1

SOCIAL DEVIATION blocked, the individual is under pressure to

resort to illegitimate means to achieve the
GROUP 1: STRAIN THEORY goal.

In 1938, American sociologist Robert K.

Merton published "Social Structure and Five Modes of Adaptation:
Anomie," arguing that crime arises from · Conformity: individuals are following
societal structures rather than individual a societal goal through legitimate
backgrounds. He expanded Emile
means. (+,+)
Durkheim's concept of Anomie to develop
· Innovation: The individual shares the
Strain Theory.
cultural goal of the society but
reaches this goal through illegitimate
means. (+,-)
Anomie means lawless in Greek which · Ritualists: individuals who have
refers to a state of normlessness or a lack given up hope of achieving society’s
of moral standards among people. It's a approved goals but still operate
condition where society's values and norms according to society’s approved
become unclear or contradictory. means. (-,+)
· Retreatists: individuals who have
-More on a societal level rejected both a society’s goals and
the legitimate means of obtaining
-developed by Emile Durkheim, who linked it
them and live outside conventional
to rapid social changes and the weakening
of traditional social bonds norms altogether. (-,-)
· Rebellion: exists outside of Merton’s
system altogether. Rebels aim to
replace societal goals with those of
Strain means to draw tight in French refers their own and devise their own
to the pressure or stress individuals means of achieving them.
experience when they are unable to achieve
culturally valued goals through legitimate Strengths and criticisms of Merton's theory:
means.
It has inspired the work of many
-more on Individual level experience and researchers, who have built on Merton’s
responses to social structures ideas and offered their own insights into
deviance and crime. It has been used to
-developed by Robert Merton built upon create a better understanding of the
Durkheim's concept to explain deviance and relationship between poverty and crime, and
crime its underlying causes.

Furthermore, Merton’s theory has

been credited with opening the door for a
Merton's Strain Theory number of positive interventions, such as job
training programs, mental health services,
Merton's theory proposes that any society and educational support.
has important cultural goals which provide a
frame of aspirational reference. When an
individual has internalized a goal and the
legitimate means of achieving that goal are
 2

Criticism 1: The first major criticism involves General Strain Theory differentiates between
aspirations and delinquency. strains on two different axes: objective vs.
subjective strain and experienced, vicarious,
Criticism 2: The second significant criticism and anticipated strains.
was in regards to the relationship between
social class and delinquency. Objective strain happens because of events
and conditions that most people in a given
Criticism 3: The theory argues that strain is group dislike, while subjective strain results
not the key driver of deviance. Rather, it is from events and conditions disliked by one
differential opportunities to engage in particular person or the particular persons
deviance. being studied.

Agnew's General Strain Theory Agnew (2002) also differentiates between

experienced, vicarious, and anticipated
General Strain Theory’s core is that strain. Experienced strains are strains
individuals who experience stress or directly experienced by someone. Vicarious
stressors often become upset and strains are strains experienced by others,
sometimes cope with crime (Agnew & often those that the individual feels
Brezina, 2019). protective toward. Finally, anticipated strains
are strains that individuals expect to
According to General Strain Theory, strain experience, especially in the near future.
increases crime because it leads to negative
emotions such as anger, frustration,
depression, and fear.
In Merton’s theory people do crime when
Compared to Merton’s explanations of they are unable to reach or accomplish goals.
anomie theory, the General Strain Theory On the other hand, Agnew general strain
provides a broader view of the causes of theory, feels strain comes from sources
stress. other than economic failure. Agnew’s general
strain theory focuses on a few other types of
Consequently, there are three types of strain and stress.
strain, according to Agnew (Agnew &
Brezina, 2019): Both theories by Merton and Agnew are
1. Strain from people losing similar because their focus is that social
something they value. For example, situations and conflicts an individual comes
their money could be stolen, a friend in contact with within his/her life, may
may die, or a romantic partner may produce crime by emphasizing the goal of
leave them. success, much more than the means to
2. Strain from being treated in an achieve it.
adverse or negative way, such as
being verbally or physically abused.
3. Strain from people being unable to
Strain Theory and Crime
achieve their goals: for example,
being unable to obtain the money or Strain theories state that certain strains or
respect that they want. stressors lead to negative emotions, which
create pressure for corrective action. Crime
is one possible response, especially when
 3

people lack the ability to cope in a legal involvement as coping mechanisms

manner; the costs of criminal coping are for young people facing strain from
low, and there is some disposition for academic failure, peer rejection or
criminal coping. family conflict.

The link between strain and criminal Contributions of Strain Theory in Social
behavior operates partly through negative Work Practice
emotions (Agnew, 1992). Experiencing strain · Empowerment and advocacy, strain
has been linked to a variety of negative theory highlights the need for social
emotions, including anger, resentment, work interventions that empower
anxiety, and depression (Brezina, 1996). individuals and advocate for
systemic change.
· Focus on Systemic factors, this
Application and Contributions of Strain encourages social workers to
Theory in Criminology consider the systemic factors that
· Strain theory provided a framework contribute to the client’s challenges
for understanding crime across such as poverty, discrimination, or
social classes lack of access to resources.
· Merton’s theory shifted focus from · Understanding client motivations,
individual pathology to social this knowledge can inform
structures interventions that address the
· Merton's work sparked research and underlying causes of strain rather
development of various strain-based than simply focusing on symptoms.
theories
Applications of Strain Theory in Social Work
· Social workers use strain theory to
understand challenges faced by
Applications of Strain Theory in families.
Criminology · Strain theory explains the link
· Property crime, Merton’s theory between social stressors and mental
explains property crime like theft as health issues.
individuals seeking material goods · Strain theory informs social work in
they lack legitimate access to. criminal justice.
· Violent crime strain theory helps
understand motivations behind
violent crime like assault and GROUP 2: DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION
homicide for individuals facing THEORY
significant strain like social rejection,
abuse, or frustration. INTRODUCTION
· White-collar crime, IAT applies
Merton’s theory to white-collar crime Have you ever asked yourself why certain
like fraud and embezzlement, where individuals become criminals? Differential
the pursuit of financial success can association theory is a theory in
create strain even among the criminology that aims to answer this
wealthy. question. This theory was developed by
· Juvenile delinquency strain theory Edwin H. Sutherland, who was a
explains juvenile delinquency like sociologist and a professor. He created the
theory to explain the reasons why people
truancy, vandalism, and gang
 4

