University of Gondar

College of Social Science and the Humanities

Department of Geography and Environmental Studies
MSc in GIS and Remote Sensing
Course: Cartography and Photogrammetry
Assignment 1 for photogrammetry
Prepared by: Jejaw Tsehay [Link]/00639/15
Submitted to Agenagnew Asfaw (PhD)

May 15/2023 G.C

Gondar Ethiopia
1. What is photogrammetry and why we use photogrammetry?

Photogrammetry is the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable

information about physical objects and the environment through process of
recording, measuring, and interpreting photographic images and patterns of
recorded radiant electromagnetic energy and phenomenon (American
Society of Photogrammetry, Slama).

Photogrammetry is the science of obtaining reliable measurements by means of

images for the determination of the geometric properties of objects. It can also be
defined as the method of determining the shapes, sizes and position of objects
using photographs.

Photogrammetry is an indirect method of measurement since photographic

images are under scrutiny rather than the objects themselves. Some linear or
angular measurements in the objects space need to be obtained for control
purposes, but primarily the photography provides the information.

Photogrammetry is the science and technology of obtaining spatial

measurements and other geometrically reliable derived products from photographs.
Photogrammetric analysis procedures can range from obtaining approximate
distances, areas, and elevations using hardcopy photographic products,
unsophisticated equipment, and simple geometric concepts to generating precise
digital elevation models (DEMs), orthophotos, thematic GIS data, and other
derived products through the use of digital raster images and relatively
sophisticated analytical techniques. We use the terms digital and softcopy
photogrammetry interchangeably to refer to any photogrammetric operation
involving the use of digital raster photographic image data rather than hardcopy
images. Digital photogrammetrytry is changing rapidly and forms the basis for
most current photogrammetric operations. However, the same basic geometric
principles apply to traditional hardcopy (analog) and softcopy (digital) procedures.
In fact, it is often easier to visualize and understand these principles in a hardcopy
context and then extend them to the softcopy environment. This is the approach we
adopt in this discussion. We also stress aerial photogrammetric techniques and
procedures, but the same general principles hold for space-based operations.
why we use photogrammetry? Because of
 Very precise,
 Cost effective,
 Based on well-established and tasted algorithms,
 Less manual effort,
 Corrects all source of distortions,
 Provides reasonable geometric modeling alternative when little
is known about the geometric nature of the image data,
 Provide on integrated solution for multiple image or
photographs simultaneously,
 Achieve reasonable accuracy without a great number of GCPs;
 Create a3Dstereo model or to extract the elevation information.

2. Give brief description about aerial camera with sketch?

An aerial photograph, in broad terms, is any photograph taken from the air.
Normally, air photos are taken vertically from an aircraft using a highly-accurate
camera. There are several things you can look for to determine what makes one
photograph different from another of the same area including type of film, scale,
and overlap. Other important concepts used in aerial photography are stereoscopic
coverage, fiducially marks, focal length, roll and frame numbers, and flight lines
and index maps. The following material will help you understand the fundamentals
of aerial photography by explaining these basic technical concepts.

Aerial photographs are pictures of ground features taken from air craft equipped
with specially designed cameras and films for air use. The pictures are taken in a
set of run with at least 60% overlap between two consecutive photos in the flight
duration and 20% - 30% side lap between adjacent lines.
It involves the use of photographs taken in a systematic manner from the air. They
are then controlled by land survey and measured by photogrammetric techniques.
Accuracies achieved are comparable with those obtained by land survey and in
many cases the work is carried out more economically.
Depending on the angle between the axis of the camera and the vertical, the aerial
photographs may be classified as:

Vertical photographs
Oblique photographs
Vertical photographs –photograph taken from an air craft with the
Optical axis of the camera vertical or nearly vertical.
Most vertical aerial photographs are taken with frame cameras along flight lines, or
flight strips.
The line traced on the ground directly beneath the aircraft during acquisition of
photography is called the nadir line. This line connects the image centers of the
vertical photographs. Successively photographs are generally taken with some
degree of end lap. Not only does this lapping ensure total coverage along a flight
line, but an end lap of at least 50 percent is essential for total stereoscopic coverage
of a project area.

