z • Remain flat

3.) ADHESIVE/SUBSTRATUM LAYER 8.) NON-FLAMMABLE

• A thin coating located between the
emulsion & base 9.) WATERPROOF
• Adheres one layer of the film
PARALLAX EFFECT
• Purpose: allows emulsion & base to
maintain proper contact & integrity • Apparent displacement of an image as
seen in the radiograph
4.) BASE
• Foundation or framework of the film HISTORY OF FILM BASE
• Purpose: to provide a rigid structure onto 1.) GLASS PLATE
which the emulsion can be coated • The original film base
• Characteristic: fragile
• Composition: polyester/plastic
• Size: 175 or 200 or 150-300 micrometer 2.) CELLULOSE NITRATE
• Standard base
CHARACTERISTIC OF GOOD FILM BASE • Characteristic: flammable
1.) SUPERIOR PHYSICAL/DIMENSIONAL
STABILITY 3.) CELLULOSE TRIACETATE (mid-1920s)
• Maintain its size and shape without • Safety base
• Characteristic: safety base but easily
contributing to image distortion
torn
2.) TINTED WITH BLUE DYE (1933)
4.) POLYESTER (1960)
• To reduce parallax effect/crossover
• Film base of choice
• To reduce eyestrain and fatigue • Ethylene glycol & dimethyl terapthalate
• Increase contrast • Characteristics:
o More resistant
3.) FLEXIBLE & FRACTURE RESISTANT o Superior dimensional stability
• It can be snap in the viewbox/negatoscope

18
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

BASIC FILM TYPES ACCORDING TO 2.) FILM CONTRAST

CONSTRUCTION • Refers to the ability of the radiographic
1.) DUPLITIZE/DOUBLE EMULSION FILM film to provide a certain level of image
• Films that have emulsion layer coated on contrast
both sides of the film base • difference in OD b/n 2 areas in the image
• Screen or non-screen type • Inherent to film manufacturer
• High contrast emulsion – good image
2.) SINGLE-COATED • Low contrast emulsion – not good image
• Films that have emulsion layer one side
only SUBJECT CONTRAST
• Differential absorption of tissue
HALATION
• Controlled by RT
• Reflection of screen light transmitted
through the emulsion & base
• The halo unsharpness that reduces 3.) EXPOSURE LATITUDE
resolution • Margin of errors
• Produced by the light photons that has • Range of exposures that produce OD
already pass through the emulsion layer within straight line region of sensitometric
for single coated film curve
• Inversely proportional to film contrast
FILM CHARACTERISTICS
• High contrast emulsion – narrow latitude
1.) FILM SPEED
o Few factors can be applied
• Degree to which the emulsion is sensitive
o Near to OD required
to x-rays/light
• Low contrast emulsion – wide latitude
• The exposure required to produce an
o Many factors can be applied
optical density of 1.0 above base fog
• Increased Film Speed – Increased
PARTS OF THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
Sensitivity – Increased Density –
• Base plus fog
Decreased mAs – Decreased Dose
• Toe
FACTORS AFFECTING FILM SPEED • Shoulder
• Number of silver halide crystals • Straight line portion
• The number of sensitivity center per
crystals HUMAN EYE
• concentration of crystals in the emulsion • It has a logarithm of response to OD
• The size & distribution of the crystals • OD = Log10 (Io/It)
FACTORS AFFECTING FILM SPEED IN
DENSITOMETER
INTENSIFYING SCREEN
• It measures density
• Type/composition of phosphor
• Thickness of phosphor
• Size of phosphor
• Reflectance used
19
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

4.) SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY FILM SENSITOMETRY

• It refers color of light to which particular • Quantitative measurement of the response
film is most sensitive of film to x-ray and exposure or
development and processing
SPECTRAL EMISSION
• Frequency:
• Color of light produced by a particular
o Early morning when the processor
intensifying screen
reached its maximum capacity or
5.) SPECTRAL MATCHING has been warmed up
• Correctly matching the sensitivity of the
film to the color of emission of intensifying SENSITOMETER
screen • Optical step-wedge
• A device that produces a constant
6.) CROSSOVER
simulated, predetermined x-ray exposure
• Disadvantage of screen-film/duplitized
• X-ray machine is not utilized
film
• Light that has been produced by IS PENETROMETER
• Crossover to the base and exposing the • Aluminum step-wedge
emulsion of the opposite side • X-ray machine is utilized
• Blurred image

WAYS TO REDUCE PARALLAX EFFECT CONTROL FILM/CONTROL BOX

• Tinting the film with blue dye • The film used
• Use monochromatic film • Exclusively used for film sensitometry
• Adding anti-crossover layer
AUTOMATIC PROCESSOR
ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM • Develop film
• There is always a parallax effect
SENSITOMETRIC STRIP/STEP TABLET
• RATIONALE: green is not transparent to
• Made by exposing successive areas on a
dye
film with one exposure
IMPORTANCE OF ADDING CROSSOVER • The image from least to maximum OD
CONTROL LAYER • 11 or 24 strips
• Separate layer from emulsion • Dmax to Dmin
• Absorb most of the crossover
DENSITOMETER/TRANSMISSION
• Easily dissolved in the solution
DENSITOMETER
7.) RECIPROCITY LAW • A device that measures the percentage of
light transmittance
• OD on a radiograph is proportional only to
the total energy imparted to the • Base Density/Manufacturer’s Film
radiographic film Density: 0.14 OD
• Applicable only in direct exposure, but not • Light Transmitance: 100% (0 OD), 10%
in screen-film (1 OD), 1% (2 OD) & 0.1% (3 OD)
20
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

GRAPHING PAPER/CONTROL CHART AVERAGE GRADIENT

• For plotting the H & D curve • Reflects the film contrast which is
• Hurter & Driffield measured at 0.25 density units above B+F
density and 2.0 density units above B+F
OPTICAL DENSITY • The more vertical this line, the greater the
• Human eyes has a logarithm of response film contrast
• Noticeable REJECT FILM ANALYSIS
• Formula: Log10 (Ii/It) or Log10 (Io/It) • Monthly: a reject rate of 10% or more
should be considered unacceptable
SENSITOMETRIC CURVE • A reject rate of 5-10% justifies continued
• The product of sensitivity monitoring
• Film characteristic curve or H & D curve
INTENSIFYING SCREEN
• Base Plus Fog: lowest portion (0.18 OD)
• It converts x-ray energy to light which
• Toe: Dmin, Phenidone
exposes the radiographic film
• Shoulder: Dmax, Hydroquinone
• It intensifies or amplifies the energy to
• Straight Line Region: Film gamma
which they were exposed
o Steeper = good contrast
• Advantage: decrease patient dose
• Film contrast, Exposure latitude,
Speed/Sensitivity, Automatic processing,
LAYERS OF INTENSIFYING SCREEN
Phenidone & Hydroquinone
1.) PROTECTIVE COATING
• It gives physical protection to the delicate
BASE DENSITY
phosphor layer
• The density from the manufacturer of the
• It provides a surface which can be cleaned
film
without damaging the phosphor
• It is inherent in the film base
• It helps prevent static
• Average: 0.14 OD
• Transparent to x-ray
• Size: 10-20 micrometer
BASE PLUS FOG
• Inherent fog cause by processing 2.) PHOSPHOR
conditions • The active layer of IS
• Acceptable B+F: 0.18 OD • It emits light during stimulation by x-ray
MINIMUM DENSITY/Dmin • Size: 50-300 micrometer or 60 mg/cm2
• Low density & midpoint density 3.) REFLECTIVE LAYER
• The TOE of the characteristic curve • Intercepts light photons headed in other
• Slightly higher than B+F density direction & redirects them to the film
• Shiny Substances: Magnesium oxide &
MAXIMUM DENSITY/Dmax
Titanium dioxide
• Higher density & darkroom density
• Size: 25 micrometer
• The SHOULDER of the characteristic curve
• Crystal Size: 5-15 micrometer
• 2x Film Speed – 2x Density – ½ mAs
21
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

