M-3 DISTRIBUTED POWER GENERATION

DISTRIBUTED POWER GENERATION: Distributed generation refers to the production

of electricity at or near the place of consumption. A centralized grid is inefficient and costly.
Only a third of the fuel energy burnt in power plants ends up as electricity, with half lost as
waste heat. Further, 1/3rd is lost along long distance transmissions and distribution lines.
Moreover, 20% of the generating capacity exists only to meet peak demand, so it runs just 5%
of the time and provides just 1% of energy supply. The grid is often congested because it
relies on a few high traffic arteries. The congestion amplifies the inefficiency because if the
utility cannot redirect power from efficient sources, they have to turn to costlier, dirtier, and
more inefficient sources to meet peak demand. Security benefits may come from increasing
the geographic dispersion of the nation's electricity infrastructure and from reducing its
vulnerability to terrorist attacks that could interrupt electricity service over large areas.

RENEWABLE SOURCE OF ENERGY

Table:Cost per KW

RENEWABLE PURCHASE OBLIGATION:

As per the electricity act 2003, section 86(1)(e), the state electricity regulatory
commission is to prescribe the percentage of purchase of renewable energy by distribution
companies. The Indian government has mandated that 75 percent of the nation's cell towers
have to run on renewable energy by 2020, and mobile companies are looking at everything
from solar to fuel cells to replace dirty diesel generators. Generation based incentive in the
renewable schemes has been found to accelerate the installed capacities. The 12th and 13th
five year plans have envisaged an additional capacity of 18,500 MW and 30,500 MW from
renewable resources respectively. The central electricity regulatory commission (CERC)
launched the renewable energy purchase obligation (RPO) scheme in 2010. It is stipulated
that distribution companies will be penalized if they not meet green energy obligation. The
scheme makes it obligatory for distribution companies, open access consumers, and captive
power producers to meet part of their energy needs through green energy.
GRID CONNECTIVITY:
CES Connectivity standards (2013) for wind and solar generating stations stipulate that
harmonic current injections and flicker introduced shall not be beyond the limits specified in
IEEE Standards 519 and IEC 61000 respectively.

WIND POWER:

The wind is a renewable continuously running resource, primarily due to uneven heating
of the earth's surface by the sun. There are areas in the Deccan plateau in the south, Tamil
Nadu, southern, Andhra Pradesh, Central Karnataka and eastern Kerala, Andaman and
Nicobar islands where winds of 30 km/hr blow nearby constantly. Gujarat and Maharashtra
has also big wind power potential. One of the main attraction of wind power is that the per
unit cost is comparable to conventional energy.

The power generation from wind is given by P = ε 1/2 SAV3

Where,

P = Power in Watts

S = specific gravity of air in kg/m3

A = area of wind rotor in m2

V = velocity of wind in m/s

ε = overall efficiency of the system

SOLAR POWER
Solar cells convert sunlight into electricity using semiconductor materials that exhibit the
Photovoltaic effect-- meaning that they absorb protons and release electrons that can
channeled into an Electricity current. The solar installation in our country reached the level of
3000MW in March 2015. Photovoltaic PV solar assets usually have a 25-year warranty. Plant
life is usually 40 years. Cells are semiconductors: N-type or P-type and are made in modules
of some wattage ratings. When sunlight strikes the cells (crystalline or thin film), a certain
portion of it is absorbed within the silicon. The energy knocks the electrons loose allowing
them to flow freely.

SOLAR THERMAL POWER

The new solar thermal power plants, which can generate electricity several hours after sunset,
could reduce dependence on coal thermal power plants. The most promising mechanism for
large-scale solar power generation is often referred to as concentrating solar power. Direct
capturing solar energy for thermal heating of water for steam can be used in power
generation. Many plants (of up to 300MW capacity) are in operation in the world. As of
January 2014, Spain has a total capacity of 2204MW of solar thermal, making this country
the world leader in solar thermal power. The largest solar thermal power plant in the world
has been installed in Abu Dhabi. India has installed a few solar thermal plants, i.e, 5MW at
the Bikaner distillery plant.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal power is the natural heat of the earth. It comes from heat energy buried beneath
the surface of the earth. Enough heat rises close to the surface of the earth to heat
underground Water into steam, which can be tapped for use at steam-turbine plants. In India,
a potential of 10,000MW exists at Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh. In Ladakh,
while the hydropower is closed down for about five months in winter during freezing of
canals, diesel transportation is very costly. Three possible in which geothermal energy can be
utilized for power production are geothermal steam, geothermal hot water, and energy from
hot rocks, sometimes known as the dry - rock method