Virtually all photographs are tilted. When tilted unintentionally and slightly, tilted
photographs are usually referred to as being "vertical." For most elementary
measurement applications, these photographs are treated as being vertical without
introduction of serious error.
When aerial photographs are taken with an intentional inclination of the camera
axis, oblique photographs result.
3. Write down short note on types of photographs and their application
Types of Aerial Photography and Its Applications are:-

Aerial photography is a fascinating niche that the pros use for many different
purposes, and there are many different types of aerial photography. The term
aerial photography refers to taking photographs from an elevated position, often
using an airborne craft, including such equipment as rockets, airplanes, hot air
balloons, and more recently, drones.

To be considered an aerial photograph, you have to take the image with equipment
that is not based on the ground. And, it is not the same as air-to-
air photography where photographers are capturing images of other planes or
airborne craft.

There are different kinds of aerial photography which experts categorize according
to the camera axis (angle of the photo), the scale of the image (proximity and width
of the area in the photograph), and the type of film. This photographic niche has a
number of uses, but first let’s looks at the various categories.

Categories of Aerial Photography

There are several different kinds of aerial images in each of the three main
categories. The choice of a particular kind of aerial photography is typically based
on the subject and purpose of the imagery.

Aerial photographs are generally classified as being vertical or oblique. A vertical

photograph is one which has been taken with the camera axis directed toward the
ground as vertically as possible, while an oblique photograph is one which has
been taken with the camera axis directed at an inclination to the ground.

Vertical

Vertical photographs are the most common type of aerial photograph for remote
sensing and aerial survey purposes. They can be scaled, allowing objects and
distances to be measured, aiding in their identification. When viewed in stereo,
vertical photographs can give information about the height or the vertical
characteristics of landmarks and buildings.
Vertical aerial photographs can provide very useful information, in conjunction
with maps and other sources, when searching for unexploded ordnance or
assessing property boundaries, for example.

Oblique

This image is an oblique aerial photograph showing the River Forth at Throsk, Stirlingshire, near
years earlier. It shows almost the same area of land and water as the vertical image but is taken w
camera axis pointing to the north-east.

Oblique aerial photographs provide the viewer with an easily comprehensible image of a location
are useful for looking at foreground building frontages. Features in the background are often too
be recognized or can be hidden behind buildings, however.

The image below shows some of the camera locations in the de Havilland
Mosquito aircraft, widely used in the photographic reconnaissance role during the
Second World War. This particular aircraft has four cameras mounted vertically,
along with a port-facing oblique.
 Oblique aerial photographs can be divided further into two types—low oblique
and high oblique. High-oblique photographs usually include the ground surface,
horizon, and a portion of sky, while low-oblique photographs do not show horizon.

4. What is a scale? Write a note on scale of vertical photograph?

Scale is the ratio of the distance between two points on an image to the actual
distance between the same two points on the ground. Scale is an important
describing factor of vertical aerial photography. It is important to know the scale of
the image under examination, as this can affect how you perceive or interpret what
appears in the image. Scale also allows features in the image to be measured.
One of the most fundamental and frequently used geometric characteristics of
aerial photography is that of photographic scale. A photograph "scale," like a map
scale, is an expression that states that one unit (any unit) of distance on a
photograph represents a specific number of units of actual ground distance. Scales
may be expressed as unit equivalents, representative fractions, or ratios .Scale of a
vertical photograph is define as the ratio of image distance to object distance. For
vertical photographs taken over variable terrain, there are infinite number 0f
different scales. This is one the principle difference between a photograph and a
map.

5. What is relief displacement? Write a note about relief displacement and

observation of it?

Relief displacement is the shift in an object's image position caused by its elevation
above a particular datum. A vertical object (such as a building or tree) will appear
to be lying along a line radial to the image nadir point. This deformation is called
relief displacement.
In essence, an increase in the elevation of a feature causes its position on the
photograph to be displaced radially outward from the principal point. Hence, when
a vertical feature is photographed, relief displacement causes the top of the feature
to lie farther from the photo center than its base. As a result, vertical features
appear to lean away from the center of the photograph.
While measuring relief displacement is a very convenient means of calculating
heights of objects from aerial photographs, the reader is reminded of the
assumptions implicit in the use of the method. We have assumed use of truly
vertical photography, accurate knowledge of the flying height, clearly visible
objects, precise location of the principal point, and a measurement technique
whose accuracy is consistent with the degree of relief displacement involved. If
these assumptions are reasonably met, quite reliable height determinations may be
made using single prints and relatively unsophisticated measuring equipment.