4.) BASE 2.) BARIUM LEAD SULFATE

• Made of high grade cardboard or polyester • For high kVp techniques
• It provides support to the phosphor layer • It was used to decrease patient dose
• Size: 1000 micrometer or 1 mm • Increase scatter radiation – Increase fog –
• Characteristics: Increase density – Decrease mAs
o Rugged & moisture resistant 3.) ZINC SULFIDE
o Does not suffer radiation damage • For low kVp techniques
nor discoloration • It was used for high resolution image
o Chemically inert & not interact with quality
the phosphor layer
• Decrease quantum mottle – Increase mAs
o Flexible but not elastic
o Does not contain impurities that 4.) RARE EARTH CRYSTALS
would be image by x-rays • Speed: 1000-1200
• Increase quantum mottle – Decrease mAs
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PHOSPHOR • Quantum mottle: salt and pepper
1.) DETECTIVE QUANTUM EFFICIENCY appearance
• The ability of the phosphor to interact • Disadvantage: Increase quantum mottle
with x-ray
WILHELM CONRAD ROENTGEN
2.) CONVERSION EFFICIENCY • Died in colon cancer
• The ability of the phosphor to convert x- • Wife: Anaberta Ludwig
ray into light
• Rare earth = high CE LUMINESCENCE
• Emission of light from the screen when
3.) SPECTRAL MATCHING stimulated by radiation
• Specific color
FLUORESCENCE
4.) MINIMUM AFTERGLOW/LAG • The ability of phosphor to emit visible light
• Useless but it is use in fluoroscopy only while expose to x-ray
• During x-ray exposure or while/promptly
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE emitted or within 10-8
• Increase temperature • Important to Radiography
• >30o C/85o F
• KE increases = changes color PHOSPHORESCENCE
• Continue to emit light even after x-ray
PHOSPHOR MATERIAL exposure
1.) CALCIUM TUNGSTATE (CaWO4) • When x-ray exposure ceases or stopped
• Introduced by Thomas Alba Edison • Somewhat after 10-8
• Scheelit: natural tungstate • Delayed emission
• Important to Fluoroscopy

22
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

INTENSIFYING SCREEN PHOSPHOR 3.) ABSORBING LAYER

MATERIAL AND THEIR RESPONSE • Decrease screen speed – Decrease
1.) CALCIUM TUNGSTATE (CaWO4): BLUE quantum mottle – Increase recorded detail
2.) RARE EARTH • Decrease screen speed – Decrease light
• Lanthanum oxybromide: BLUE emission – Decrease density – Increase
• Yttrium tantalite: UV/BLUE/GREEN mAs – Increase patient dose
• Gadolinium oxysulfide: GREEN
4.) DYE IN PHOSPHOR LAYER
SCREEN SPEED • Same as above
• The capacity of the screen to produce
visible light INTENSIFICATION FACTOR
• Increase screen speed – Increase light • Intensifying action of the screen
emission – Increase density – Decrease • A measure of screen speed
density • Formula:
o Exposure w/o screens ÷ Exposure
FACTORS DETERMINING SPEED OF THE w/ screens
SCREEN • Increase IF – Increase intensifying action
• Type of phosphor
• Phosphor thickness SPEED VALUE
• Phosphor size • The most common method of designating
• Reflectance of the screen backing screen speed
• Formula: New mAs = (Old mAs x Old
SCREEN FACTOR Relative Speed Value) ÷ New Relative
1.) THICKER PHOSPHOR LAYER Speed Value
• Increase screen speed – Increase quantum • Fast speed – Increase light emission –
mottle – Decrease recorded detail Decrease sitting requirement
• Increase screen speed – Increase light • Slow speed – Decrease light emission –
emission – Increase density – Decrease Increase sitting requirement
mAs – Decrease patient dose • Decrease screen speed – Decrease light
2.) LARGE PHOSPHOR CRYSTAL SIZE emission – Decrease density – Increase
• Same as above mAs – Increase patient dose
• Increase screen speed – Increase light
3.) REFLECTIVE LAYER emission – Increase density – Decrease
• 2x screen speed – Increase quantum mAs – Decrease patient dose
mottle – Decrease recorded detail • Increase crystal size – Thicker phosphor –
• 2x screen speed – 2x light emission – 2x Increase screen speed
density – Decrease mAs – Decrease patient
dose

23
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

INTENSIFYING SCREEN SPEED • Wire Mesh Test: used to evaluate proper

25– Ultra Detail screen-film contact
50 – Slow/High Resolution/Detailed
100 – Standard/Medium/Par CAUSES OF POOR SCREEN-FILM CONTACT
200 – Fast/High Speed • Worn contact felt
300 – Ultrafast/Hi-plus • Loose, bent or broken latches (lock)
1200 – Rare Earth • Loose, bent or broken hinges
RELATIVE SPEED • Warped screen cause by excessive
• The ability of the screen to produce light moisture
and density • Warped cassette front
• Formula: mAs1/mAs2 = relative • Spring or cracked cassette frame
speed2/relative speed1 • Foreign matter under the screen (most
common cause)
WATER TEMPERATURE
• >2.8-3.0o C/5o F than developer FILM CASSETTE
temperature CASSETTE FRONT
• If water temperature is greater than • Low atomic number
developer temperature, developer activity • No x-ray interaction (radiolucent)
increases • Composition: Bakelite/Carbon fiber
90 SECONDS AUTOMATIC PROCESSOR
• 33.8-35o C/90-95o F LEAD FOIL
• Absorbs backscatter radiation
QUANTUM MOTTLE/IMAGE NOISE
• Statistical fluctuation in quantity of x-ray CASSETTE BACK
photons that contributes to image per • Steal of light weight of metal
mm2 • Composition: Magnesium/Magnesium
• Low x-ray photons – Increase
mottled/splotchy appearance PHOTOTIMER CASSETTE
• Radiolucent back to permit the radiation
SCREEN MAINTENANCE reaching the film to continue in the AEC
• Frequency: regular cleaning • No lead foil
• Anti-static compound/solution or 70%
isoprophyl alcohol or mild/body soap
• Do not use detergent
• Cotton balls: for even cleaning
• UV light: to identify stain
• Compression layer/Contact felt:
maintain proper screen-film contact
• Poor screen-film contact: blurry image
• Common cause: foreign matter under the
skin
24
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

GURNEY-MOTT THEORY TYPES OF IMPERFECTION

• Before exposure, silver halide (AgBr & 1.) POINT DEFECT
AgI) is suspended in gelatin in the • Occur when silver ions moves out from the
cubical lattice formation
emulsion layer
• Sensitivity specks (latent image center) 2.) SENSITIVITY SPECK/CENTER
exist as a physical imperfection • Occurs when silver ions are trapped
• Exposure to x-ray and light ionizes the because of chemical impurities in the
silver halide gelatin
• Negative charged electrons and positive
3.) LATENT IMAGE CENTER
charge silver ion float freely in the
• Refers to clumping or grouping of silver
emulsion gelatin
ions
• Sensitivity specks trap electrons
• Each trapped electron attracts a silver ion 4.) FRANKEL DEFECT
• Silver clamps around the sensitivity • Physical imperfection
specks • Consists of interstitial silver ions and
o 4-10 silver atom pairs silver ion vacancies
GURNEY-MOTT THEORY
• The only accepted theory in the
explanation of photographic effect
• Indicates that x-rays and visible light cause
ionization of the atoms in the crystal
• Ionized crystal are said to be exposed

MITCHELL THEORY
• Modern theory

SENSITIVITY CENTER
• Physical imperfection in the lattice of the
emulsion layer that occurs during the film
manufacturing process
• Latent image center or the focal point

SILVER SULFIDE
• A chemical contaminant responsible for
the physical imperfection of the silver
halide crystal

