SOCIAL CHANGE & DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE - "By social change is meant only such

CONCEPTS alteration as ordinary social organization -

that is this structure and functioning of
Greek Philosophy society."
- "There is nothing permanent except
change.” Dawson & Getty
- "Cultural change is social change - since
Margaret Mead all culture is social in its origin, meaning,
- "Never doubt that a small of thoughtful/, and usage."
committed citizens can change the world;
indeed, it's the only thing that ever has. " Social Change is cultural change
- Technology & social forces play a main
Albert Einstein role in social changes
- "Wish to do something great and Social Change
wonderful, but / must start by doing the - Significant alteration over time in behavior
little things like they were Great and patterns and culture
Wonderful. " - Social change happens because we begin
to act in new ways. It is something we do,
Social not just something we learn.
- the interaction of the individual or the - The individual who is an active member of
group, or the welfare of human beings as the society becomes an agent or target of
members of society. social change.
- Is a change or variation occured in the
Society pattern & nature of society and agencies.
- is a network of social relationship. - Is some change in social behavior & social
structure.
Change - Social change means change in social
- To make different in some particular structure.
To become different - An alteration in the social order of a
Change is defined as a variation from society.
previous note to present. - It may include changes in nature, social
institutions, social behaviours, or social
Wilbert Moore (1967) relations.
- "Social change is the significant alteration
of social structure where social structure CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CHAN (Macionis,
means patterns of social action and 1996)
interaction." - it happens everywhere, but the rate of
change varies from place to place
Maclver & Page - Social change is sometimes intentional but
- "Change in social structure is social often unplanned
change." - Social change often generates controversy
- Social changes matter more than other
Social Change does
structural change
- functional changw Factor of Social Change
- Physical or Natural Factor (Geographical)
- Biological Factor
- Population Factor (Demographical)
- Technological Factor (New inventions)
- Cultural Factor
K. Davis - Economic Factor
- War Factor
 - Religions Factor inevitable. The model seeks a classless
- Legal Factor society.
- Political Factor
Interest Group Model
Barriers of Social Change - In this model, society is composed of a
- Fear of new things variety of groups and organizations
- Cultural inertia coming from the lower strata of the
- Vested interest society, each with its common interest
- Degree of isolation and seeking to be heard and to influenced
- Family disorganization policy decisions and actions.
- Social tension - The interest groups come from the
- Fear of unemployment different sectors of the society, such as the
- Illiteracy farmers, fisherfolk, labor groups, women,
- Unawareness youth, the disadvantaged, indigenous
people, and others.
Types of Social Change
Process Process of Social Change
- a series of actions that produce something - Change in Experience of individual
or lead to a particular result. - Change in Attitude of Individual
Evolution - Change in Thought Pattern of individual
- a process of continuous change from a - Change in Social Interaction
lower, simpler, or worse to a higher more - Change in Social Relationship
complex, or better state. - Change in Social Structure
Progress - Social Change
- improved or developed something over a
period of time, a forward onward Role of Education in Social Change
movement. - The promoting society for accepting social
Reform change
- to put an end to (an evil) by enforcing or - Provide conductive environment to social
introducing a better method or course of change
action; removal of faults and abuses. - Evaluation of social change
Revolution - Transmission of culture
- the usually violent attempt by many - Promoting unity & total integration at
people; a sudden, extreme, or complete time of social change
change in the way people live, work, etc. - Maintaining human & social relations
Three models of Social Change (Ford, 1987) - Removing obstacles
- Increasing the area of knowledge &
Traditional Structure of Patronage and developing the critical thinking
Dependence
- In this model, power is concentrated at For social workers
the top. Both the leaders an followers - Their assumptions about the nature of
compete for patronage and connections. people, societies processes and structures
- This model preserves the status quo and - Their scope in explaining the phenomenon
continues the process of exploitation and of change
alienation of people in the grass roots. - Their implications for transformative
actions
Class Conflict Model
- This model portrays a lower class-higher
class relationship. The lower class is the
oppressed, and the higher class is the
oppressor. This model is from the Marxist
perspective. It represents class conflict as Development
 - A process towards a desirable state better - is more likely to ensure certain freedom
than what previously existed. levels because the government depends
- The purpose of development is to create an on public perception
environment in which all people can expand
their capabilities and opportunities can be Amartya Sen
enlarged for both present and future - "Real development is not simply increasing
generations (UNDP, 1994: 13) basic incomes, rather it requires
- The process that creates growth, progress, mechanisms that enable the exercise of
positive or the addition of physical, freedom."