6. What does it mean photo overlap. Discuss the different types of photo overlaps
with their applications.

Overlap: is the amount by which one photograph includes the area covered by
another photograph, and is expressed as a percentage. The photo survey is
designed to acquire 60% forward overlap (between photos along the same flight
line) and 30% lateral overlap (between photos on adjacent flight lines).
Imagery Overlap
Imagery acquired for photogrammetric processing is flown with two types of
overlap: Forward Lap and Side Lap. The following two subsections will describe
each type of imagery overlap.
Forward Lap
Forward lap, which is also called end lap, is a term used in photogrammetry to
describe the amount of image overlap intentionally introduced between successive
photos along a flight line (see Figure 4.7). Flight 3 illustrates an aircraft equipped
with a mapping aerial camera taking two overlapping photographs. The centers of
the two photographs are separated in the air with a distance B. Distance B is also
called air base. Each photograph of Figure 4.7 covers a distance on the ground
equal to G. The overlapping coverage of the two photographs on the ground is
what we call forward lap.

This type of overlap is used to form stereo-pairs for stereo viewing and processing.
The forward lap is measured as a percentage of the total image coverage. Typical
value for the forward lap for photogrammetric work is 60%. Because of the light
weight of the UAS, we expect substantial air dynamic and therefore substantial
rotations of the camera (i.e., crab); therefore, I recommend the amount of forward
lap to be at least 70%.

Figure 4.7 Imagery forward lap

Source: Elements of Photogrammetry with application in GIS, 4th edition, 2014
McGraw Hill
Side Lap
Side lap is a term used in photogrammetry to describe the amount of overlap
between images from adjacent flight lines (see Figure 4.8). Figure 4.8 illustrates an
aircraft taking two overlapping photographs from two adjacent flight lines. The
distance in the air between the two flight lines (W) is called lines spacing.

This type of overlap is needed to make sure that there are no gaps in the coverage.
The side lap is measured as a percentage of the total image coverage. The typical
value for the side lap for photogrammetric work is 30%. However, because of the
light weight of the UAS, we expect substantial air dynamic and therefore
substantial rotations of the camera (i.e. crab), and therefore I recommend using at
least 40% side lap.

Figure 4.8 Imagery Side Lap

Source: Elements of Photogrammetry with application in GIS, 4th edition, 2014
McGraw Hill
Without aerial photographs, more intense sampling is necessary to determine the
carrying capacity, and more traverses with cross-traverses are necessary to
delineate correctly the type lines. Plane table mapping often is used to augment the
traverse data obtained from range surveys, but our experience has shown that much
time and effort are spared when the aerial photographs and mosaics are available.

7. Write a brief note of a parallax bar?

The parallax bar is an instrument designed for use with a mirror stereoscope that
has a stereo base of ten inches or less. The bar is used to determine the height
difference of natural and manmade features when viewing stereoscopic
photographs.
The term parallax refers to the apparent change in relative positions of stationary
objects caused by a change in viewing position. This phenomenon is observable
when one looks at objects through a side window of a moving vehicle. With the
moving window as a frame of reference, objects such as mountains at a relatively
great distance from the window appear to move very little within the frame of
reference. In contrast, objects close to the window, such as roadside trees, appear
to move through a much greater distance.
Note also that the parallax displacements occur only parallel to the line of flight. In
theory, the direction of flight should correspond precisely to the fiducially x axis.
In reality, however, unavoidable changes in the aircraft orientation will usually
slightly offset the fiducially axis from the flight axis. The true flight line axis may
be found by first locating on a photograph the points that correspond to the image
centers of the preceding and succeeding photographs. These points are called the
conjugate pril1cipal points.
Parallax is an apparent shift in the position of an object due to shift in the
position of the observer camera (in aerial surveying). We experience this
phenomenon when a moving body ( a shift in position when compared to a static
object considering camera as eye). This is depended on the distance between the
observer and the object. Nearer object move faster than that of the far distanced
object, similar is the case of an aerial camera exposed to overlapping photographs
which is caused by the movement of the aircraft is termed as stereoscopic parallax.