[Link] heated water/steam

HYDROELECTRICITY - SMALL POWER

A small hydropower plant up to 25MW is considered renewable as it is simple to construct

and does not damage the ecology. No resettlement of population is required. General
classification is micro (up to 100KW), mini (101 kw to 2000kw), and small (2001kw to
25,000kw). It needs to tap canals, small rivers, rivulets, and artificial storage dams as its mini
and micro - Hydropower (MMHP) is an indigenous and renewable source of energy for
which a potential of 15,000 MW exists. These projects are developed generally by IPPs on
the basis of competitive bidding by state governments based on feasibility studies made by
the government.

In the development of small hydropower projects, the following aspects are of advantage:

1. Development in hilly and remote areas.

2. Development on canal falls (plain areas).

3. Short construction period.

4. Obviating large civil structures.

5. Utilization of standardized electrical and mechanical equipment.

6. Minimal environmental impact.

7. Economics.

8. Reduced transmission losses

POWER FROM OCEANS

There are mainly two ways for generating power from the high seas: harnessing the tidal
power and taming the waves. Waves are caused by wind blowing on the surface of the water
.Where as the tidal relies on the mass movement of the water body, waves act as a carrier for
kinetic energy generated by the wind .

BIOMASS ENERGY

Biomass comprises only about 4014 MW of installed capacity of India (2015), of the total,
bagasse- based power generation has the lion's share (about 1400 MW), followed by the
combustion-based biomass power production (about 875 MW).Biomass gasification
currently contributes little to power production. While in India, most of biomass power
projects (outside of bagasse- based power) follow the combustion route (CFD, BFD, fixed-
bed, dust firing), gasification has a much higher efficiency than the combustion route(30%
for gasification Vs 19% for combustion).In gasification power production, where the waste
heat from the producer gas and the engine are used for productive purpose , efficiencies
could reach as high as (70%).

MUNICIPAL GARBAGE/INDUSTRIAL WASTE

According to Ministry of New and Renewable Energy(MNRE), there exists a potential of

about 1700 MW from an urban waste (1500mw from solid waste and about 225 from
sewage), and about 1300 mw from industrial waste. The Indian Renewable Energy
Development Agency (IREDA) estimates indicate that India has so far released only about
2% of its waste-to-energy potential. The solid waste in India consist of 51% organic matter
(food waste, vegetables and fruits), 17% recyclable ( plastic, paper, metal),31% inert(silt,
ash).

FUEL CELL

The fuel cell has a great future in the 21st century. A fuel cell converts chemical energy
directly to the electricity permitting a high efficiency of 50-70%.A solid oxide fuel cell
(SOFC) uses hard ceramic material rather than liquid electrolyte and operates at 1800 degree
F. This cell has a good match for rural India and parts of urban Depending on the operating
cost and fuel required, this could be good replacement to the millions of diesel generator used
across the India. BlueGen is the solid oxide fuel cell which carries electricity and heat by
natural gas over a ceramic fuel cells A solid oxide fluid cell is a electrochemical conversion
device that produces electricity directly from a oxidizing a fuel cell.

GAS -BASED SMALL-POWER GENERATION

Laying of gas grid in a country is a fast pace. Gas for decentralization power generation along
the route of gas-grid pipelines and close to load centers, can be enabled .Typical plant size in
the range of 30-150mw may be installed. Combine cycle (CCGT) can be more beneficial,
having high efficiency of 70%. overall, there may be saving of 70%, eg:- 30% T&D losses
and 30% extra efficiency in a gas combined cycle.