economic, environmental, SOCI and - Development is a process of expanding the
demographic components. freedom that the people enjoy
- The purpose of development is a rise in the - Freedoms are not only the primary ends of
level and quality of life of the population, development they are also among its
and the creation or expansion of local principal means.
regional income and employment
opportunities, without damaging the Development requires the removal of the major
resources of the environment. sources of UNFREEDOM.
- Development is visible and useful, not - Poverty
necessarily immediately, and includes aspect - Tyranny
of quality change and the creation of - Poor economic opportunities
conditions for a continuation of that change. - Social deprivation
- Neglect of public facilities
Development as Freedom Proposed (Amartya - Intolerance
Sen of India)
Social Development
Development as a process of expanding the real - A process of planned social change designed
freedoms that people enjoy to promote the well-being of population as a
whole within the context of dynamic
Remove sources of unfreedom multifaceted development process.
- Tyranny - Inclusive of economic development but
- Poverty emphasizes the development of the society
- Lack of opportunities in totally that is in its economic, political,
- Systematic social deprivation social and cultural aspects.
- Intolerance - Social development requires
- Over activity of repressive States decentralization of power and decision
making so that process of planning at the
Economic grown as a mean, not a goal grass root levels is made possible.
- The real goal is to achieve better living
conditions for all Economic Development
- Improvement of the way empowerment and
Aristotle: goods and services are used within/or/by
- Focus on "capacities" and flourishing". the system, to generate new goods and
services in order to provide additional
Adam Smith: consumption and/or investment possibilities
- Analysis of "necissities" and conditions of to the members of the system.
living - Associated with the concept Economic
Growth and is increasing per capital income
Dictatorship of the economic system.
- can show economic growth but its
repressive nature prevents real PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT
development - seeks to engage local populations in
Democracy development projects. (Wikipedia)
 - is a process through which stakeholders can Contraction: During this phase, the elements of an
influence and share control over expansion all begin to decrease. It becomes a
development initiatives, and over the recession when a significant decline in economic
decisions and resources that affect activity spreads across the economy.
Trough: This is when an economic contraction hits its
themselves. (ADB 1996)
nadir.
- Empowering people to mobilize their own
capacities, be social actors, rather than How to Generate Economic Growth
passive subjects manage the resources, Economic growth is dependent on the following four
make decisions and control the activities contributory areas:
that affect their lives.(llED) - Increase in Physical Capital Goods
- An educational and empowering process in - Improvements in Technology
which people, in partnership with each - Growth of the Labor Force
other and those able to assist them, identify - Increase Human Capital
problems and needs, mobilize resources and
assume responsibility themselves to plan, Increased welfare and human development
- is a critical dimension of development that
manage, control and asses the individual
focuses on improving the quality of life and
and collective actions that they themselves
overall well-being of individuals and
decide upon (Brent 2005:3) communities. This dimension goes beyond
mere economic growth to encompass a
Sustainable Development broader range of factors that contribute to
- Development that meets the needs of the human flourishing.
present with compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs Key Aspects of "Increased Welfare and Human
(UN) Development"
- Aims to maintain economic advancement
and progress while protecting the long-term Basic Needs Fulfillment: Ensuring that people have
value of the environment; it "provides a access to essential services such as food, clean water,
sanitation, healthcare, and education. Meeting these
framework for the integration of
basic needs is fundamental to improving welfare.
environment policies and development Health and Longevity: Improving public health
strategies" (UN Assembly. systems, reducing mortality rates, and increasing life
expectancy. This includes efforts to combat diseases,
Social Change and Development – group 2 improve maternal and child health, and provide access
to healthcare services.