25
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

IMAGE PROCESSING PROCESSING OF RADIOGRAPH

1.) LATENT/POTENTIAL IMAGE 1. DEVELOPER
• Refers to the image that exists on film • considered strong alkali (basic chemical)
after it has been exposed but before it has • reacts based on temperature, immersion
been processed
time, pH, and specific gravity
• Main function: convert latent image to
2.) VISIBLE/MANIFEST IMAGE
manifest or visible image
• Black metallic silver
• Secondary functions:
• Exists on film after exposure & processing
► To amplify the amount of metallic
silver on the film by increasing the
DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL IMAGE
number of silver atoms in each
• “Without interaction (oxidation), there is
latent image center
no development”
► To reduce the exposed SHC into
• The developer provides electrons for the
metallic silver
reduction of the SHC
• The pH level: 9.6 to 10.6
► By giving up electrons, the
• oxidized developer solution contains
developer is oxidized
bromide and hydroquinone monosulfate
► By gaining electrons, the SH is
reduced Increase pH = increase alkaline = increase activity
• REDOX = EUR/OPE (Electrons are Used in of the developer
Reduction; Oxidation Produces Electrons)
• Electrons which is a product of oxidation COMPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPER
from developer will be absorb by the SHC A. REDUCING AGENTS
which will be reduced in a simplified form • also called Developing Agent
• The electron of the oxidation is the one • Function: reduced exposed AgBr crystals
who develops the film to black metallic Ag
• Chemicals: Hydroquinone, Elon, Metol,
Note: there is only 2 insert tank that will serve as Phenidone
a divider (developer and fixer) and 1 master tank
(stop bath) Phenidone (Elon and Metol for manual)
▪ build up detail quickly in 1st half of the
PASM (Potassium-Auto; Sodium-Manual) development process
► Sodium – powder base for manual ▪ fast reducing or fast developing agent
► Potassium – liquid concentration for auto ▪ speed indicator – first to take an effect
as compared to hydroquinone
▪ produces optical densities of 1.2
▪ responsible for gray shades
▪ Dmin. minimum density or lower scale
density in the H&D curve
▪ MD. mid-density point or intermediate
density or midrange density
26
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

Note: Phenidone can withstand high temperature, but ❑ Wetting Agent

the Elon and Metol (exceeding to 75F can cause • first step during manual processing
unpredictable activity) cannot withstand high • Function: To swell and soften the gelatin,
temperature in order for the reducing agent to develop
the film (SHC) thru penetration fairly
Hydroquinone • Chemicals: Water (manual) and Sodium
▪ complete the development process hydroxide (automatic)
▪ contrast indicator • Sodium Hydroxide – wetting agent that is
▪ principal component or main incorporated in the chemical (activator)
component chemical of developer • Cascade wash tank contain double
▪ builds up contrast slowly (slow compartment
reducing) during development period
▪ sensitive to light and temperature ❑ Activator Agent
▪ produces image OD greater than 1.2 • swell gelatin emulsion for the reducing
▪ DD. Density difference (contrast) agent can attack the exposed SHC
▪ Dmax. upper scale density • Chemicals: sodium hydroxide,
B. ACTIVATOR/ALKALINIZER/BUFFERING sodium carbonate and Kodalk
AGENT/ACCELERATOR/WETTING AGENT (sodium metaborate)
• Kodalk do not release an oxygen and
• Sodium hydroxide/bicarbonate &
considered the most available and
Potassium hydroxide/bicarbonate
widely used activator
• Maintain alkalinity
• sodium hydroxide and sodium
• Provides necessary alkaline medium
carbonate (release some oxygen that
• Swells gelatin emulsion so that reducing
causes air bubble turning into
agents can attack AgBr crystals
oxidation due to evaporation)
• pH level: 9-6-10-6 or 10-11.5 or 10-12
• Sodium Carbonate – the oxygen will
❑ Buffering Agent go to the gelatin of the film causing
• any chemical that maintains pH blister artifacts (sinkhole appearance)
• Chemicals: boric acid & Na hydroxide
• why need ng buffer agent? Because some ❑ Accelerator Agent
chemicals of developer are acidic, & some • Chemicals: sodium hydroxide,
are basic. sodium carbonate and Kodalk
• For example: • speeds up development process
▪ BORIC ACID is used to maintain the
acidity of the phenidone, sodium ❑ Alkalinizer Agent
bromide and dialdehyde and • Chemicals:
glutaraldehyde • maintain alkalinity
▪ SODIUM HYDROXIDE maintains • provide alkaline medium
the alkalinity of the chemicals in • increase the pH value
the developer that is not mentioned • maintain 9.6 to 10.6
on the boric acid example
27
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

SPECIAL NOTES: Therefore, when replenishing the developer, you

► 2-degree inclination on temperature will not add a starter or restrainer solution
• density is increases by 15% because there is an increased number of
bromides in an oxidized solution
► 10 degrees inclination on temperature
• immersion time will be cut into half BENZOTHIOSOLE
• the activity will be double • an organic restrainer (not considered a
• density increases starter solution) which added to PQ
developer
C. RESTRAINER • should be replenish because it is oxidized
• group into starter, anti-foggant and • exclusively used for phenidone
regulator solution o Prevent action of phenidone on the
• Function: control the activity of reducing unexposed crystals, since
or developing agent (HEMP) or decreases phenidone is not restrained by
activity of developing agent bromide
▪ the film has already 50% exposed • 1956: first roller transport system uses
(contain the latent image) and hardener
50% unexposed SHC
▪ only the latent image should be Basis For Picking a Restrainer:
developing therefore the function 1. Reducing agent used for automatic is PQ
of restrainer or regulator is to • Benzothiazole & potassium bromide
protect the unexposed 2. Reducing agent used for manual is MQ
(undeveloped) • Sodium Bromide only
• Chemicals: Sodium bromide/iodide or 3. Composition of the SHC
Potassium bromide/iodide – an acidic • Recording medium of emulsion is SHC
chemical that balance the HEM (alkaline) ► Silver Bromide – 90 to 99%
• increases when the solution is oxidized ► Silver Iodide – 1 to 10%
which means it contain greater number of ► Silver Chloride (Iodobromide) –
bromide (alkaline chemical turned into an 1 to 10% for Cahoons
acid) • Restrainer used: Sodium bromide,
• REGULATOR or RESTRAINER: controls Sodium Iodide
activity of reducing agents
• ANTI-FOGGANT: tends to prevent fog D. PRESERVATIVE/CYCON
formation (chemical or development fog) • Same with the fixer solution
which is a veil of non-information density • Function: prevent rapid oxidation (aerial)
• STARTER SOLUTION: first to take effect of reducing agent
to reduce developer activity • Chemicals: Sodium sulfide, Potassium
Sulfide and Cycon (for both manual and
Note: Sodium and Potassium bromide are starter automatic)
that is only used at first mixture due to the • The chemicals react with QUINONE (by
increase activity of the developer. product of Hydroquinone which is a dye),
28
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

capable of staining the film and form ► Mineral Water on developer solution
colorless compound found on oxidized • the scale of the pH increases
solution called HYDROQUINONE • in developer: the activity increases
MONOSULFATE • in fixer: the activity decreases but do
▪ Hindi pwede remove oxidation, ang not affect the film
gagawin lang is babawasan ang • solution for auto: decrease mAs
rapid oxidation • solution for manual: decrease
• Contain great affinity with oxygen (can immersion time
control the oxygen)
► Tap Water on developer solution
• STABILIZER: to promote balance or
• add a sequestering agent (chelates,
equilibrium of chemicals (usually
EDTA or calgon), oily substance, to
phenidone and hydroquinone)
precipitate the chemical at the
• ANTIOXIDANT: prevents internal
bottom of the solution and prevent
oxidation
deposition of metallic deposit
• pH = 3-4 (Preservative, Restrainer &
artifacts or calcium deposit artifacts
Hardener)
▪ prevent scaling of the tank
• Most developer replenishment tanks have
floating lid inside the tank to minimize OTHER COMPONENTS
contact with the outside air and prevent 1.) HARDENER/TANNING AGENTS
evaporation or aerial oxidation • Chemical: Dialdehyde / Glutaraldehyde
• for automatic processing only
Note:
introduced in 1956 together with first
• Do not shake thoroughly the chemical
automatic processor with roller transport
because it will create air bubbles turning
system
into evaporation then oxidation
• control the activity of the activator or
• Do not use water host (pressurized water)
swelling of the emulsion
in mixing the chemicals causing bubbles
• added for developer solution to prevent
swelling of emulsion
E. SOLVENT
• reduces film transportation problems &
• Drinking water
preventing damage to the emulsion
Distilled Water • Developer: weak/temporary hardener
• the most appropriate to use since it is • Fixer: strong/permanent hardener
balance or neutral
► Raindrop on developer solution EMULSION PICKOFF PINHOLES
• the scale of pH is 6 (acidic) • actual holes in the image where the
• in developer: activity is decreases emulsion has been physically picked off
• in fixer: the activity is increases the polyester base
• solution for auto: increase mAs • creates the GELATIN BUILD UP caused by
• solution for manual: increase the exhausted hardening agent
immersion time