8. What does interior and exterior orientation mean in photogrammetry?

The determination of the attitude, the position and the intrinsic geometric
characteristics of the camera is recognized as the fundamental photogrammetric
problem. It can be summarized as the determination of camera interior and exterior
orientation parameters, as well as the determination of 3D coordinates of object
points. The term ―exterior orientation ―of an image refers to its position and
orientation related to an exterior (object space) coordinate system. Several methods
can be applied to determine the parameters of the orientation of one, two or more
photos. The orientation can be processed in steps (as relative and absolute
orientation) but simultaneous methods (such as bundle adjustments) are now
available in many software packages. Several methods have also been developed
for the orientation of single images. They are based in general on geometric and
topological characteristics of imaged objects.
An interior orientation is required to compute the photogrammetric model that is
used to orthorectify remotely sensed imagery. Interior orientation establishes the
relationship between the images
. Plane and the projection center of a camera.
The Exterior orientation of a photograph defines its position and orientation in
the object space there are six elements of exterior orientation, X, Y, and Z of the
exposure station position, and three angles that define the angular orientation: ω, φ,
and κ.

9. Briefly discuss image interpretation strategies?

To derive useful spatial information from images is the task of image
interpretation. It includes

Detection: such as search for hot spots in mechanical and electrical facilities and
white spot in x-ray images. This procedure is often used as the first step of image
interpretation.

Identification: recognition of certain target. A simple example is to identify

vegetation types, soil types, rock types and water bodies. The higher the
spatial/spectral resolution of an image, the more detail we can derive from the
image.

Delineation: to outline the recognized target for mapping purposes. Identification

and delineation combined together are used to map certain subjects. If the whole
image is to be processed by these two procedures, we call it image classification.

Enumeration: to count certain phenomena from the image. This is done based on
detection and identification. For example, in order to estimate household income of
the population, we can count the number of various residential units.

Mensuration: to measure the area, the volume, the amount, and the length of
certain target from an image. This often involves all the procedures mentioned
above. Simple examples include measuring the length of a river and the acreage of
a specific land-cover class. More complicated examples include an estimation of
timber volume, river discharge, crop productivity, river basin radiation and
evapotranspiration.

In order to do a good job in the image interpretation, and in later digital image
analysis, one has to be familiar with the subject under investigation, the study area
and the remote sensing system available to him. Usually, a combined team
consisting of the subject specialists and the remote sensing image analysis
specialists is required for a relatively large image interpretation task.

Depending on the facilities that an image interpreter has, he might interpret images
in raw form, corrected form or enhanced form. Correction and enhancement are
usually done digitally.

Image interpretation strategies

Direct recognition: Identification of targets.

Land-cover classification

(Land cover is the physical evidence of the earth's surface.)

- Indirect interpretation

to map something that is not directly observable in the image. This is used to
classify land use types (Gong and Hogarth, 1992b). Land-use is the human
activities on a piece of land. It is closely related to land-cover types. For example,
a residential land-use type is composed of roof cover, lawn, trees and paved
surfaces.

- From known to unknown

To interpret an area where the interpreter is familiar with first, then interpret the
areas where the interpreter is not familiar with (Chen et al, 1989). This can be
assisted by field observation

- From direct to indirect

In order to obtain forest volume, one might have to determine what is observable
from the image, such as tree canopies, shadows etc. Then the volume can be
derived. We can also estimate the depth of permafrost using the surface cover
information (Peddle, 1991).

- Use of collateral information

Census data, and topographical maps and other thematic maps may all be useful
during image interpretation.

More details on the image interpretation can be found in Lille sand and Kiefer
(1994) or Campbell (1987).