commit crime. The theory is based upon the Sutherland himself, which found that crime
idea that criminals commit crimes based in modern societies was the result of
upon their association with other people. conflicts between different cultures; and
Sutherland's own work on professional
PROPONENT thieves, which found that in order to become
a professional thief, one must become a
Edwin Hardin Sutherland was born on member of a group of professional thieves
August 13 1883 and died on October 11, and learn through them.
1950 he was an American sociologist. He is
considered one of the most influential Sutherland initially outlined his theory in
criminologists of the 20th century. He was a 1939 in the third edition of his book
sociologist of the symbolic interactionist Principles of Criminology. He then revised
school of thought and is best known for the theory for the fourth edition of the book
defining white-collar crime and differential in 1947. Since then, differential association
association, a general theory of crime and theory has remained popular in the field of
delinquency. Sutherland earned his Ph.D. in criminology and has sparked a great deal of
sociology from the University of Chicago in research. One of the reasons for the
1913. theory’s continued pertinence is its broad
ability to explain all kinds of criminal activity,
Sutherland solidified his reputation as one of from juvenile delinquency to white collar
the country's leading criminologists at the crime.
University of Minnesota, where he worked
from 1926 to 1929. During this period, he MECHANISM OF LEARNING
concentrated in sociology as a scientific
enterprise whose goal was to understand Learning Through Interaction - According
and control social problems. to the theory, learning occurs through
communication and interaction with others,
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND particularly within close-knit groups like
family, friends, or peers. Individuals observe
Before Sutherland introduced his theory, his and internalize the behaviors, values, and
theory of differential association, the norms of those they associate with.
explanations for criminal behavior were
varied and inconsistent. Seeing this as a Learning Criminal Behavior - The theory
weakness, law professor Jerome Michael argues that criminal behavior is learned in
and philosopher Mortimer J. Adler the same way as any other behavior. It is
published a critique of the field that argued acquired through social interactions that
that criminology hadn’t produced any expose individuals to values, attitudes, and
scientifically-backed theories for criminal definitions favorable to violating the law.
activity. Sutherland saw this as a call to When a person frequently associates with
arms and used rigorous scientific others who encourage or justify criminal
methods to develop differential behavior, they are more likely to adopt
association theory. similar attitudes.

Norms and Values - Individuals learn not

only the techniques of committing a crime
Sutherland’s thinking was influenced by the but also the specific motives,
Chicago School of sociologists. In particular, rationalizations, and attitudes that justify
he took cues from three sources: the work of criminal actions. This involves the
Shaw and McKay, which investigated the internalization of norms that define certain
way delinquency in Chicago was distributed behaviors as acceptable, even if they are
geographically; the work of Sellin, Wirth, and illegal.
 5

Excess of Definitions - A key concept in IMPORTANCE

the theory is the "excess of definitions."
Sutherland suggested that individuals The Differential Association Theory is
become delinquent when they have been important because it helps explain how
exposed to more values and definitions that people learn criminal behavior from others.
are favorable to law-breaking than those that According to this theory, people become
are unfavorable. If the balance tips towards criminals not because of their background or
definitions that justify crime, the person is personal traits, but because they learn and
more likely to engage in criminal behavior. adopt behaviors and values from the people
around them, especially if those people
APPLICATION OF THEORY support criminal actions. This theory is
useful for understanding why crime rates
Peer Influence - This theory is often applied can be higher in certain communities and
when explaining how peer groups influence can guide efforts in crime prevention by
individuals to engage in deviant behavior. focusing on changing social interactions and
For example, if a person consistently environments.
associates with a group that engages in theft
or drug use, they are more likely to learn CHARACTERISTICS
and adopt these behaviors.
● The one who associates with
Family Influence - Families play a criminals becomes criminals.
significant role in the application of this ● One learns criminal behavior from
theory. If a child grows up in an environment one close to the criminals
where criminal behavior is normalized or ● Young children are more likely to
rationalized by family members, they are learn criminal behavior than older
more likely to adopt similar behaviors as children.
they mature.
9 PRINCIPLES
Youth Crime - Differential Association
Theory is frequently applied to explain 1. Criminal behavior is learned behavior
juvenile delinquency. Young people, who 2. Criminal behavior is learned by
are more impressionable, may be influenced interacting with other people by
by their peers to engage in delinquent acts communicating with words and
such as vandalism, theft, or truancy. gestures.
3. The main portion of learning the
Subcultures - In environments where criminal behavior happens among
certain subcultures exist (e.g., gangs), the small groups of people.
norms of these subcultures often involve 4. Learning about crime includes
criminal activities. Individuals who are part of learning the techniques of committing
or associate with these subcultures may a crime, as well as learning the
learn and adopt these behaviors. motivation and attitudes towards
crime.
Workplace Deviance - This theory can also 5. Criminal and non-criminal behavior is
be applied in a professional setting, where an expression of the same needs
an employee may learn unethical practices and values. In other words, it does
or fraudulent behaviors from colleagues or not discriminate and any person of
superiors who engage in such actions. Over any background can become a
time, the individual may come to view these criminal.
behaviors as acceptable or even necessary 6. Legal codes demonstrate what is
for success. 'good' or 'bad' and provide a
motivation for crimes. In other words,
 6

the law expresses what is right and Control Theories

wrong to an offender.
7. A person becomes a criminal ● Look at crime and delinquency
because of frequent criminal differently
patterns. For example, if one is ● Ask why people refrain from violating
exposed to a repeated criminal the law even though they are
scenario, this scenario will eventually presented with opportunities to
rub off on others nearby. commit crime
8. The differential association theory ● Control theories attempt to find
can differ in frequency, duration, factors that keep an individual from
priority and intensity. becoming deviant
9. The learning of criminal behavior by
association is similar to all other Social Control Theory
types of learning.
Also referred to as Social Bond Theory, or
KEY ROLES OF SOCIAL WORK Bonding Theory

Preventive Role - Social workers can help The definition of social control theory is a
prevent criminal behavior by identifying and sociological theory that explores the causes of
addressing risk factors in individuals' individual engagement in criminal behavior.
environments. This includes working with
families, schools, and communities to According to this theory, the social
promote positive interactions and environment does not push one toward
discourage behaviors that might lead to deviant behavior; rather, it fails to restrain
criminal activities. one front a behaving.

Intervention - For individuals already Most of us do not engage in deviant or

engaged in criminal behavior, social workers criminal acts because of strong bonds with
can provide counseling and support to help or ties to Conventional mainstream social
them modify their behavior. This might institutions. If these bonds are weak or
involve addressing underlying issues such broken, we will be released from society
as substance abuse, mental health rules and will be free to deviate.
problems, or socioeconomic factors.
Society or neighborhood is able to invest its
Rehabilitation - Social workers can support citizens or residents with a stake worth
individuals in the criminal justice system by protecting, it will have lower rates of crime vs
facilitating their reintegration into society. society where strong bond is not present or
They may help with job placement, relatively low
educational opportunities, and building
positive social networks to reduce the Assumes an individual's behavior is
likelihood of reoffending. controlled by connections a person has to a
conventional social order.
Advocacy - Social workers advocate for
policy changes and systemic reforms to Deviance is not caused by the present
address social inequalities and structural values, beliefs or other motivating factors,
issues that contribute to criminal behavior. but by the absence of values and beliefs,
This includes working to improve access to that normally forbid delinquency
resources and support for marginalized
The definition of social control theory is a
communities.
sociological theory that explores the causes of
individual engagement in criminal behavior. It
GROUP 3: SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY
states that individuals act in certain ways
 7