29
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

JAMMING OF FILM 5.) FUNGICIDES

• the roller contains the emulsion leading to • Chemical: Chlorox
sticky processor roller (impede on • Fungi: develop in complete darkness and
crossover) moisture
• Virus, bacteria & protozoa
2.) SEQUESTERING AGENTS
• Chemicals: Calgon, EDTA and Chelates 7.) BUFFER
• Prevent precipitation of calcium sludge • Developer: Sodium hydroxide/carbonate
• Oily substance & precipitate of aluminum • Fixer: Acetic acid
• EDTA: sodium salt of Ethylene Diamine • Maintains pH value of the solution
Tetra Acetic Acid
OXIDIZED DEVELOPER
• CALGON: sodium hexametaphosphate
• Old or exhausted developer
• CHELATES: boric acid/salts
• Decrease reducing property
(aerial/chemical oxidation)
3.) WETTING AGENTS
• Product of developing as increased
• Sodium hydroxide/carbonate
monosulfate
• Stimulate uniform development
• All agent’s activity is decreased, except for
Restraining Agent
4.) ANTIFROTHANT/ANTI-FOAMING
• Conc of the chemical goes down
• Partnered with sodium hydroxide and
► Reducing
carbonate to prevent bubble formation in
► Preservative
the solution
• prevents aerial and external oxidation ► Alkalinizer
o Closefitting lids ► Buffer Solution
o Mixing paddle • Conc of the chemical goes up:
o Hose should not be used ► Restrainer
► By product of the developer called
monosulfate

AGENT CHEMICAL FUNCTION

Fast-reducing, produces
Phenidone
gray densities
Developing or Reducing Agent
Slow Reducing, produces
Hydroquinone
black densities
Elevates and maintains
Accelerator or activator Sodium Carbonate
solution pH
Decreases reduction of
Restrainer Potassium Bromide
unexposed SHC
Decreases osxidation of
Preservative Sodium Sulfite
solution
Hardener Glutaraldehyde Hardens the emulsion
Solvent Water Dilutes the chemical
30
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

The chemical of the developer has an option: bilateral 8x10 film should be place
expiration date of 3 months – developing or together for the system to replenish itself)
not developing film will result to oxidation • Developer: 50 to 100cc for 14 x 17 CW
► Activity declined 60 to 70cc for 14”
► Automatic processor can accommodate • Fixer: 100 to 150cc for 14 x 17 crosswise
10,000 films without oxidation • it should not exceed or decrease in 5% to
the normal value
TYPE OF OXIDATIONS ► over replenishment thereby
1. External Oxidation exposure of chemical increasing the activity
from outside source ► Increase density due to developing
a. Aerial oxidation of unexposed SHC causing chemical
b. Photooxidation – oxidized on light fog to the film, thereby decreasing
2. Chemical Oxidation contradicting effect of contrast
chemical
REPLENISHER
► For developer solution: Phenidone and • A solution containing more reducing
Hydroquinone agents, activator and preservative but
► For fixer solution: Acetic Acid and without restrainer to maintain chemical
Thiosulfate activity of the processing solution to the
3. Used Oxidation refers to a reduction in original & in proper dilution with water
chemical strength as a result of exposure to • MQ Replenisher: without restrainer
increased temperature over an extended • PQ Replenisher: with restrainer (since
period of time BENZOTHIOSOLE will be exhauster)

Characteristic of Oxidized Developer Solution: FLOOD VOLUME REPLENISHMENT SYSTEM

• the pH decreases • 25-50 pcs of 14x14 or 14x17 films
• the activity decreases developed/day
• the clear brown liquid turned into a dark
VOLUME
muddy substance
MICROSWITCH
• strong odor of ammonia
• a sensor device located at the entrance of
REPLENISHMENT the automatic processor (adjacent to the
• also called regeneration entrance roller) which controls the
• physical & chemical means of maintaining replenishment rate of processing
the level of processing solution chemicals
• basis for physics: the flush of the • use the orientation of the film to process
replenishment system to the graduated the replenishment system
cylinder • Replenishment rates are normally
• in automatic processor: 14 inches of film established on basis how much chemistry
travel meaning on the feed tray the is required per 14 in of film travel
develop film should be 14 inches (possible • Developer: 60-70 cc or 4-5 mL/in
• Fixer: 100-110 cc or 6-8 mL/in

31
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

• 14x14 or 14x17 in: replenishment occurs CLASSIFICATION OF DEVELOPER

• 10x12 inches: no replenishment occurs 1.) MQ DEVELOPER
• Oxidized developer: many big films are • Elon/metol-hydroquinone developer
developed
• Over replenishment: many big films are 2.) PQ DEVELOPER
developed; increases density • Phenidone-hydroquinone developer
FLOOD/TIMED/STANDBY/TITUS • 15 times more superadditivity than MQ
REPLENISHMENT SYSTEM developer combination
• Donald Titus of Kodak • Can still be used for manual but have
• Replenish every 10 mins or 1 hour higher activity due to concentration
• <25-50 for 14” films
• No microswitch but with timer FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT TIME
• Many films are replenished • Temperature of the solution:
• Timer: the basis is the elapse of time ► Increase temperature
► 65mL of Developer Increase activity
► 65mL of Fixer Decrease time of development
• Standard time is 5 minutes
• Regardless of the orientation and size of • Size of film:
the film to the feed tray, once you set the ► Big film size – Longer Development
timer it will be replenish but if you don’t
develop it will not replenish • Size of grains of the film:
• Usually for children’s hospital ► Larger/thicker SHC
Increase development time
REPLENESHING PUMPS (Same as direct exposure)
a. Diaphragm-type pump – like in the ► Direct Exposure (non-screen) Film
mechanical pump ventilator contains thicker emulsion
b. Bellows-type pump Increase development time
c. Magnetic-drive centrifugal pump – best
d. Percentage pump • Agitation: circulation system
e. Piston-type pump ► in order for the air bubbles (can
SUPERADDITIVITY/SYNERGISM cause crack) to not penetrate film
• Activity of each individual component of ► for developer & fixer: minimum of
reducing agent in solution is less that the 20 seconds
activity when two components are ► Increase agitation
combined Increase interaction
Shorter Development Time
Oxidized developer on Automatic Processing will
require an increase mAs • Exhaustion of the developer:
► Decrease developer activity
Longer Development Time
32
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

The temperature increases or decreases by 2 • SECONDARY FUNCTION:

degrees (2-degree rule) ► To stop (neutralize) the
• a 15% increase or decrease in density will development process
allow the radtech to manipulate the ► To further hardens the emulsion
immersion time • serves to clear the film of the undeveloped
• temperature increases by 2 percent, a crystals, forming an Ag complex of
development time required is decrease by thiosulfate technically called
15 percent MONOARGENTO-DI-THIOSULFURIC
• NOTE: If temperature increases by 10 ACID (binibili to make it silver)
degrees, the density will be doubled • double the amount of time required as
therefore an immersion time required compared to the developer
should be halves • pH of the fixer: 4.2 to 4.9