CAPTIVE POWER AND CO-GENETION

Captive power and co-generation installed capacity in india is nearly 32GW ending in 2015.A
numberofindustries,viz,aluminium,textiles,cement,fertilisers,iron,steel,paper,petroeum,sugar,
chemicals,food processing, etc have their own captive power plants either to supplement the
electrical supply from the utilities for generating electricity as a by-product through a co-
generation. Captive power plant can be set up by industries to meet their own power
requirements to enable them to tide over problems due to power shortages and power quality
of the power supply. They can use any easily available fuel-coal, gas, diesel, and any other
conventional or non-conventional fuel so as long as they are able to generate stable power for
the requirements all through the year without any interruption.
RENOVATION AND MODERNISATION OF POWER PLANTS
Large equipment in service is in power plants age and lead to decline in output and increase
in tendency to breakdown. The magnitude, frequency and the durations of outages increase
with time, Thereby reducing the availability of the plant, progressively, diminishing the
average output and raising the maintenance and repair costs. Economic appraisal is necessary
to compare the costs of rehabilitation (see fig:4.12) updating with an equipment capacity of
new plant.

[Link] of rehabilation of power plant

RESIDUAL ASSISSMENT STUDIES-LIFE EXTENSION

There is need to undertake Residual Life Assessment (RLA) of power plants and concentrate
on renovation and modernization of increasing efficiency. To check up the aging properties of
the equipment in service. it is necessary to carry out the diagnostic testing .for example:-
partial discharge testing, gas chromatographic testing of power transformer oil to see the
service/aging condition of the power transformer. Non-contact, partial discharge testing
equipment is available which can evaluate transformers, capacitors and cables without any
shut down. The gas chromatography testing of power transformer oil to see the service can be
very useful to know the service condition of the transformer. The gas initiated from any
fault/aging process in the transformer is dissolved in the oil and gas-chromatography testing
facilities are available with CPRI, Bengaluru, and BBMB, Bhakra. partial-discharge non
contact test are available in the market Low contact fatigue.
THERMAL PLANTS
1. Steam-Turbine Rehabilitation
Modern steam turbines are designed for a life of 19,00,00-21,00,00 operating hours. Predicting the residual
life of a power plant at the end of its designed life is a major concern for power utilities while trying extend
the power plant life's further. Condition assessment of turbine critical components of primary importance.
Critical components are defines as those components not normally to be expected to be replaced during the
life of steam turbines. These components are subjected to long term cumulative material damage and
degradation. these critical components required condition assessments including special testing not normally
provided by the traditional maintenance and inspection activities. The critical components are tribune rotor,
high temperature casting ,valve casting, entry nozzles and steam piping .The various life assessing techniques
are (1) component integrity test ,ultrasonic testing, borosonic testing, dye penetrate testing wet fluorescent
magnetic particle testing (2) metallurgical test like microstructure studies , material-composition test ,
hardness test , spectrum electron micro-copy and (3) finite -element method for thermal stress analysis made
on CAD workstations.

2. Boiler Renovation
A Boiler is the weakest link in a thermal plant. The cost of building a new power-plant boiler, including the necessary
equipment to comply with pollution control laws, is approximately Rs5000 per kw (2012). The cost of carrying out
extensive life-extension programmes to regain the lost MW and obtain reliable operation for another twenty or more
years is typically a fraction (10 to 20%) of the cost for new equipment.

UPRATING AND MODERNISATION OF HYDRO PLANTS

1. UPRATING
Hydropower stations can accommodate higher available water potential at site, i,e., discharge and head of
enhanced power generation. Generally, 10 to 15% higher generation is possible because of hydraulic and mechanical
margins without any changes in mechanical components.

In many other cases where uprating to the extent of 30-35% is required, major changes in water-path
components like runner, draft tube cone, shaft and labyrinth seals, etc., may become inevitable. However, smooth
dynamic behavior must be ascertained before continuous operation is recommended at higher [Link] uprating of
power stations is foreseen with major changes in water-path components.