because of the influence of society. If an 3. Attachment to school

individual is attached to society, or to
important individuals (parents, friends, etc.) in 2. Belief (of laws or rules)
that society, they will act in positive,
constructive ways. On the other hand, if ● Our belief system pertaining to laws
individuals are not attached to society, they and rules governs behavior
will act in destructive ways, including criminal ● An absence of effective beliefs that
behavior. forbid or discourage delinquency
allows for such behavior to occur
Social controls are developed in childhood by
parents and teachers who associate positive 3. Commitment to conventional lines of
behavior with rewards and negative behaviors action
with punishments.
● Desire to achieve conventional goals
As individuals age and as their paradigm
will reduce delinquency because it
changes, their acceptance of these social
will make achieving those goals more
controls shifts as well. The essential beliefs
created through this process, as well as the difficult.
related values, mores, and interpersonal ● 3 areas to illustrate the concept
relationships and commitments, create the
framework for personal motivators that 1. Educational
encourage people to follow laws.
2. Occupational
This theory was developed by Travis Hirschi
in the late twentieth century and first published 3.Passage to adult status
by him in 1969. He stated that the presence or
lack of effectiveness of social controls on 4. Involvement in conventional activities
individuals were key influences in their
decisions to engage in criminal activity. Those ● Represents the time dimension of
who commit crimes do so because they feel commitment
no obligation to abide by the rules of a society ● If not involved in conventional
to which they have no allegiance or activities, youth become free to
connection. Social control theory is also called deviate
''social bond theory.'' ● Difficult to measure aside from
commitment
Hirschi's (1969) Social Control Theory How Social Control Theory Can be
Utilized by Social Workers
Four Main Concepts (ABCI)
Social workers use this theory to understand
1. Attachment to others the development of criminal behavior in an
individual.
● Bonds established in close
relationships to conventional others GROUP 4: DETERRENCE THEORY
will act as a deterrent to crime
● People will consider their
Deterrence theory refers to the scholarship
relationships and refrain from crime
and practice of how threats of using force by
● Three areas
one party can convince another party to
refrain from initiating some other course of
1. Attachment to parents
action. It is the idea that people can be
prevented from engaging in undesirable
2. Attachment to peers
behaviors through the threat of punishment
 8

or negative consequence. Deterrence theory Education: Magdalen Hall, Oxford St John's

has roots in classical criminology, with College, Cambridge (BA)
philosophers like Cesare
Beccaria,Thomas Hobbes and Jeremy Main interests: Political philosophy, history,
Bentham arguing that the certainty, ethics, geometry
severity, and swiftness of punishment are
key to deterring crime. JEREMY BENTHAM

DETERRENCE is the prevention of Jeremy Bentham was an English

something, especially war or crime, by philosopher, jurist, and social reformer
having something such as weapons or regarded as the founder of modern
punishment to use as a threat. utilitarianism. Bentham defined as the
"fundamental axiom" of his philosophy the
THEORY is a supposition or a system of principle that "it is the greatest happiness of
ideas intended to explain something, the greatest number that is the measure of
especially one based on general principles right and wrong."
independent of the thing to be explained.
Born: February 15, 1748, Houndsditch,
CESARE BECCARIA London, United Kingdom

Cesare Bonesana di Beccaria, Marquis of Died: June 6, 1832 (age 84 years),

Gualdrasco and Villareggio, was an Italian Westminster, London, United Kingdom
criminologist, jurist, philosopher, economist,
and politician who is widely considered one Education: The Queen's College, Oxford
of the greatest thinkers of the Age of (MA)
Enlightenment
Main interests: Political philosophy,
Born: March 15, 1738 in Italy philosophy of law, ethics, economics

Death: November 28, 1974 TYPES OF DETERRENCE THEORY

Education: University of Pavia GENERAL DETERRENCE - aims to

discourage the general population from
Spouse(s): Teresa Blasco, Anna Barbò committing crimes by making examples of
specific deterrents.
Main interests: Criminology
SPECIFIC DETERRENCE - seeks to
THOMAS HOBBES prevent individuals who have already
committed crimes from reoffending.
Thomas Hobbes was an English
philosopher. Hobbes is best known for his APPLICATIONS OF DETERRENCE
1651 book Leviathan, in which he expounds THEORY
an influential formulation of social contract
theory. He is considered to be one of the CRIME PREVENTION
founders of modern political philosophy.
The criminal justice system uses deterrence
Born: April 5, 1588, Malmesbury, United theory, including fines, imprisonment, and
Kingdom death penalty, to discourage crime, but their
effectiveness in reducing rates remains a
Died: December 4, 1679 National Trust - topic of ongoing debate.
Hardwick Hall, United Kingdom
 9

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Deterrence theory informs various aspects

of social policy and criminal justice systems.
Deterrence theory, particularly in nuclear It underpins the rationale for the enactment
weapons, is crucial for international security, and enforcement of laws, guiding the
with Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) development of legal penalties and
being a prime example of deterrence in correctional strategies. By emphasizing the
action. role of consequences in shaping behavior,
deterrence theory aims to maintain social
PERSONAL BEHAVIOR order and reduce the incidence of crime.

Deterrence principles are also applied in GROUP 5: INTERACTIONIST

everyday life. For instance, traffic laws and PERSPECTIVE
the threat of fines discourage speeding,
while security cameras and alarms deter Introduction
theft. ● Social scientists use a variety of
research method to understand
KEY ELEMENTS OF DETERRENCE
THEORY human interactions and behavior.
One of the most commonly used
CERTAINTY OF PUNISHMENT - The sociological theories is the
likelihood that punishment will follow a interactionist perspective. This
criminal act is believed to be the most approach provides answers to how
effective deterrent.
human behavior relates to our social
SEVERITY OF PUNISHMENT - The interaction.
harshness of the penalty should be sufficient ● In sociology, interactionism is a
to outweigh the benefits of the criminal act. theoretical perspective that
understands social processes (such
CELERITY OF PUNISHMENT - The
as conflict, cooperation, identity
promptness with which punishment is
applied following a crime can enhance its formation) as emerging from human
deterrent effect. interaction.
● Scholars of this perspective study
how individuals act within society,
and believe that meaning is
ALTERNATIVES TO DETERRENCE
produced through the interactions of
REHABILITATION - Programs that aim to individuals.
address the underlying causes of crime and ● Interactionist perspective, also
help individuals change their behavior. referred to as interactionist theory,
means looking at people's
SOCIAL PROGRAMS - Addressing poverty,
relationship with different aspects of
inequality, and lack of opportunity can
reduce crime. society as a response to their
interactions with others.
RESTORATIVE JUSTICE - Focuses on ● It involves observing the way a
repairing harm and restoring relationships, person has been taught to think
rather than solely punishing offenders.
about a certain experience in their
THE ROLE OF DETERRENCE THEORY IN life, either by watching the way other
SOCIETY people have interacted with the
 10

experience before or how they have Interpretation and Subjectivity - Individuals

reacted or talked about it. interpret and define situations based on their
own experiences, beliefs, and interactions
Difference between Interactionism and with others. This subjective interpretation
Interactionist Perspective influences how they behave and interact
● Interactionism is a broader with the world.
theoretical framework that
encompasses various perspectives, Role of the Self - The self is seen as a
including the interactionist product of social interactions. People
perspective. develop their sense of identity through their
● Interactionist perspective is a more interactions with others and their
specific theoretical approach that understanding of how they are perceived by
emphasizes the active role of others.
individuals in shaping their social
reality through their interactions. Dynamic Social Processes - Social life is
seen as dynamic and constantly changing,
Core Concepts as people negotiate meanings and roles
● The interactionist theory emphasises through ongoing interactions.
the importance of interaction and
social environment in acquiring Key Theorists
language, whilst also recognizing ● The idea of Interactionist Perspective
that language is innate, suggesting Theory is developed by the
that children develop language contributions of these three theorists
because they desire to communicate known as George Herbert Mead,
with the world. Charles Horton Cooley, and Herbert
Blumer. These three scholars are not
This perspective emphasizes the following only known for having significant
concepts: contributions in this theory, but also
for shaping the field of sociology.
Social Construction of Reality - People
create and maintain their social realities George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)
through interactions with others. The ● Was a philosopher and sociologist
meanings and interpretations of symbols, who laid the foundation for Symbolic
actions, and social roles are developed Interaction Theory. He argued that
through these interactions. individuals create their sense of self
through interactions with others and
Symbols and Meaning - Symbols (such as society. Mead believed that language
language, gestures, and objects) are central and symbols are essential tools in
to human communication and social shaping human behavior and those
interaction. The meanings of these symbols individuals interpret symbols
are not inherent but are created and shared differently based on their social
through social processes. interactions.
 11

Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)

● Expanded on the concept of the 1. Client-Centered Practice:
"looking-glass self," which posits that Understanding Individual Perspectives:
individuals develop their self-identity ● Social workers can use the
based on how they believe others interactionist perspective to
perceive them. Cooley emphasized understand the unique experiences,
the role of socialization and perspectives, and interpretations of
communication in constructing one's their clients. This helps them develop
self-concept and argued that tailored interventions that address
individuals use social interactions as the client's specific needs and goals.
mirrors to understand how others For example, a social worker working
view them. with a client experiencing domestic
violence might explore how the client
Herbert Blumer (1900-1987) understands their situation, their past
● Was a student of Mead, further experiences with relationships, and
developed Symbolic Interaction their cultural beliefs about gender
Theory by formalizing its principles. roles.
He coined the term "symbolic Building rapport:
interactionism" and emphasized that ● The interactionist perspective
meaning is created through social emphasizes the importance of
interactions and the interpretation of communication and shared meaning
symbols. According to Blumer, in building rapport with clients. Social
humans act towards things based on workers can use this understanding
the meanings they assign to them, to develop trust, empathy, and a
and these meanings are derived from collaborative relationship with
social interactions. clients.
Empowerment:
In conclusion, The interactionist perspective recognizes
George Herbert Mead laid the groundwork clients' agency and capacity for change.
for Symbolic Interaction Theory in the early Social workers can use this understanding
20th century. Charles Horton Cooley to empower clients to take ownership of
expanded on Mead's ideas in the 1920s with their lives and make decisions that are right
his concept of the looking-glass self. Finally, for them.
Herbert Blumer solidified and formalized
Symbolic Interaction Theory in the mid-20th 2. Understanding Social Problems:
century. Social construction of reality:
● The interactionist perspective
Applications/relevance of the interactionist highlights how social problems are
perspective in social work not inherent but rather socially
The interactionist perspective, also known constructed through shared
as symbolic interactionism, offers a valuable meanings and interpretations. This
lens for social work practice. Here are some understanding helps social workers
examples of its applications and relevance: recognize the role of social factors,
 12

such as stigma, prejudice, and ● The interactionist perspective is

discrimination, in shaping individuals' useful for understanding how
experiences and challenges. For individuals interact within groups,
example, a social worker working including group dynamics, power
with a client experiencing structures, and communication
homelessness might explore how patterns. This knowledge can be
societal perceptions of applied in group therapy, community
homelessness contribute to the organizing, and other group settings.
client's experiences of stigma and
discrimination. 4. Ethical Considerations:
Labeling and Stigma: Respect for Diversity:
● The interactionist perspective sheds ● The interactionist perspective
light on how labels can influence emphasizes the importance of
individuals' self-perceptions and respecting individual differences and
social opportunities. Social workers understanding the diverse meanings
can use this understanding to people attach to their experiences.
address the negative impacts of This is essential for ethical social
stigma and advocate for more work practice, ensuring that services
inclusive and supportive systems. are culturally sensitive and
SOCIAL CHANGE: responsive to individual needs.
● By recognizing the power of social Non-Judgmental Approach:
interactions to create and maintain ● It encourages social workers to
social problems, social workers can adopt a non-judgmental approach,
use the interactionist perspective to recognizing that individuals'
advocate for social change. This behaviors and choices are often
involves challenging harmful social influenced by their social contexts
norms, promoting dialogue and and interpretations. This promotes
understanding, and empowering empathy and understanding,
marginalized communities. fostering a more supportive and
therapeutic environment.
3. Working with Families and Groups:
Family Dynamics: In summary, the interactionist perspective
● The interactionist perspective helps provides social workers with a powerful
social workers understand how framework for understanding the
family members interact and complexities of human behavior and social
construct their relationships. This interaction. By applying this perspective,
knowledge is crucial for facilitating social workers can provide more effective,
family therapy, addressing client-centered, and ethical services,
communication breakdowns, and promoting individual well-being and social
promoting healthy family change.
functioning.
GROUP PROCESSES: CONCLUSION:
 13

The interactionist perspective can be a Sjöström 2017) Howard Becker and Edwin
useful theory to begin to understand how Lemert
people relate to other people, things, or
experiences because it indicates that the -Deviance is defined not by the act itself but
root of the value we assign to things is by how society reacts to it.
found in the society around us. The
interactionist perspective does not account According to this perspective, deviant
for every influence that may affect a behavior is a result of societal labels and
person's perspective but can be an stigmatization.
introduction for a sociologist to interpret the
human experience. Who's Edwin Lemert? Edwin M. Lemert (May
8, 1912- November 10, 1996) was a
GROUP 6: LABELING PERSPECTIVE sociology professor at the University of
California.
WHAT IS LABEL? A word or a phrase that is
used to describe the characteristics or Who's Howard Becker? Howard S. Becker
qualities of people, activities, or things, often (born April 18, 1928, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.-
in a way that is unfair -Campbridge died August 16, 2023, San Francisco,
Dictionary California) was an American sociologist
known for his studies of occupations,
DO YOU EXPERIENCED BEING LABELED? Ex. education, deviance, and art.
Troublemaker, Lazy, Thief, Criminal
Howard Becker
The labeling theory notes that people are
made to act in a negative way because of • Howard Becker's (1963) idea is that
the label they are given by society. They deviance is a consequence of external
become deviant based upon the society's judgments, or labels, that modify the
opinion of them. -(Caroline Ntara and Erin individual's self-concept and change the way
Long-Crowell 2023). others respond to the labeled person.

Labeling theory is an approach in the • The central feature of labeling theory is the
sociology of deviance that focuses on the self- fulfilling.prophecy, in which the label
ways in which the agents of social control corresponds to the label in terms of
attach stigmatizing stereotypes to particular delinquent behavior.
groups, and the ways in which the
stigmatized change their behavior once SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY
labeled.
A self-fulfilling prophecy is a sociological
Labeling theory is one of the most influential term used to describe a prediction that
theoretical approaches that has been causes itself to become true
systematically applied to understand mental
illness as a social phenomenon. (S. PRIMARY DEVIANCE and SECONDARY
DEVIANCE
 14