10. List the basic image interpretation equipment’s?

Location
There are two primary methods to obtain a precise location in the form of
coordinates. 1) survey in the field by using traditional surveying techniques
or global positioning system instruments
2) collect remotely sensed data of the object, rectify the image and then
extract the desired coordinate information. Most scientists who choose
option 1 now use relatively inexpensive GPS instruments in the field to
obtain the desired location of an object. If option 2 is chosen, most aircraft
used to collect the remotely sensed data have a GPS receiver.
Size
The size of an object is one of the most distinguishing characteristics and
one of the most important elements of interpretation. Most commonly,
length, width and perimeter are measured. To be able to do this successfully,
it is necessary to know the scale of the photo. Measuring the size of an
unknown object allows the interpreter to rule out possible alternatives. It has
proved to be helpful to measure the size of a few well-known objects to give
a comparison to the unknown-object. For example, field dimensions of
major sports like soccer, football, and baseball are standard throughout the
world. If objects like this are visible in the image, it is possible to determine
the size of the unknown object by simply comparing the two.
Shape
There is an infinite number of uniquely shaped natural and man-made
objects in the world. A few examples of shape are the triangular shape of
modern jet aircraft and the shape of a common single-family dwelling.
Humans have modified the landscape in very interesting ways that has given
shape to many objects, but nature also shapes the landscape in its own ways.
In general, straight, recti-linear features in the environment are of human
origin. Nature produces more subtle shapes.
Shadow
Virtually all remotely sensed data are collected within 2 hours of solar noon
to avoid extended shadows in the image or photo. This is because shadows
can obscure other objects that could otherwise be identified. On the other
hand, the shadow cast by an object act as a key for the identification of the
object as the length of the shadow will be used to estimate the height of the
object which is vital for the recognition of the object. Take for example, the
Washington Monument in Washington D.C. While viewing this from above,
it can be difficult to discern the shape of the monument, but with a shadow
cast, this process becomes much easier. It is a good practice to orient the
photos so that the shadows are falling towards the interpreter. A
pseudoscopic illusion can be produced if the shadow is oriented away from
the observer. This happens when low points appear high and high points
appear low.
Tone and color
Real-world materials like vegetation, water and bare soil reflect different
proportions of energy in the blue, green, red, and infrared portions of the
electro-magnetic spectrum. An interpreter can document the amount of
energy reflected from each at specific wavelengths to create a spectral
signature. These signatures can help to understand why certain objects
appear as they do on black and white or color imagery. These shades of gray
are referred to as tone. The darker an object appears, the less light it reflects.
Color imagery is often preferred because, as opposed to shades of gray,
humans can detect thousands of different colors. Color aids in the process of
photo interpretation.
Texture
This is defined as the ―characteristic placement and arrangement of
repetitions of tone or color in an image.‖ Adjectives often used to describe
texture are smooth (uniform, homogeneous), intermediate, and rough
(coarse, heterogeneous). It is important to remember that texture is a product
of scale. On a large scale depiction, objects could appear to have an
intermediate texture. But, as the scale becomes smaller, the texture could
appear to be more uniform, or smooth. A few examples of texture could be
the ―smoothness‖ of a paved road, or the ―coarseness‖ a pine forest.
Pattern
Pattern is the spatial arrangement of objects in the landscape. The objects
may be arranged randomly or systematically. They can be natural, as with a
drainage pattern of a river, or man-made, as with the squares formed from
the United States Public Land Survey System. Typical adjectives used in
describing pattern are: random, systematic, circular, oval, linear, rectangular,
and curvilinear to name a few.
Height and depth
Height and depth, also known as ―elevation‖ and ―bathymetry‖, is one of the
most diagnostic elements of image interpretation. This is because any object,
such as a building or an electric pole that rises above the local landscape will
exhibit some sort of radial relief. Also, objects that exhibit this relief will
cast a shadow that can also provide information as to its height or elevation.
A good example of this would be buildings of any major city.
Site/situation/association
Site has unique physical characteristics which might include elevation,
slope, and type of surface cover (e.g., grass, forest, water, bare soil). Site can
also have socioeconomic characteristics such as the value of land or the
closeness to water. Situation refers to how the objects in the photo or image
are organized and ―situated‖ in respect to each other. Most power plants
have materials and building associated in a fairly predictable manner.
Association refers to the fact that when you find a certain activity within a
 photo or image, you usually encounter related or ―associated‖ features or
activities. Site, situation, and association are rarely used independent of each
other when analyzing an image. An example of this would be a large
shopping mall. Usually there are multiple large buildings, massive parking
lots, and it is usually located near a major road or intersection.
Image can be interpret by stereoscope
Stereoscopy, stereoscopic imaging or 3-D (three-dimensional) imaging is
any technique capable of producing three-dimensional visual information or
creating the illusion of depth in an image.