2. RENOVATION AND MODERNISATION

Renovation and modernization of old machines, which are operating at low load factor because of worn-out water path
components and other mechanical components like runner, draft tube cone, labyrinth sealing ring and guide vanes, etc.,
shall also help in increasing hydro generation. However, non availability of component drawings, blade profile
drawings, hydraulic forces, moment characteristics, and model test results are major constraints in renovation of most
of the foreign supplied machines installed in the country. For restoring the generating capacity of a machine, the worn
out components are repaired based on the drawings developed through reverse engineering. The design philosophy of
the original supplier can also be useful reference in many cases.
NUCLEAR PLANTS
Most nuclear power plants originally had a normal design lifetime of 25 to 40 years, but engineering assessment of
many plants have established that many can operate longer. In USA, over 70 reactors have been granted license
renewals which extend their operating lives from the original 40 to 60 years, and operators of most others are expected
to apply for similar extensions. Such license extensions at about the 30 year mark justify significant capital expenditure
for replacement of worn equipment and outdated control systems. The Russian government is extending the operating
lives of most of the country's reactors from their original 30 years, for another 15 years or 25 years in the case of the
newer VVER-100 units, with significant upgrades.
 TRANSMISSION PLANNING:

TRANSMISSION PLANNING CRITERIA

1. In the national approach,N-2 criteria may be adopted for a large
generating complex(3000 MW or above) and multi-line
corridors(3 double-circuit lines or more)on a case-to-case basis,
whereas, regional planning may be continued with
N-1 criteria. However, while N-1 would be applied to test
withstand without necessitating load shedding or rescheduling of
generation during steady-state operation.
N-2 would be applied to test withstand without necessitating load
shedding but with rescheduling of generation during steady-state
operation.
2. The adequacy of the transmission system should be tested for
different load-generation scenarios corresponding to one or more
of the following so as to test the scenario of the maximum burden
on the transmission system:
(a) Summer peak load
(b) Summer off-peak load
(c) Winter peak load
(d) Winter off-peak load
(e) Monsoon peak load
(f) Monsoon off-peak load
(a) withstand without necessitating load shedding or rescheduling of
generation during steady-state operation:
i. Outage of a 132KV D/C line, or
ii. Outage of a 220KV D/C line, or
iii. Outage of a 400KV S/C line, or
iv. Outage of a 400KV S/C line with series compensation,
or
v. Outage of single interconnecting transformer, or
vi. Outage of one pole of HVDC bipole line, or
vii. Outage of a 765KV S/C line without series
compensation
((b)) withstand without necessitating load shedding but with rescheduling
of generation during steady-state operation:
i. Outage of a 400KV S/C line with TCSC,or
 ii. Outage of a 400KV D/C line, or
iii. Outage of both poles of HVDC bipole line, or
iv. Outage of a 765KV S/C line with series
compensation
The capacity of any single sub-station at different voltage levels shall
not normally exceed:
(a) 765KV,9000 MVA
(b)400KV,2000 MVA
(c) 220KV,500 MVA
(d) 132KV,250 MVA
(e) 110KV,150 MVA
OPERATION
1. In normal operation (N-0) of the grid, with all elements to be
available in service in the time horizon of study, it is required
that all the system parameters like voltages, loading, and
frequency should remain within permissible normal limits.
2. The grid may, however, be subjected to disturbances and it is
required that after a more probable disturbances, i.e., loss of
an element (N-1 or single-contingency condition), all the
system parameters the voltages, loading, and frequency shall
be within permissible normal limits.
3. However, after suffering one contingency, the grid is still
vulnerable to experience a secondary contingency, through less
probable (N-1-1), where in some of the equipment may be
loaded up to their emergency limits. To bring the system
parameters back within their normal limits, load shedding/re-
scheduling of generation may have to be applied either
manually or through automatic system protection schemes
(SPS), such measures shall generally be applied within one and
a half hour (11/2) after the disturbance.
STEADY –STATE STABILITY
The power system is planned to supply all loads during normal conditions
and the following contingency conditions without the need for rescheduling
of generation and to maintain voltage and line –loading criteria.
DISPATCH ABILITY
 1) The transmission system can be planned on the basis of
regional self-sufficiency.
2) The maximum power angular separation between any two
important buses shall not normally exceed 40degree for
load flow under steady state conditions.
3) The transmission system shall be capable of transmitting
states’ shares from central sector/common projects.
4) The transmission system shall be planned to withstand
outage of two circuits of 220KV system or one circuit of
400KV or a higher voltage system or one pole of HVDC
bipolar or an EHV transformer without necessity of load
shedding or rescheduling of generation.
5) The transmission system shall be planned to ensure full
evacuation(removal) of the maximum possible output from
generating stations even under forced outage of a
transmission outlet.
6) There shall be sufficient redundancy(useful) to ensure that
there is no transmission constraint on rescheduling
generation under the conditions of outage in any of the
generating plants.