● Jana was seen drinking at a party

PRIMARY DEVIANCE - A primary deviant is a and was posted on the internet. The
person who does something that is not next day, people around her treats
acceptable for the first time. This act is in her as a consistent drinker even
most cases done by a person who is known when it is her first time to drink
to comply with societal norms and
expectations. WHAT ARE THE PROBLEMS WITH
LABELING THEORY?
SECONDARY DEVIANCE is when a person
continues committing crimes or wrong acts Labeling theory has become a popular
because of the label that society has given sociological approach to the study of
them. The label makes them behave just like deviance, but it has also received criticism
what people call them. for its inability to explain primary deviance,
its lack of attention to the labeling of
It occurs as a result of the labeling given to a categories of people, and its failure to
person causing them to behave in line with it specify the conditions under which official
due to Stigmatization. labeling works.
The theory purports that society's
Labeling theory recognizes that labels will establishing someone as a criminal based
vary depending on the culture, time period, on deviant behavior (action perceived to
and situation. violate society's normal standards) may lead
others to mistreat the person labeled as a
Labeling theory stems from symbolic criminal. In other words, individuals may
interactionism, which believes that an face stigma, discrimination against them
individual's sense of self is formed by their because of the criminal label. Therefore, the
interactions with and the labels ascribed to person might become a criminal. Thus, the
them by other people.M focus of the labeling theory is to show that
society's perception and treatment of others
A person running a busy shop might want to can cause them to commit wrong acts.
step out briefly. While they are outside the Therefore, the person 20 might, in turn,
shop, a friend could pass by and offer to become a criminal.
watch the shop for them in order to allow
them to leave. However, if the person STIGMA
offering has been labelled as a thief, the
shop owner might be suspicious that they Once a person has been labeled by others
want to steal from their shop and not accept through secondary deviance, it is common
its offer. for that person to incorporate that label into
his or her own self-concept. They develop a
EXAMPLES stigma, or a powerfully negative label that
greatly changes a person's self-concept and
● When a person commits mistakes, social identity.
the society will associate him with
the behavior permanently.
 15

ROLES OF SOCIAL WORKER IN THIS

MATTER Garfinkel was attempting to understand the
way jurors knew how to act as jurors. After
Social Workers play an important role to this attempting to understand the jurors' actions,
and according to the National Association of Garfinkel created the term
Social Workers (NASW) of (2021). "Social "ethnomethodology" as a way to describe
Work: The Profession and Its Impact on how people use different methods in order to
Society". This are the following: understand the society they live in.

• ADVOCACY: Social Workers advocate for WHAT IS EΤΗΝΟΜΕΤΗHODOLOGY?

individuals who have been labeled in ways
that might lead to discrimination or reduced Ethno = people; Method = method; Ology =
opportunities. They work to challenge to study
ensure fair treatment and advocate for
equitable treatment. - The study of ordinary members of
society in the everyday situations in
• SUPPORT AND COUNSELING: They which they find themselves and the
provide emotional support and counseling to ways in which they use common-
individuals affected by labeling. This helps sense knowledge, procedures, and
people to cope with the stigma or self- considerations to gain an
esteem issues that may arise from being understanding of, navigate in, and act
labeled. on those situations.
- Ethnomethodology's interest is in
• EDUCATION AND AWARENESS: Workers how ordinary people make sense of
educate clients, families Social and their social world.
communities about the negative impacts of
labeling. PROPONENT

• EMPOWERMENT: Social Workers help Harold Garfinkel was born in Newark, New
clients build self-confidence and navigate Jersey on October 29, 1917. Harold passed
the challenges associated with labeling away from heart failure on April 21, 2011, in
his home in Los Angeles leaving his wife
GROUP 7: ETHNOMETHODOLOGY Arlene behind. He was an American
PERSPECTIVE sociologist and ethnomethodologist, who
taught at the University of California, Los
Ethnomethodology is an approach in Angeles. Having developed and established
sociology that studies the "common-sense" ethnomethodology as a field of inquiry in
resources, procedures, and practices sociology, he is probably best known for
through which members of a society Studies in Ethnomethodology (1967).
interpret their everyday Life and how these
social interactions, when mutually PRINCIPLE OF ΕΤΗΝΟΜΕΤHODOLOGICAL
recognized within particular contexts, create PERSPECTIVE
orderliness (Williams, 2001).
 16

Ethnomethodology focuses on the UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL ORDER: It

capacities of people as members of a provides insights into how social order is
collective rather than their individuating created and maintained through everyday
traits as distinct persons. On the contrary, interactions and practices.
ethnomethodology frames inquiries and
observations into communal interactions, REVEALING HIDDEN RULES:
underscoring various individuals' Ethnomethodology uncovers the often-
understanding of their worlds, rather than unspoken rules and norms that guide
any theoretical frameworks utilized by social behavior in various social contexts.
scientists.
HIGHLIGHTING PARTICIPANT
CONCEPTS OF ETHNOMETHODOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE: It emphasizes the importance
PERSPECTIVE of individuals' knowledge and methods in
understanding and interpreting their social
Indexicality - Refers to how the meaning of world.
expressions and actions is contingent on the
specific context in which they occur. CHALLENGING ASSUMPTIONS: It
Garfinkel emphasized that what people say challenges traditional sociological
and do in social interactions is not fixed but assumptions about structure and social
is interpreted in relation to the order, showing how these are actively
circumstances of the interaction, including produced by individuals rather than imposed
the participants' shared understanding and from above.
the ongoing situational context.
SOCIAL ORDERS
Reflexivility - Refers to how individuals use
their understanding of social norms and Ethnomethodology is a sociological
practices to make sense of and respond to perspective that focuses on how people
their own actions and those of others. It create and maintain social order in their
involves a self-awareness of how one's own everyday interactions. Here are some
behavior is shaped by and contributes to the examples of ethnomethodology in action
broader social context. that will demonstrate how
ethnomethodology can be applied to various
Accountability - Refer to how individuals are social contexts to uncover the underlying
held responsible for their actions within a practices and understandings that
social context. This concept involves the contribute to the maintenance of social
ways in which people are expected to order.
explain, justify, or account for their behavior
in interactions with others. Local Orders and Social Practice:

PURPOSE OF ETHNOMETHODOLOGY ● Greeting rituals:

PERSPECTIVE:
Ethnomethodologists might study how
people greet each other in different social
 17

contexts, analyzing the unspoken rules and Analyzing cultural rituals and ceremonies
expectations surrounding greetings, such as can provide insights into how social order is
handshakes, hugs, or verbal exchanges. constructed and reinforced through shared
symbols, performances, and collective
● Conversation analysis: actions.
Researchers might examine how
conversational turn-taking and repair ● Legal proceedings:
mechanisms function in natural interactions, Ethnomethodologists might study
uncovering the subtle cues and practices courtroom interactions to understand how
that allow people to communicate. participants, including judges, lawyers,
witnesses, and jurors, navigate legal
● Workplace interactions: proceedings and uphold procedural norms
Ethnomethodologists might observe how through their speech and behavior.
employees in a workplace environment
navigate social hierarchies, coordinate SIGNIFICANCE IN SOCIAL WORK
tasks, and negotiate roles and PRACTICE:
responsibilities through their everyday
interactions. Ethnomethodology is a perspective that
focuses on understanding how people
● Family dynamics: create and maintain social order in their
Studying family interactions reveal how everyday lives. In social work practice, the
members establish routines, allocate significance of ethnomethodology lies in its
resources, and manage conflicts through ability to help practitioners understand the
their everyday behaviors and underlying social norms, behaviors, and
communication patterns. interactions that shape the lives of
individuals and communities.
● Public behavior:
Observing how people behave in public Understanding Client Behavior:
spaces, such as parks, transportation hubs, Ethnomethodology helps social workers see
or shopping malls, can shed light on the how clients make sense of their own
unwritten rules and norms. that govern experiences and how they follow or
social interactions in these settings. challenge societal rules. This can inform
better strategies for intervention.
● Online communities:
Ethnomethodologists might examine how Cultural Sensitivity: By focusing on the
individuals create and maintain social order everyday practices and social norms of
in online communities, such as forums or different communities, social workers can
social media platforms, through their use of provide services that respect cultural values
language, symbols, and interactional and practices.
practices.
Empowerment: Social workers can use the
● Cultural rituals and ceremonies: insights gained from ethnomethodology to
empower clients, helping them to navigate
 18