Decrease in pH will require a longer development

MANUAL AUTOMATIC
time. If you want to have a speedy development x2 immersion time The developer and
time, use a high specific gravity (great from the developer fixer have the same
concentration) time immersion time
The concentration of
STOP BATH maintain the activity of fixer solution Same concentration on the chemical is higher
by adding 10% acetic acid and neutralize the fixer and developer compared to the
developer
alkaline developer (stop development process)
Standard temperature: Standard temperature:
► another term is “Acid Rinse Bath” 68 F 95 to 98 F
► the presence of acetic acid will not cause
oxidation on the fixer Characteristic of Oxidized Fixer Solution:
► but with water rinse bath, the increase in • pH increases
H2O component of the fixer will decrease • activity decreases
acidity • can be caused by chemical oxidation by
thiosulfate and acetic acid
2.) FIXING • increase in water content, decrease
• considered as weak acid concentration
• Stop Bath/Short Stop/Acid Rinse Bath • carryover alkaline solution, aluminum
• 1% of acetic acid hydroxide latch on the hardener on the
• PRIMARY FUNCTION: fixer, from developer will cause oxidation
► Removes, dissolves & clears away to the fixer
the 50% unexposed Silver Halide
crystals from the film PROCESS:
► To make the 50% exposed and ► Thiosulfate remove unexposed SHC, get
developed are into image the Ag on the film forming the Thiosilver
permanent Sulfate. Problem: when thiosulfate become
compound, it cannot remove another
silver therefore need mo ng antioxidant,
33
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

preservative (sodium sulfite), stabilizer in CASCADE WASH TANK (MANUAL PROCESSOR)

order to recycle the exact thiosulfate then • Initial and final washing
remove (tutunawin) the silver by • adding hyponeutralizer chemical to stop
precipitation. If the stabilizer is oxidized or neutralize the thiosulfate thus totally
this process cannot be done again. eliminating the hyporetention

A. CLEARING AGENT / FIXING AGENT

WASHING
• Chemicals: Sodium thiosulfate and
• Very important to archival quality
Ammonium thiosulfate/hypo
• Prevent hyporetention
• thiosulfate acts a clearing and fixing agent
• Clearing Agent function: Dissolves
THIO
unexposed AgBr crystals
• Function is to dissolve silver
• Fixing Agent function: produce a
• Thio silver sulfate: Ag enter to thio
permanent visible image
• Hyporetention

AMMONIUM SODIUM HYPOKIT

THIOSULFATE THIOSULFATE • Chemical composition: acetic acid, silver
Automatic Manual nitrate & solvent
Less stable; staining and • A chemical that is dropped to the film
deterioration will occur More stable • Presence of thiosulfate = changes color
faster • Few thiosulfate = yellow color
Fixes the film more
rapidly even with • Many thiosulfate = brown color
equivalent concentration
Higher activity as
compared to Na Hypo
Lesser activity HYPO
HYPOKIT
Faster to oxidized Slow to oxidized NEUTRALIZER
Automatic Manual
Liquid concentration
Only a test tool to
Totally eliminate
know the level of
Hyporetention/Thiosulfate retention: hyporetention
hyporetention
• Silver sulfide or brown sulfide stain just rinse the film
no need to rinse
• Pale yellow or brown color again
• Due to inadequate washing decrease washing time

NOTE: Thiosulfate will enter the film to get the NOTE: If 1% acetic acid goes to the developer
Ag, then the unexposed silver will make sama dun solution, it will contaminate entire it. Therefore,
sa thiosulfate resulting to THIOSILVER SULFATE. put only the film on running H2O.
The problem in here is that when you did not
wash off the surface of the film will have
thiosulfate which is the MONOARGENTO-DI-
THIOSULFURIC ACID
34
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

B. NEUTRALIZER / ACTIVATOR / ACIDIFIER / ▪ Prevent decomposition and

BUFFERING AGENT precipitation of sulphur from the
• Neutralizer, Activator and Acidifier thiosulfate fixing agent
Chemicals: Acetic acid ▪ Responsible in removing silver to
▪ Remember the composition of thio
bond • Oxidized developer: monosulfate
• Buffer Chemical: Boric Acid or Borate Salt • Oxidized fixer: increase sulfurization
▪ serve as sequestering agent of fixer
D. HARDENER / STRONG HARDENER /
• Acidifier: provides an acid medium
TANNING AGENT / PERMANENT AGENT
• Neutralizer: neutralized the developer
• Chemicals: Potassium aluminium/
carried over on the film or stop the
Chromium aluminium/Alum chloride
development process
• need on manual or automatic processor
• pH value: 4.2-4.9 or other reference 4-4.5
• Major component
• Increase carryover of alkaline from
• Raises temperature at w/c gelatin softens
developer
which the aluminum enters then make
• To activate Thio to enter and get Ag
sama to gelatin
▪ It will only function on an acid
▪ which prevents too much
medium
absorption of water by gelatin
Alkaline: low H+ high OH-; potential hydrogen ▪ Therefore, the harden emulsion or
Acid: high H+ low OH- permanent is black metallic silver +
gelatin + aluminum
C. PRESERVATIVE / STABILIZER ANTIOXIDANT • Aluminum is important so that the gelatin
• Chemicals: Sodium Sulfite, Potassium will not liquify anymore making the image
sulfite and Cycon totally permanent
• Functions: • makes the film less susceptible to physical
▪ Maintains equilibrium of the change
chemical in the solution
▪ Prevents internal oxidation and
aerial oxidation of fixing agent

AGENT CHEMICAL FUNCTION

Fixing agent Ammonium Thiosulfate Clears away unexposed
SHC
Acidifier Acetic Acid Stops Development
Preservative Sodium Sulfite Prevents reactiojn
between fixing agent and
acidifier
Hardener Chrome Alum Hardens the emulsion
Potassium Aluminum Sulfate
Aluminum Chloride
Solvent Water Dilutes the chemical

35
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

Classification of Hardeners in Fixing Solution: • Clearing

1. Potassium Aluminum o The process by which the fixing
• most widely used and keeps its agent acts on the unexposed to
hardening property almost form soluble complexes which
indefinitely eventually diffuses out of the film
• however, beyond a pH of 5.5 which into fixing solution
becomes unstable, a white bloom o Fixing Time = 2x Clearing Time
forms on the surface of the film (OLD)
brought about by the precipitation o Fixing Time = Clearing Time +
of aluminum hydroxide Hardening Time (NEW)
• problem: faster oxidation
CAUSE OF EXHAUSTION OF FIXERS
2. Chrome Aluminum
a. Dilution of H2O being carried into the tank
• does not keep its hardening
from the second stage
property more than a few days b. Increasing alkalinity brought by the carry-
3. Aluminum Chloride over of the alkaline developed
• can be used in a concentrated c. Accumulation of the silver complexes
hardener solution which retard the clearing action of the
• it has a rapid hardening action and thiosulfates
is associated with ammonium d. Decreasing acidity
thiosulfate fixers e. Loss of hardening power
E. SOLVENT f. Oxidation of the Sodium Sulfite
• Water
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE USE OF FIXER
SEQUESTERING/BUFFERING AGENT a. Fixing agent used
• Boric acid/salts b. Concentration of the fixing agent
o a buffer agent c. Temperature of the solution
o an anti-sludging agent which delay d. Presence of the hardener
precipitation of Aluminum e. Film material used
hydroxide (alkaline) f. Agitation of the film
▪ Increases pH g. Exhaustion of the fixing bath
▪ Aluminum Hydroxide –
oxidation of the solution

• Hyponeutralizer
o Solution used between fixing stage
and the final washing cycle to
decrease the washing time of the
film to prevent hyporetention
o initial washing

36
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

3.) WASHING FOR AUTOMATIC PROCESSOR:

• stage that is very important for archival GROSS CONTROL TEMPERATURE/WARM
quality or permanency of the image WATER PROCESSOR
• removes residual processing (thio) and Ag • old model
salts from the radiograph • used HOT or WARM WATER
• wash agent: water (H2O) • affected by WATER-MIXING VALVE, a
• In automatic processing the temperature device that interconnect the incoming hot
of the wash should be maintained and cold water
approximately <2.8o C/5o F below the
developer temperature to stabilize FINE CONTROL / THERMOSTATICALLY
• MAIN FUNCTION: to stabilize developer CONTROLLED TEMPERATURE PROCESSOR
temperature • new model
• Change = 0.3o C • uses COLD WATER
• Important to archival quality to prevent • occurs within the developer tank itself
hyporetention through a thermostatically-controlled
heating element by means of heat
4.) DRYING exchanger
• Final process in processing • Thermostat: controls or regulate
• Removes 85-90% of moisture from the temperature – possible answer is heat
film so that it can be handle easily and exchanger or water mixing valve if
stored while maintaining quality of the thermostat is not available on the choices
diagnostic image • Heating element or heat exchanger or
• Remaining moisture is 10-15% metal tube
• Consuming more electricity (60-80% ► Some developer tank is made up of
electrical consumption) steel, then bubugahan ng hangin ng
blower ng drying system para
• Rationale:
tumaas yung temperature nung
o Filament = 1500-2500 W
o Air blower = 100-300 cu-ft/min specific area
• More advisable than gross control
TEMPERATURE CONTROL temperature
• Tempering control system
PROCESSING SYSTEM TANKS
• Control the temperature of the developer
• Automatic processor has 3 tanks
system
1. Developer Tank
• Increase and decrease in developing
2. Fixer Tank
temperature can adversely affect the
3. Water Tank
quality of radiographic image
• Manual processor tanks
• 90 secs = 33.8-35o C/93-95o F
1. Master Tank
2. Insert Tank
3. Water Tank
4. Washing Tank
37
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