7) Reactive compensation shall be provided as far as possible
in a lower voltage system with a view to meet the reactive-
power requirement-loads close to load points.
Right –of-way
In view of increasing the efficiency in obtaining right-of-way for
transmission lines and on account of problems associated with the
clearance for routing transmission lines in forest area, wild life sanctuaries
etc., transmission lines are planned and constructed as double-circuit or
multi-circuit lines wherever feasible.
Network studies
In healthy system, the networks are loaded normally up to 50-
60% of their designed capacity. At present in India (2014), transmission
network is mostly loaded above 90%, operating always at alert conditions
during peak period. A small disturbance at any point is capable of causing
a major collapse in the grid network. Transmission congestion is a common
problem for open-access consumers. A power-transmission system is
referred to as “grid”, which is a fully connected network of transmission
lines. The regional power grids are established for optimal utilization of
power generated from unevenly distributed power-generating stations, by
having intra-regional and inter-regional power exchanges depending upon
day-to –day power availability and load conditions. The surplus power is
transferred to the power-deficit regions. Due to the large amount of electric
power involved, transmission normally takes place at high voltages (220
KV or above). Electric power is usually sent over long distances through
overhead power-transmission lines. Power is transmitted underground is
densely populated areas, such as large cities, but is typically avoided due to
high capacitive and resistive losses incurred. Redundant paths and lines are
provided so that power can be routed from any power plant to any load
Centre, through a variety of routes, based on the economics of the
transmission path and the cost of power. The grid consists of two
infrastructures: the high-voltage transmission systems, which carry
electricity from the power plants and transmit it hundreds of kilometers
away, and the low-voltage distribution systems, which draw electricity
from the transmission lines and distribute it to individual consumers.
High- voltage transmission
Development of transmission voltage levels
The development of high voltages in transmission in the world has been
shown in the fig. in order to develop strong regional systems, the need is to
strengthen the existing 400KV network with 765KV ac and HVDC links
and series compensation, static VAr systems, and phase-shifting
transformers with a possible future applications of flexible ac transmission
systems.
Ac transmission
The most important indicator of the capacity of a long transmission line
is the ratio of the square of its voltage to its inductive reactance
(Vsquare/X).This indicator is practically the same for a single-circuit line
designed for a maximum operating voltage of 800KV and a double-circuit
line designed for 550KV maximum, both having quad conductors. With
selection of conductors size within the range dictated by ratio interference
considerations, the thermal rating of the two types of lines are also about
equal.
1) Phase-shifting transformers in EHV transmission
2) Flexible ac transmission system (FACTS)
3) Advanced series compensation (ASC)
High-voltage direct-current transmission
 1) Lower line costs
2) Lower losses
3) Asynchronous connection
4) Controllability
5) More advantages
6) Backbone system
7) Costs
8) Long lines
9) Long cables
10) Submarine cables
11) Latest technology
Conductors
1) Conductor leading
2) High –rating conductor
 ACCC (Aluminum composite core
conductor)
 ACSS (Aluminum conductor steel
supported) and ACSS/TW (Aluminum
conductor steel-supported stranded wire)
 ACCR (Aluminum conductor composite
reinforced)
Sub-stations
General factors to be considered for planning are the following:
1) Historical data of worst floods are taken into account
to avoid water logging of the sub-station in case of
possibility of flood. Flood plains and wetlands are
avoided.
2) Atmospheric conditions like salt and suspended
chemical contaminants influence selection of
equipment and maintenance requirements.
3) Interference with communication signals. The
construction company has to take permissions from
the appropriate authority.
4) Electric and magnetic field strengths are of
particular concern, especially for ultra-high-
voltage(UHV) systems at 765KV ,1200KV,or above
research organizations have shown the impact of
 strong electric /magnetic fields due to UHV sub-
stations and lines on human health’s such a new
concerns are also required to be addressed properly.
5) To comply for approval of forest land and wildlife
sanctuary. The usual process takes time to get
approval from concerned authorities. This process
delays the construction activities.
The following criteria can be adopted:
(a) The capacity of any single sub-station at
different voltage levels shall not normally
exceed
 765KV,3000MVA
 400KV,1000MVA
 220KV,320MVA
 110KV,150MVA
(b) The size and number of interconnecting
transformer (ICTs) shall be planned in such a
way that the outage of any single unit would
not overload the remaining ICTs or the
underlying system.
(c) The size and number of EHT/HT transformer
would still supply 80% of the load.
Sub-stations developments
For planning the density and size of sub-stations in the power
system, the following technical and economic aspects are considered.
1) Load density(e.g.,MW per kmsquare)
2) Load growth
3) Utilization of transformer capacity
4) Maximum fault levels
5) Flexibility
6) Siting
Sub-station bus-bar schemes
1) Single-bus system
2) Duplicate bus system
3) Transfer-bus arrangement
4) Breaker and half-system
Gas-insulated sub-stations (GIS)