and potentially change the social systems

that affect their lives. Bourgeoisie (Capitalist Class) This is the
class that owns the means of production—
GROUP 8: CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE factories, machinery, land, etc. The
bourgeoisie is the capitalist class that
CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE THEORY benefits from the labor of the working class.
They have control over resources and
Conflict theory is a sociological perspective production, which allows them to generate
that views society as a system characterized profit and maintain their economic and
by power dynamics and the inevitable social status.
presence of conflict. The theory emphasizes
the role of social inequality, competition for Proletariat (Working Class) This is the
resources, and class struggle in shaping the working class that does not own the means
social order.The conflict perspective in of production and must sell their labor to the
sociology examines the power relationships bourgeoisie in order to survive. The
and social inequalities that shape society. It proletariat is exploited by the bourgeoisie, as
highlights how conflicts between different the value of their labor is greater than the
groups can lead to social change. wages they receive, with the surplus value
being appropriated by the bourgeoisie as
Conflict Perspective Overview Conflict profit.
theory emerged during the mid-19th century,
with Karl Marx as a foundational figure. Conflict Between Bourgeoisie and
Marx’s analysis of capitalist societies Proletariat
highlighted the class struggle between the
bourgeoisie, who owned the means of The conflict between the bourgeoisie and
production, and the proletariat, who sold the proletariat is rooted in the economic
their labor. He argued that this struggle structure of capitalism, where the interests
would ultimately lead to social change. Max of capital owners and workers are inherently
Weber built on Marx’s ideas by expanding opposed. This conflict is driven by economic
the theory beyond economic class, exploitation, social inequality, ideological
incorporating power dynamics related to control, and the potential for class
race, gender, and social identities. consciousness and collective action. Marx
theorized that these tensions would
Karl Marx was born May 5, 1818, Trier, Rhine ultimately lead to significant social and
province, Prussia, GermanyDied March 14, economic changes, including the potential
1883, London, England He was a overthrow of the capitalist system and the
revolutionary, sociologist, historian, and establishment of a socialist or communist
economist. Karl Marx, has a social theory society.
that posits that society is in a state of
perpetual conflict because of competition Max Weber was born on April 21, 1864 ,
for limited resources. Erfurt, Prussia Germany and died June 14,
1920, in Munich, Germany. He was a German
Karl Marx 2 Classes Conflict Theory sociologist and political economist.Max
 19

Weber’s conflict theory posits that there are and criminal behavior, suggesting that
three main sources of conflict: Economic, individuals may resort to crime as a means
Social, and Political. of survival.

Three main sources of conflict of Max Racial Discrimination - Social Movements

Weber and Deviance This case study examines
various social movements, such as LGBTQ+
ECONOMIC - Economic conflict arises when rights and environmental activism. It
people compete for scarce discusses how these movements
SOCIAL - Social conflict occurs when people challenged societal norms and were often
have different values or beliefs. labeled as deviant before achieving
POLITICAL - Weber’s analysis includes the mainstream acceptance.
role of power and authority in society
Political Oppression - Power and the
3 Key Concepts of Conflict Theory Criminal Justice System.This analysis
focuses on how those in power influence
Power Dynamics - Examines how power is laws and their enforcement. It highlights
distributed and maintained among various issues such as racial profiling and the
social groups. disproportionate impact of the justice
Social Inequality - Focuses on the system on lower-income communities.
disparities in wealth, opportunities, and
privileges among different groups. Deviance According to Conflict Perspective
Conflict and Change - Suggests that social Criticisms and Limitations of the Conflict
conflict can be a catalyst for change, as Perspective
seen in movements that challenge existing
norms. The conflict perspective views deviance as a
product of social and economic inequalities.
Deviance According to Conflict Perspective It emphasizes that norms and laws are
Criticisms and Limitations of the Conflict constructed by those in power to maintain
Perspective Conflict theory posits that their control and that deviance often reflects
deviance arises from the inequalities in resistance to oppressive conditions. This
society. Factors contributing to deviance perspective highlights the unequal
often include economic disparity, lack of application of social control and advocates
access to resources, and systemic for addressing the power imbalances that
oppression . shape definitions of deviance
Examples: Leading to Deviance AND THE
FOLLOWING: Application to Contemporary Issues - The
conflict perspective can be applied to
Economic Hardship - Economic Inequality understand various contemporary issues,
and Crime. This case study explores how such as racial inequality, gender disparities,
economic disparities lead to higher crime and economic injustice. It provides a
rates in marginalized communities. It framework to analyze how these issues
illustrates the relationship between poverty
 20

perpetuate social conflict and inspire inequality in society. By recognizing the role
movements for change. of social conflict in driving change, we can
better understand the complexities of social
Application to Social Work - The conflict relations..
perspective in social work focuses on
understanding and addressing the power GROUP 9: CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE
dynamics, inequalities, and conflicts within
society that affect individuals and ● Is a family of theories that aim at
communities a critique and transformation Is a
family of theories that analyze
Understanding Social Inequality Focus on society's conflicts, contradictions,
Power and Resources: Social workers using
and tendencies.
the conflict perspective analyze how power
● It aims to critique and transform
and resources are distributed unevenly
across different social groups. This involves
society by integrating normative
examining how race, class, gender, and perspectives with empirical
other factors contribute to systemic analysis.
inequality ● Refers to the work of the
Frankfurt School, a group of
Addressing Structural Issues: The aim is to philosophers and social theorists
address the root causes of social problems in the Western European Marxist
by challenging systemic issues rather than tradition. society by integrating
just treating symptoms. For instance, a normative perspectives with
social worker might work on advocacy to
empirically informed analysis of
address income inequality or discrimination
society's conflicts, contradictions,
in the workplace.
Understanding Client Context: Social
and tendencies. In a narrow
workers using the conflict perspective pay sense, "Critical Theory" (often
attention to how clients’ social and denoted with capital letters)
economic conditions influence their refers to the work of several
experiences and challenges. This involves generations of philosophers and
recognizing how structural factors social theorists in the Western
contribute to clients' difficulties. European Marxist tradition known
as the Frankfurt School.
Strengths-Based Approach: They work to
identify and build on clients' strengths while
DEFINITION: Critical Theory is a
also addressing the systemic barriers
philosophical and sociological
that impact their lives
approach to understanding power and
SUMMARY & CONCLUSION inequality in society

The conflict perspective offers valuable EMPHASIS: It emphasizes the

insights into the dynamics of power and importance of questioning dominant
 21

cultural narratives and promoting the The following are its basic
voices of marginalized groups characteristics.
● Critical theory is viewed as a
VIEW OF POWER: Critical Theory sees Western-Marxist philosophy that
power as unevenly distributed and used views history in terms of class
struggle.
to maintain and reproduce social
● History is viewed as the history
inequalities of oppression as opposed to
noting any positive outcomes
GOALS: It seeks to challenge and such as societies that survived,
transform power structures in pursuit of thrived, improved and
social justice and equality progressed.
● Critical theory makes the
assumption that systems and
FRANKFURT SCHOOL OF CRITICAL
history produce unsatisfactory
THEORY quality of life for the masses
such that they are miserable
● Was a group of social scientists victims of oppression. There is
and researchers who applied no sense that historical or
contemporary masses
Marxism to philosophy and
participate in society and culture
society. because it benefits chem. If the
● Founded in 1923, they aimed to masses are content with a
understand society using Marxist system, the elite has simply
and other scientific perspectives. tricked them.
● Their work led to the ● Where the masses are viewed as
powerless in their own situation,
development of Critical Theory,
the elite are viewed as all
which examined the effects of powerful such that they are
big businesses, monopolies, completely responsible for all
electronics, technology, and social problems. Critical theory
capitalism on human life and views the elite as an oppressive
society. force. This can be contrasted
● They also explored human with views such as American
freedom and liberation in the pragmatism that accepts the
context of slavery. capitalist elite as an
entrepreneurial force that
creates immense value.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CRITICAL ● Power structures such as
THEORY societies are viewed as systems
of control as opposed to
● Critical theory is a school of systems that create economic
thought that views social value and quality of life for large
problems as the result of populations.
oppressive power structures.
 22