CASCADE COMPARTMENT B. TRANSPORT/PLANETARY ROLLER

• 2 wash tanks • Vehicle transport
• Moves the film through the chemical
AUTOMATIC PROCESSOR tanks and dryer
• a device that has roller transport system • Size: 1 inch
• a device that comprises chemical tanks
C. TURNAROUND/SOLAR/MASTER ROLLER
• a dryer system for processing of
radiographic film • Bottom of the roller assembly
• in auto, the washing tank temperature • Turns the film from moving down the
must be 2.8 C or 5 F lesser as compared to transport assembly to moving up the
the developer tank assembly
► this is to stabilize developer
D. CROSSOVER ROLLER
temperature
• Moves the film from one tank to another
► If the degree of temperature from
the fixer is high as compare to the • From fixer to developer
developer it will result to a E. SQUEEGEE ROLLER
reticulation artifacts (fluctuation of • Specialized rubber area
temperature between the
developer and fixer solution) or GUIDE PLATES
bromide drug that will result to • Slightly curved metal plates
cracking of emulsion • Properly guide the leading edge of the
moving film through
PROCESSING CYCLE/DRY-TO-DROP TIME MOTOR DRIVE
• Time to process a single piece of film • An electric motor
• 45 seconds to 3.5 minutes • Provides power for the roller assembly to
transport the film through the processor
PROCESSING CAPACITY • On/off switch provides electric power
• Number of film that can be processed per • Disadvantage: stand by control
hour o An electric circuit that shuts off
TRANSPORT SYSTEM power to the roller assembly
1.) VERTICAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM • Belt and pulley
• Used in automatic processor
• Advance the film through different stages
• All rollers & feed tray

A. ENTRANCE ROLLER
• Grab the film
• Covered with corrugated rubber
(rubberized)
• Plexi glass, Polyester & Phenolic

38
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE EMULSION REMOVED BY DEVELOPER

DECREASE IN DENSITY • Insufficient hardener in developer
• Developer exhausted •
• Developer underreplenishment MILKY APPEARANCE
• Processor running too fast • Fixer exhausted
• Low developer temperature • Inadequate washing
• Developer improperly mix
STREAKS
INCREASE IN DENSITY • Dirty processor rollers
• Developer over replenishment • Inadequate washing and drying
• Increase developer temperature
• Light leak in processor ALTERNATIVE PROCESSING METHODS
• Developer improperly mixed 1.) RAPID PROCESSING
• 30 seconds
PINKISH/DICHROIC STAIN • Useful for angiography, special procedure,
• Contamination of developer by fixer surgery & emergency room
(chemical fog) • More concentrated chemicals
• Developer or fixer under replenishment • Higher developer and fixer temperature

BROWN STAIN/THIOSULFATE
• Inadequate washing

39
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

2.) EXTENDED PROCESSING SILVER RECOVERY

• 3 minutes 1.) PRECIPITATION OF THE SILVER
• Mammography • Oldest form of silver recovery
• For single emulsion only • Chemical precipitation
• Advantages: greater image contrast & • Involves chemical reaction
lower patient dose • Ag in fixer solution is precipitated as Ag
• Disadvantage: longer dry-to-drop time sulphide by adding Na sulphide to the
solution
3.) DAYLIGHT PROCESSING
• 2 minutes 2.) METALLIC REPLACEMENT /
• Receive film in 15 seconds DISPLACEMENT
• Uses microprocessor • Used of aluminum steel wool
• Advantages: no darkroom required & • Cartridge
speed • Least expensive and simplest

RADIOGRAPHIC ARTIFACTS 3.) ELECTROLYTIC RECOVERY UNITS

• Unwanted image • Most common
• An electric current is passed through an
POSITIVE DENSITY ARTIFACT ionized solution
• Radiolucent appearance • Two electrodes: Anode (Carbon) &
• Halfmoon marks: bending & kinking of Cathode (Stain-steel)
film • Ag is retrieved in the cathode
• Scratching/Abrasion: fingernail/scratch
• Static discharge: sliding films over flat TROY OZ
surface • Unit of silver recovery
• Fogging: exposure to white light, ionizing
radiation, heat, safelight fog & expired film USE OF SILVER RECOVERY
• Density outside collimation area: off- 1.) Photographic Industry: 30%
focused/off-skin radiation 2.) Electric Industry: 20%
3.) Sterling Industry: 15%
NEGATIVE DENSITY ARTIFACT
• Radiopaque appearance
• Finger print: moisture on finger
transferred to the film before exposure
• Scratches/Abrasions: scrapping or
removing emulsion
• Foreign objects: some unintended object
in the imaging chain
• Non-specific decrease: dirty screens or
cassette

40
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

RADIOGRAPHY TIME (s)

• Used of ionizing radiation • Length of exposures
• Number of photons exposing the patient
RADIOGRAPH with mA-timer relationship
• Image produced with good quality
DISTANCE
TECHNICAL COMPETENCY • FFD/SID: distance from the focal spot to
• Operation of the control panel the recording medium
• Selection of appropriate accessories • Affects blackening of film
• Use of terminologies in evaluation of • Inverse square law
radiograph
• Measurement RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY
• Evaluation of result A. PHOTOGRAPHIC ASPECT/VISIBILITY
• Density: overall blackening of the film
CHARACTERISTIC OF RADIOGRAPH
• Contrast: variation in the density level
• Exposure factor is adequate
that makes detail visible
• Adequate penetration
• Sufficient density and contrast
B. GEOMETRIC ASPECT/SHARPNESS
• Field size selection is appropriate
• Definition: clarity and sharpness of
• No motion structural lines
o Voluntary: good communication • Distortion: undesired change in the size
o Involuntary: decrease exposure and shape of the anatomic part
time

KILOVOLTAGE PEAK (kVp) RADIOGRAPHIC DENSITY

• Controls energy of the beam • Determines the amount of density on
• Penetrating ability finished radiograph
• Accelerates the electron • Acceptable Range: 0.25-2.0 OD
• Wavelength of photon • Directly related to mAs
• Affects blackening of film by 15% rule
• Affects the production of scattered FACTORS AFFECTING DENSITY
radiation • Controlling factor: mAs
• Controls radiographic contrast • kVp, Distance, Grids, Film Screen Speed,
• Affects exposure to patient Collimation, Anatomic Part, Anode Heel
Effect, Reciprocity Law, Generator Output,
MILLIAMPERAGE (mA) Filtration & Film Processing
• Number of electrons
• Number of x-ray photons
• Blackening
• Influences focal spot blooming
o Increase actual focal spot size when
the tube current is increased
41
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

FACTORS TO REMEMBER IN DENSITY RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST

• Increase mAs: great density • To make detail visible
• Fastest screen film combination: great • Attenuation and differential absorption
density TYPES OF CONTRAST
• Lowest grid ratio: great density 1.) SUBJECT CONTRAST
• Direct exposure technique: least • Differential absorption of adjacent
density structures
• Shortest distance: great density • Affects by kVp, tissue composition & CM
• Longest time: great density
• Highest kVp: great density 2.) FILM CONTRAST
• Smallest area of collimation: least • Inherent in the film base
density • Affects by film (IR), film type & direct/IS
exposure
INFLUENCING FACTORS
• 15% kVp rule CHARACTERISTIC OF CONTRAST SCALE
• Increase Density: original kVp + 15% 1.) SHORT SCALE
• Decrease Density: original kVp –15% • Few number of useful densities on the
• Maintain Density: original kVp + 15%, radiograph
mAs ÷ 2 • Abrupt change from one density to
• Decrease Patient Dose: original kVp + another
15% and mAs ÷ 2 • High contrast, more contrast & narrow
• Increase Image Quality: original kVp – latitude
15% and mAs x 2 • Low kVp technique

ANODE HEEL EFFECT 2.) LONG SCALE

• Used long FFD and shortest/smallest field • Large number of useful densities on the
size radiograph
• Anode Side: 75% • Little change from one density to another
• Cathode Side: 120% • Low contrast, less contrast & wider
• Difference: 45% latitude
• High kVp technique
INVERSE SQUARE LAW
• Intensity of x-ray is inversely HIGH kVp LOW kVp
proportional to the square of distance Long scale contrast Short scale contrast
Low contrast High contrast
RECIPROCITY LAW Less contrast More contrast
• States that OD on a radiograph is Wide latitude Narrow latitude
proportional only to the total energy
imparted to the radiographic film CONTRAST
• Accurate only on direct exposure • Influencing factor: kVp
• Fails in screen-film • Grids, Collimation, OID, CM, Processing &
Air-gap Technique
42
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

CASTS RADIOGRAPHIC DEFINITION/RECORDED

• Fiber glass: no increase in exposure DETAIL
factor • Clarity and sharpness
• Wet Plaster: increase mAs 3x • Umbra: true image
• Dry Plaster: increase mAs 2x • Penumbra: geometric unsharpness; the
blurred areas around the umbra
SPLINTS
DISTORTION
• Fiber glass: no increase in factor
• Used to removed superimposition
• Inflatable (Air): no increase in factor
• Magnification:
• Wood, Aluminum & Plastic: increase
o Distortion in size
exposure if they are in the path of
o Increase FFD – Decrease OFD –
primary beam
Decrease magnification
• Foreshortening/Elongation:
PATHOLOGY
o Irregular magnification
1.) ADDITIVE DISEASES
o Distortion in shape
• Increases absorption characteristic
o Affected by CR part-film alignment
• Increase kVp
• List of Additive Disease: CONTROL OF SCATTER RADIATION
a. Aortic aneurysm PRODUCTION OF SCATTER RADIATION
b. Ascites
c. Atelectasis TWO TYPES OF X-RAYS RESPONSIBLE FOR
d. Cirrhosis THE OPTICAL DENSITY & CONTRAST ON A
e. Hypertrophy RADIOGRAPH
f. Metastases 1.) X-rays that pass through the patient without
interacting
g. Pleural effusion
2.) X-rays that are scattered within the patient
h. Pneumonia through Compton interaction
i. Sclerosis
REMNANT X-RAYS
2.) DESTRUCTIVE DISEASES • X-rays that exit from the patient
• Decreases absorption characteristic
IMAGE-FORMING X-RAYS
• Decrease kVp
• X-rays that exit & interact with the image
• List of Destructive Disease: receptor
a. Active TB
b. Atrophy PROPER COLLIMATION
c. Bowel obstruction • Effects:
d. Cancer ► Less scatter radiation
e. Degenerative arthritis ► Reduces patient dose
► Improves contrast resolution
f. Emphysema
g. Osteoporosis
h. Pneumothorax

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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

THREE FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO CONTROL OF SCATTER RADIATION

INCREASED SCATTER RADIATION CONTRAST
• One of the most important characteristics of
1. kVp image quality
• Increase kVp: increases scattered radiation • The visible difference between light & dark
► Rationale: the relative number that areas on an image
undergo Compton interaction • The degree of difference in OD between
increases areas of a radiographic image
► Result: reduced image contrast
• Decreased kVp: decreases scattered CONTRAST RESOLUTION
radiation • The ability to image & distinguish soft
► Results: tissues
▪ Minimum scatter radiation
▪ Improved image contrast EFFECT OF SCATTER RADIATION ON
▪ Increased patient dose IMAGE CONTRAST
• Due to increased mAs • High Contrast: use of only transmitted &
unattenuated x-rays
TAKE NOTE: ► Appearance: sharp image
• Approximately 1% of x-rays incident on the • No Contrast: use of only scattered x-rays
patient reach the image receptor ► Appearance: dull gray image
• Moderate Contrast: use of both transmitted
2. FIELD SIZE & scattered x-rays
• Increase Field Size: increases scatter
radiation DEVICES THAT REDUCED SCATTERED
• Reduce Scatter Radiation: lowers RADIATION
radiographic optical density 1. BEAM RESTRICTION
► Effect: increased radiographic • Purpose:
technique to increase OD ► Limiting patient exposure
► Reducing scattered radiation
3. PATIENT THICKNESS
• Increased Thickness: increases scattered BEAM RESTRICTORS
radiation a. APERTURE DIAPHRAGM
► Rationale: more x-rays undergo
• Simplest type
multiple scattering
• A flat piece of lead that has hole in it
• Compression Paddle: b. CONE/CYLINDER
► Used to reduce scatter radiation to the • Modification of aperture diaphragm
image receptor • Has an extended flange attached to it
c. COLLIMATOR
• Compression of anatomy:
• Best type
► Improves spatial resolution &
contrast resolution • Useful and accepted type of beam-restricting
► Lowers patient dose device
► Important to mammography d. AUTOMATIC COLLIMATOR
• Positive beam limiting devices (PBL)
• Automatically limits the size and shape of
primary beam to the size and shape of the IR
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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

RESTRICTING THE PRIMARY BEAM 2.) INTERSPACE MATERIAL

Increased Result • Radiolucent material
Decreased patient dose • Purpose: to maintain a precise separation
Decreased scattered radiation between the delicate lead strip of the grid
COLLIMATION Increased radiographic • Compositions:
contrast ► Aluminum (Al)
Decreased radiation density ▪ Advantages Over Fiber:
Increased patient dose • High atomic number
Increased scattered radiation • Produces less visible
FIELD SIZE Decreased radiographic grid lines
contrast • Nonhygroscopic:
Increased radiation density does not absorb
moisture
RADIOGRAPHIC GRID • Easier to manufacture
• Device used to reduce the intensity of scatter ▪ Disadvantages Over Fiber:
radiation in the remnant x-ray beam • Increases absorption
• Principal Function: to improve image of primary beam
contrast • Results: higher mAs
• Secondary function: to absorb scattered & higher patient dose
radiation ► Plastic fiber
• Used when: ▪ More preferred than Al
• Size: 350 μm wide
► Anatomical part >10 cm
► >60 kVp is used THREE IMPORTANT GRID DIMENSIONS
• Advantage: improved image contrast 1.) Grid Strip Thickness (T)
• Disadvantages: 2.) Interspace Material Width (D)
► Higher technical factors used 3.) Grid Height (h)
► High patient dose GUSTAVE BUCKY (1913)
• Position: between the patient & IR • He invented stationary grid
• He demonstrated the technique for reducing
GRID CONSTRUCTION the amount of scatter radiation that reaches
1.) GRID STRIPS/LINES the IR
• Radiopaque material GRID SURFACE X-RAY ABSORPTION
• Purpose: it absorbs scattered radiation
• Composition: lead (Pb) width of grid strip
% X-ray
► Advantages: = x 100
▪ Easy to shape Absorption width of grid strip + width of interspace
▪ Inexpensive
▪ High atomic number
▪ High mass density
• Characteristics: thin & high absorption
properties
• Size: 50 μm wide