1) Indoor installations are always possible.

2) It has higher reliability and less
maintenance as compared to conventional
air-insulated equipment.
3) There is low visual impact on the
environment.
4) It has lower costs for site clearance and
buildings.
5) It has lower erection costs.
6) It has superior performance in areas with
severe seismic conditions.
Power grid
 Grid formulation
1) Supply real power requirement
2) Supply reactive power requirement
3) Provide system control
4) Ensure system reliability and security
The peculiarities of regional grids are
1) Northern region(NR):snow fed-hydro
2) Eastern region(ER):low load, high coal
reserves, pit-head base-load plants
3) Western region(WR): industrial and
agricultural load
4) North-eastern region(NER):very low
load, high hydro potential
5) Southern regions(SR):high load(40%
agriculture load),monsoon-dependent
hydro, evacuation problems

 Integration grid
 Smart grids
 Asian power grid
Reactive-power (Var) planning
Planning criteria for reactive-powercompensation
 1) Reactive power should not be
transported over long distances.
2) In normal intact network situations,
reactive power should be produced and
consumed locally.
3) The network should be operated at
upper voltage limits in high load
conditions to achieve higher stability
margins and to reduce active- and
reactive-power transmission losses.
4) The amount of reactive-power reserves
should be sufficient to ensure
acceptable transmission capacities in
the network during system disturbance
conditions.

Reactive- power sources

(a) Generators
(b) Transformers ,HVDC
converters, lines
(c) Loads
(d) Reactive-power-compensating devices
such as capacitors, reactors, SVC,
ASC, synchronous condensers, etc.
Criteria for planning static Var system
1) Static VAr compensator(SVC)
2) System characteristics with require
an SVC
Voltage instability
Static VAr compensator (SVC)
 Oscillators and disturbances
Shunt capacitors
Shunt reactors
Series compensation
Shunt compensation
Energy storage
Energy storage, a critical component for future strength of an
electric grid and integral to the effective use of renewable resources, is
receiving substantial interest. Electricity storage is crucial both on the
transmission side(e.g., pumped hydro) and on the distribution side(e.g.,
electric vehicles).during peak periods when electricity consumption is
higher than average, power suppliers must complement the base-load
power plants(such as coal-fired and nuclear) with less cost-effective but
more flexible forms of generation such as hydro and/or gas fixed
generators. During the off peak-period when less electricity is consumed,
costly types of generation can be stopped. Electric energy storage has huge
potential to reduce total generation costs by eliminating the costlier
methods through storage of electricity generated by low-cost power plants
during the night being reinserted into the power grid during the peak
periods. The most commercial of storage technologies for power system are
hydro-pump storage and NaSbatteries. Energy storage will transform the
solar market in the near future. Installed PV systems with attached
batteries will come in the market. Currently, lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries
are considered one of the most suitable storage technologies for deployment
in power grids. The Li-ion batteries can offer 95% efficiency, as well as a
long calendar life and maintenance-free benefits of storage depend on the
properties of the grid. Storage, if combined with other applications, is
viable only if costly grid investments in a new transformer or line is
deferred.