Max Horkheimer (1895-1973) TYPES OF CRITICAL THEORY

❖ Born on February 14, 1895 -
Stuttgart, Germany and Died on Feminist Theory: Falls under the
July 7, 1973 - Nūrnberg umbrella of critical theory, which in
❖ He was a leader of the “Frankfurt general has the purpose of
School,” a group of philosophers destabilizing systems of power and
and social scientists associated oppression. Feminist theory considers
with the Institute für
the lived experience of any
Sozialforschung (Institute of
Social Research) in Frankfurt am person/people, not just women, with
Main. an emphasis on oppression. The
❖ Their writings from the 1930s purpose of using a feminist lens is to
were crucial in developing the enable the discovery of how people
epistemological and interact within systems and possibly
offer solutions to confront and
methodological orientation of
Frankfurt School critical theory eradicate oppressive systems and
structures
● He studied philosophy at the
University of Frankfurt Critical Race Theory: Intellectual and
● He became director of the social movement and loosely
university’s Institute for Social organized framework of legal analysis
Research based on the premise that race is not a
● Under his leadership, the institute
natural, biologically grounded feature
attracted talented philosophers
and social scientists. of physically distinct subgroups of
● In his work “Traditional and human beings but a socially
Critical Theory,” he contrasted constructed (culturally invented)
traditional political philosophy category that is used to oppress and
and social science with critical exploit people of colour.
Marxism.
● Argued that traditional Queer Theory: Queer theory is a
approaches to social science critical theory that examines and
legitimize oppressive and unjust critiques society's definitions of gender
practices by describing existing and sexuality, with the goal of revealing
institutions as natural or the social and power structures at play
objective. Critical theory, on the in our everyday lives.
other hand, exposes the false
Marxism Critical Theory: Marxism
claims of legitimacy, justice,
critical theory was founded by Karl
and truth by understanding the
Marx. The ideal is based in class-based
historical and social context in
struggle and conflict. Marxism is a
which these institutions
political economic theory of class
operate.
conflict and an equitable “classless
 23

society”. Marxism critical theorists oppressive structures and advocating for

focus on who suffers and who benefits. systemic transformation to improve
social conditions.
Critical Disability Theory: Critical IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL THEORY
disability theory refers to a diverse,
Critical perspective theories examine
interdisciplinary set of theoretical
how curriculum can both create
approaches. The task of critical
inequalities and social discrimination,
disability theory is to analyze disability
and how it shapes social ideologies,
as a cultural, historical, relative, social,
power, and identities. Feminist and
and political phenomenon.
critical race movements have expanded
ROLES OF SOCIAL WORKER and challenged critical theory, blurring
the distinction between critical and
Advocate for Social Justice - Social poststructural approaches. Recent
workers challenge systemic inequalities developments include a renewed
and work to change social structures interest in social class, advocacy for
that perpetuate oppression and injustice. critical realist epistemology, and a
They advocate for marginalized groups,
critique of global and national
striving for social and economic justice.
measurement-based policymaking.
Empowerment - Social workers
empower individuals and communities GROUP 10: CHICAGO PERSPECTIVE
by helping them develop the skills and
resources needed to advocate for The Chicago perspective (sometimes
themselves and take control of their known as the ecological school) refers
lives. to a school of thought in sociology and
criminology originating at the university
Critical Analysis - Social workers of Chicago whose work was influential
critically analyze policies and practices
in the early 20th century.
to identify their impact on vulnerable
populations. They use this analysis to
advocate for policy changes that The Chicago school is best known for
promote equality and social justice. its urban sociology and for the
development of the symbolic
Promoting Awareness - Social workers interactionist approach, notably through
raise awareness of social issues, the work of Herbert Blumer. It has
encouraging individuals and focused on human behavior as shaped
communities to understand the broader by social structures and physical
socio-political context that affects their
environmental factors, rather than
lives.
genetic and personal characteristics.
Change Agent - Social workers act as
agents of change by challenging HISTORY
 24

URBANIZATION AND SOCIAL CHANGES

EARLY TO MID 1800'S, MANY LARGE OCCURRING IN AMERICAN CITIES
US CITIES HAD NO FORMAL SOCIAL DURING THIS TIME. THE CITY OF
AGENCIES TO HANDLE PROBLEMS OF CHICAGO, WITH ITS DIVERSE AND
URBANIZATION: NO SOCIAL WORKERS, DYNAMIC POPULATION, SERVED AS A
BUILDING INSPECTORS, GARBAGE UNIQUE LABORATORY FOR
COLLECTORS, OR EVEN POLLICE SOCIOLOGISTS TO STUDY URBAN LIFE.
OFFICERS. ONCE POLICE OFFICERS
WERE INTRODUCE TO THEIR DUTIES PROPONENTS
OFTEN INCLUDED FINDING LOST
CHILDREN AND COLLECTING THE ROBERT E. FRANK (1864-1944) - Park
GARBAGE, BECAUSE THERE WEREN’T was an American sociologist noted for
OTHER AGENCIES TO PERFORM THESE his work on ethnic minority groups,
TASK. particularly African Americans, and on
human ecology, a term he is credited
BY THE LATE 1800'S, with coining. One of the leading figures
HOWEVER,CHICAGO WAS LARGER in what came to be known as the
MADE UP OF CITIZENS WHO DID NOT “Chicago school” of sociology, he
SPEAK A COMMON LANGUAGE AND initiated a great deal of fieldwork in
DID NOT SHARED OTHERS CULTURAL Chicago that explored race relations,
VALUES migration, ethnic relations, social
movements, and social disorganization.
THE LEADERS AND PEOPLE OF
CHICAGO NEEDED THEORETICAL ERNEST WATSON BURGEES (1886 -
GUIDANCE TO DEVELOP SOLUTIONS 1996) - Ernest W. Burgess served as
TO THEIR PROBLEMS, PARTICULARLY the 24th President of the American
REGARDING THE HIGH RATES OF Sociological Society. His Presidential
DELINQUENCY. THIS WAS A KEY Address “Social Planning and the
FACTOR IN WHY THE DEPARTMENT OF Mores” was delivered at the
SOCIOLOGY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF organization’s annual meeting in
CHICAGO BECAME SO IMPORTANT Chicago in December 1934. Upon his
AND DOMINANT IN THE EARLY 1900'S death in 1966, an obituary was
WHERE ESSENTIALLY, THE MODERN published in The American Sociologist.
SOCIOLOGY DEVELOPED THERE WAS Burgess willed his professional papers
NEEDED MOST TO SOLVE ITS SOCIAL to the University of Chicago, which
PROBLEMS.THE CHICAGO maintains this information in its Special
PERSPECTIVE BEGAN TO TAKE SHAPE Collections Research Center.
IN THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. IT WAS A CLIFFORD ROBE SHAW (1895-1967) -
RESPONSE TO THE RAPID Shaw was an American sociologist and
 25