45
 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

GRID CONTRUCTION CAN BE GRID PERFORMANCE

DESCRIBED BY: 1.) CONTRAST IMPROVEMENT FACTOR
1.) GRID RATIO • Ratio of radiographic contrast with a grid to
• The height of the grid divided by the that without a grid
interspace width • Best measure of how well a grid performs
• Formula: grid ratio = h/D • Purpose: measures improvement in image
► h = the height of the lead strips quality when grids are used
► D = the distance between lead strips • Symbol: k
• High Ratio Grid: image contrast with grid
► Advantage Over Low Ratio Grid: k =
▪ More effective in cleaning up image contrast without grid
scatter radiation • Most Grids: k=1.5-2.5
▪ Rationale: angle of deviation • k=1: no improvement
is smaller • Use of Grid: double the image contrast
► Disadvantage: increases patient dose • High Grid Ratio: high k
• General Radiography: 8:1 to 10:1
• Mammography: 4:1 to 5:1 2.) BUCKY/GRID FACTOR
• Ratio of incident radiation to transmitted
2.) GRID FREQUENCY radiation through a grid
• The number of grid strips per centimeter or • Ratio of patient dose with & without a grid
inches • Purpose:
• High Frequency: less distinct grid lines on ► To measure how much of an increase
a radiograph in technique will be required
• Range: 25-45 lines/cm or 60/110 lines/inch compared with nongrid exposure
► Indicates how large an increase in
10,000 μm/cm patient dose will accompany the use
Grid Frequency = of a particular grid
(T+D) μm/linepair • Symbol: B
incident remnant x-rays
• T = grid strips thickness/width B =
• D = interspace width transmitted image-forming x-rays
• High Frequency Grids:
► Requires radiographic technique patient dose with grid
► Result: higher patient radiation dose B=
patient dose without grid
• Higher Grid Ratio: higher Bucky factor
► Rationale: penetration of scatter
radiation becomes less likely
• Increasing kVp: increases Bucky factor
► Rationale: more scatter radiation is
produced & it has more difficult time
of penetration
• Increased Bucky Factor:
► Effects:
▪ Increase radiographic
technique
▪ Increase patient dose
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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

GRID PATTERN GRID FOCUS

• Refers to the linear pattern of the lead lines of • Refers to the orientation of the lead lines to
a grid one another

TWO TYPES OF GRID PATTERN TWO TYPES OF GRID FOCUS

1.) LINEAR/PARALLEL GRID 1.) FOCUSED GRID
• Simplest type • Grid Strips: parallel to primary x-ray path
• It has lead lines that run into one direction • Purpose: to minimize grid cutoff
• It cleans up scatter radiation in one direction • Advantage: reduce grid cutoff
• Grid Strips: parallel • Disadvantages:
• Most popular in terms of grid pattern ► Difficult to manufacture
► Rationale: allows angulation of the ► Geometric limitations
x-ray tube ▪ Intended focal distance
• Advantage: easiest to manufacture ▪ Side of the grid should face
• Disadvantage: grid cutoff the x-ray tube
► Occur at: short SID & large area IR • Characteristics: same with parallel grid but
• Optical Density: decreases toward the edge exhibit no grid cut off
of IR
2.) PARALLEL/NON-FOCUSED GRID
2.) CROSSED/CROSS-HATCHED GRID • Grid Strips: parallel to one another
• It is fabricated by sandwiching two parallel • Applications: fluoroscopy & mobile
grids together imaging
• It has lead lines that run at right angle to one
another TYPES OF GRIDS
• Grid Strips: perpendicular 1.) WAFER GRID
• Advantages: • Matches the size of cassette
► Not too difficult to manufacture • Use by placing on top of the image receptor
► Not excessively expensive
• Disadvantages: 2.) GRID CASSETTE
► Grid cutoff • An image receptor that has a grid
permanently mounted to its front surface
► Critical grid positioning
► Tilt table techniques
3.) GRID CAP
▪ Possible only if x-ray tube &
• It contains a permanently mounted grid
the table are properly aligned
• It allows the image receptor to slide behind it
► Exposure technique required is
substantial
GRID CUTOFF
▪ Result: higher patient dose
• The undesirable absorption of primary x-ray
• Advantages Over Parallel Grid:
by the grid
► More efficient in cleaning up scatter
• Cause: improper grid position
radiation
• Primary Radiographic Effects:
► Higher contrast improvement factor
o Further reduction in the number of
than parallel grid with twice grid ratio
photons reaching the IR
► Advantage increases with increasing
o Decrease in radiographic density
kVp
• Most common to parallel grid
TAKENOTE: The main disadvantage of parallel & • Distance To Grid Cutoff: SID ÷ Grid ratio
crossed grids is grid cutoff
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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

TYPES OF GRID CUTOFF ERRORS 4.) UPSIDE-DOWN GRID

(GRID PROBLEMS) • Occurs when a focused grid is place upside
down on the image receptor
CENTRAL RAY • Problem in focused grid
• The x-ray that travels along the center of the • Cause: improperly positioned grid
useful x-ray beam • Effect: severe/complete grid cutoff toward
edge of image
1.) OFF-LEVEL GRID
• Occurs when the x-ray beam is angled 5.) OFF-CENTER, OFF FOCUS GRID
across the lead strips • Most common improper grid position
• Only problem in parallel & crossed grid • Effect: grid cutoff on one side of image
• Central Ray: not perpendicular to the grid GRID LINES
• Cause: improperly positioned x-ray tube & • The images made when primary x-rays are
grid absorbed within the grid strips
• Results: • Visibility: directly related to the width of the
► Grid cutoff across image grid strips
► Underexposed
► Light image (low OD) HOLLIS E. POTTER (1920)
• He invented the moving grid
2.) OFF-CENTER GRID
• Occurs when the central ray of the x-ray MOVING GRID
beam is not aligned from side to side with • A Potter-Bucky diaphragm or Bucky
the center of focused grid • Grid Used: focused grids
• Problem in focused grid • Advantage: minimize grid lines
• Also called lateral decentering • Disadvantages:
• Central Ray: perpendicular to the grid ► Requires bulky mechanism
• Causes: ▪ Effect: subject to failure
► Improperly positioned x-ray tube ► Increase distance between the patient
► Grid is shifted laterally (lateral & IR
decentering) ▪ Effect: unwanted increase in
• Results: magnification & image blur
► Partial grid cutoff across image (undetectable)
► Underexposed ► Introduce motion into cassette-
► Light image (low OD) holding device
▪ Effect: additional image blur
3.) OFF-FOCUS GRID (undetectable)
• Occurs when using an SID outside of the
recommended focal range TWO BASIC TYPES OF MOVING GRID
• Problem in focused grid 1.) RECIPROCATING
• Cause: improper focal distance • A moving that is motor-driven back and
forth several times during x-ray exposure
• Effect: grid cutoff toward edge of image
• Total Drive Distance: approximately 2 cm
• Proper Focal Distance: more important
with high ratio
2.) OSCILLATING
o Rationale: less positioning latitude
than low ratio grid • The grid oscillates in a circular fashion
around grid frame
• Coming to rest after 20-30 seconds
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 IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

GRID SELECTION AIR-GAP TECHNIQUE

• Depends of Three Interrelated Factors: • An alternative to the use of radiographic
► kVp grids
► Degree of cleanup • IR Distance: 10-15 cm from the patient
► Patient dose • Advantages:
• Focused Grid: most commonly used ► Reduces scatter radiation
► Considerations: must have properly ► Enhances image contrast
adjusted • Disadvantages:
▪ SID indicator ► Image magnification
▪ STD indicator ► Focal-spot blur
▪ Collimators • Applications:
• Higher Ratio Grid: ► Chest radiography
► For high kVp technique ▪ From 180 to 300 cm SID
► Increase cleanup ▪ Effects: little magnification
► Increase patient dose & sharper image
• 8:1 Grid Ratio: used when kVp is below 90 ► Cerebral angiography
• Above 8:1 Grid Ratio: used when kVp is
above 90

APPROXIMATE CHANGE IN
RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE FOR
STANDARD GRIDS
Grid Ratio mAs Increase
No grid x1
5:1 x2
6:1 x3
8:1 x4
10:1 or 12:1 x5
16:1 x6

PATIENT DOSE
• Moving Grid: 15% more radiation to
patient than stationary grid
• High- kVp & High-ratio Grid: lower
patient dose than low-kVp & low-grid ratio

GRID SELECTION FACTORS

1.) Patient dose increases with increasing grid
ratio
2.) High-ratio grids are used for high-kVp
3.) Patient dose at high kVp is less than that at
low kVp

49