11. Discuss how aerial photography is used in Soil mapping, Forestry and
Geology?
How aerial photographs are used in geological mapping and interpretation?
Aerial photograph interpretation is a method of extrapolating geological details of
the ground surface from aerial images. It allows geologists to analyze the
distinguishing geological features and structures, plant cover, past history of the
site, soil properties, and topography of the study area.
How aerial photography is used in soil mapping?
Soil maps can be established showing the distribution of various soils in a given
area. Aerial photography is a valuable aid in choosing the location and establishing
the preliminary plans for roads and railways for new towns and village.

For forestry use

Practical use of aerial photographs by the Forest Service will be discussed briefly,
including some specific examples of use. Aerial photography is relatively new in
forestry work. Very probably w~ do not have the most efficient techniques for
getting the largest amount of information by this means. Also, the optimum scales,
kinds of films, and filters to use in forestry work are yet to be determined.
Actually, it appears that no one kind of film and filter and scale is universally
best for all forestry purposes. Consequently, aerial photographs are often used
because they are available at moderate or no cost, not because they are the best that
could be taken.

FIRE CONTROL Aerial photographs are an invaluable adjunct in fire-control

planning because they show not only the kind of vegetation but, under stereoscope,
the topography of the area also. They assist in delineating high and low-hazard
areas, and in anticipating the rate and direction of spread of a fire. At a glance, they
place the fire geographically, indicate its accessi1Jility by roads, trails, or water,
disclose the type of fuel burning and that ahead, whether topography permits the
operation of power equipment or requires the use of hand tools, the most
vulnerable point of attack, and the most strategic location for fire lines.

TIMBER MANAGEMENT Timber management is another major phase of

National-Forest administration. It is composed of two steps. One is an inventory of
the area to determine location of timber, acreage, volume, stand-size, species,
types, condition, growth, accessibility, and desirable cutting practices, as a basis
for management plans designed to use and improve the forest. Both forest type or
cover maps and plan metric maps are essential to such plans, and in certain forest
regions such as the Pacific Northwest, topographic maps are desired.

12. Define the following terms: A. Flying Height B. Flight line C. Photo principal
plane D. Ground principal plane E. Photo nadir point F. Horizon point G. Isocenter
H. Fiducially points I. Stereoscope

A. flying height:- flying height is the elevation of the exposure station above mean
sea level.

B. Flight line:- The flight path of the airplane carrying the camera.

C. Photo principal plane:- The principal line is the Line of intersection of the
principal plane with the Plane of photograph.

D. Ground principal plane:- The vertical plane through the internal perspective
center containing the photograph perpendicular of a tilted photograph.

E. Photo nadir point:- The point where a plumb line dropped from the front nodal
point, strikes the photograph

F. Horizon point: the point of intersection of the principal line vip produced with
the horizontal line Oh through the exposure station O, is known as the horizon
point

G. Iso center:-is the point i in which the bisector Oi of the angle of tilt meets the
photograph.

H. Fiducial points:- is a set of marks located in the corners or edge-centers, or both,

of an aerial photographic image.
I. Stereoscope:- when two photographs overlap or the same ground area is
photographed from two separate position forms a stereo-pair, used for three
dimension viewing.

Reference

1 American Society of Photogrammetry; Colwell, R.N. (1960). Manual of

Photographic Interpretation. Manual of Photographic Interpretation. American
Society of Photogrammetry. Retrieved 2022-01-23.

1. Jensen, John R. (2000). Remote Sensing of the Environment. Prentice

Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-489733-2.
2. Olson, C. E. (1960). "Elements of photographic interpretation common to
several sensors". Photogrammetric Engineering. 26 (4): 651–656.
3. Philipson, Warren R. (1997). Manual of Photographic
Interpretation (2nd ed.). American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing. ISBN 978-1-57083-039-6.