criminologist. He was a major figure in and their physical environment,

the Chicago School of sociology during highlighting the impact of spatial
the 1930s and 1940s, and is considered arrangements on social behavior.
to be one of the most influential figures
in American criminology. c. Qualitative Research Methods -
Pioneered the use of methods such as
HENRY DONALD MCKAY (1899-1980) - participant observation and
Henry was an American sociologist and ethnography. This approach allowed for
criminologist who, along with Clifford a nuanced understanding of social
Shaw, helped to establish the University phenomena and provided rich insights
of Chicago's Sociology Department as into the complexities of urban life.
the leading program of its kind in the
United States. He and Shaw were both d. Community Studies - Community
considered members of the Chicago studies helped in understanding the
School of sociology. He also social dynamics, social interactions,
collaborated with Shaw on two highly and social organization within these
influential studies on juvenile smaller units, which contributed to a
delinquency during the 1930s and broader understanding of urban life.
1940s. Shaw and McKay also
developed social disorganization theory e. Human Ecology - The Chicago school
in a study published in 1942 applied principles of ecology to study
human behavior within urban
KEY FEATURES AND CONCEPTS environments. This approach
highlighted the interplay between social
a. Social Disorganization - This theory factors and urban space, shedding light
suggested that crime and other social on how urbanization influences human
problems were a result of the behavior and community life.
breakdown of social institutions and the
disintegration of community bonds in f. The Study of Urban Social Problems -
urban areas. The school emphasized Their research focused on
the importance of studying the social understanding the root causes of urban
and physical environments in which social issues, often exploring how
individuals lived. urban environments and social
structures contributed to their
b. Ecological Perspective -This persistence. This laid the groundwork
perspective viewed the city as a for subsequent research on urban
complex ecosystem, with different poverty, crime, and inequality.
social groups occupying distinct
ecological niches. It focused on the CONTROVERSIES/CRITICISM/S
interplay between individuals, groups,
 26

a. Historical Context - The Chicago behaviors that diverge from societal

School emerged during a specific norms.
historical period, and some argue that
its findings may not be fully applicable
to contemporary urban settings. GROUP 11: GENDER PERSPECTIVE

b. Lack of Diversity - the early Gender - refers to the characteristics of

women, men, girls and boys that are socially
researchers of the Chicago School were
constructed (WHO).
predominantly white. They often
conduct research on marginalized Gender is more fluid – it may or may not
community without proper inclusion or depend upon biological traits. More
representation of the people they study. specifically, it is a concept that describes
how societies determine and manage sex
c. Overgeneralization - some critics categories; the cultural meanings attached
argue that the Chicago School to men and women’s roles; and how
researchers tend to overgeneralize their individuals understand their identities.
findings based on their studies of - Gender involves social norms,
Chicago's specific urban environment. attitudes and activities that society
deems more appropriate for one sex
over another.
APPLICATIONS IN SOCIAL WORK
Gender and Socialization
Insights from the Chicago School help - The phrase “boys will be boys” is
Social Workers understand how the often used to justify behavior such
urban environments, neighborhood as pushing, shoving, or other forms
conditions, and community structures of aggression from young boys. The
affect and influence the individual and phrase implies that such behavior is
group behavior. Applying theories such unchangeable and something that is
as social disorganization, differential part of a boy’s nature. Aggressive
association, and human ecology, social behavior, when it does not inflict
significant harm, is often accepted
workers are better equipped to create
from boys and men because it is
community-based interventions,
congruent with the cultural script for
advocate for systemic changes, and masculinity.
support vulnerable populations in urban
settings. Gender Perspective
- the gender perspective focuses
VII. Conclusion (Cha) particularly on gender-based
In conclusion, the Chicago Perspective differences in status and power, and
on deviance offers an understanding of considers how such discrimination
how social context, environment, and shapes the immediate needs, as well
community dynamics influence
 27

as the long-term interests, of women - According to conflict theory, society

and men. is a struggle for dominance among
- This is a process that assesses the social groups (like women versus
implications for women and men of men) that compete for scarce
any status, condition or action. resources.
- When sociologists examine gender
The gender perspective involves three from this perspective, we can view
concepts, corresponding to three men as the dominant group and
differentiated processes: women as the subordinate group.
- Friedrich Engels, a German
Gender equality as an objective: recognition sociologist, studied family structure
of inequalities and discriminations and the and gender roles.
will to overcome them, implementing the
necessary means for this: promoting social Feminist Theory
and economic changes, etc. - is a type of conflict theory that
examines inequalities in gender-
The analysis of gender as a tool of related issues.
knowledge: identifying the needs, the initial - It uses the conflict approach to
situations, the living conditions, and the examine the maintenance of gender
position of men and women in a roles and inequalities.
differentiated way.
Symbolic Interactionism
Gender mainstreaming: how to - aims to understand human behavior
systematically proceed by incorporating by analyzing the critical role of
criteria that ensures equality as a priority in symbols in human interaction. This is
any action, programme, project or policy. certainly relevant to the discussion of
masculinity and femininity.
Theoretical Perspectives on Gender - When people perform tasks or
possess characteristics based on the
Structural Functionalism gender role assigned to them, they
- provided one of the most important are said to be doing gender. This
perspectives of sociological research notion is based on the work of West
in the twentieth century and has been and Zimmerman (1987). Whether we
a major influence on research in the are expressing our masculinity or
social sciences, including gender femininity, West and Zimmerman
studies. -Viewing the family as the argue, we are always "doing gender."
most integral component of society, Thus, gender is something we do or
assumptions about gender roles perform, not something we are.
within marriage assume a prominent
place in this perspective. Roles of Social Work in promoting gender
equality
Conflict Theory
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Social workers promote gender equality individuals overcome barriers that contribute
through various strategies and practices to inequality.
aimed at addressing social injustices and
advocating for discriminated people. Here Research and Policy Development: Social
are some key ways they do this: workers engage in research to better
understand social issues and develop
Advocacy: Social workers advocate for evidence-based policies that promote equity
policies and practices that promote gender and inclusion.
equality and social justice. This can include
lobbying for legislation that protects the Interdisciplinary Collaboration: They often
rights of disadvantaged groups, such as the work with other professionals and
LGBTQ+ community. organizations to address complex social
issues, ensuring a holistic approach to
Empowerment: They empower individuals promoting equality.
and communities by providing resources,
support, and education. This helps clients Through these methods, social workers play
gain the skills and confidence needed to a crucial role in fostering a more equitable
advocate for themselves and navigate society.
societal barriers.

Cultural Competence: Social workers strive

to understand and respect the diverse
backgrounds of their clients. By being
culturally competent, they can provide more
effective and equitable services that meet
the unique needs of different populations.

Community Organizing: Social workers

often engage in community organizing to
bring people together to address common
issues. This collective action can help to
raise awareness of gender inequalities and
push for systemic change.

Education and Awareness: They educate

clients and the broader community about
social justice issues, helping to raise
awareness of inequalities and the
importance of equity.

Direct Services: By providing direct services

such as counseling, housing assistance, and
healthcare access, social workers help