Economic Growth Education and Skills Development: Expanding access
- Economic growth is an increase in the to quality education and vocational training. Education
production of economic goods and services in is crucial for personal development and
one period of time compared with a previous empowerment, enabling people to contribute
period. It can be measured in nominal or real effectively to society and the economy.
terms. Traditionally, aggregate economic Income and Employment: Ensuring that people have
growth is measured in terms of gross national access to decent work and fair wages, which allows
product (GNP) or gross domestic product them to support themselves and their families.
(GDP), although alternative metrics are Reducing poverty and income inequality is central to
sometimes used. this aspect of development.
Social Protection and Security: Establishing safety
Phases of Economic Growth nets like unemployment benefits, pensions, and social
- The economy moves through different periods security to protect individuals from economic shocks
of activity. This movement is called the and vulnerabilities.
business cycle. It consists of four phases: Equity and Inclusion: Promoting social justice by
Expansion: During this phase, employment, income, addressing inequalities based on gender, ethnicity,
industrial production, and sales all increase, and there disability, and other factors. Inclusive development
is a rising real GDP. ensures that all members of society benefit from
Peak: This is when an economic expansion hits its progress.
ceiling. It is, in effect, a turning point. Human Rights and Freedom: Upholding and
promoting human rights, including political, civil, and
cultural rights. This ensures that people can live with - Resource Exploitation: Colonial powers
dignity, have their voices heard, and participate fully in exploited the natural resources of less-
society. developed nations to fuel their own
Environmental Sustainability: Ensuring that industrialization.
development is sustainable by protecting the - Methods of Control: Imperial powers often
environment and promoting responsible use of used direct military and political control to
natural resources. This includes addressing issues like maintain their dominance or power.
climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss.
Relation to Overall Development: Increased welfare Participatory Development
and human development are essential for achieving According to the Asian Development Bank
sustainable and holistic development. While economic (ADB), “Participatory development maybe defined as a
growth is important, it is not sufficient on its own to process through which stakeholders can influence and
guarantee improvements in people's lives. share control over development initiatives, and over
Development that enhances human welfare ensures the decisions and resources that affect themselves.”
that economic progress translates into real, tangible
benefits for individuals and communities, leading to a Two (2) Essential Reasons of Participatory
more equitable and just society. Development:
- It strengthens civil society and the economy
ELIMINATION OF DEPENDENCY by empowering groups, communities, anf
organizations to negotiate with institutions
Elimination of Dependency is a sociological theory and bureaucracies, thus influencing public
which holds that economic events in history have policy and providing a check on the power of
encouraged developing countries to depend upon the government; and
support of more advanced nations. This dependence - It enhances the efficiency, effectiveness and
prevents developing nations from fully creating sustainability of development programmes.
institutions and infrastructure necessary for their full
transition into industrial nations. This process can take Key Principles of Participatory Development
many forms for the developing country. Looks at the
unequal power relations that have developed as a - Empowerment: This is about giving the
result of colonialism. communities the power to make decisions
that affect their lives. It’s not just about being
- In the colonial period, newly industrialized consulted, it’s about having real control.
colonial nations expanded into areas that - Ownership: A commuties taking responsibility
were unclaimed by other colonial powers. The for the success of projects. It’s not just about
result was that the natural resources of less- someone else’s plan, it’s about owning the
developed nations were used to fuel the projectand making sure it’s sustainable.
colonial nations' factories. The methods used - Mutual Learning: An exchange of knowledge
by imperial powers often involved direct and experiences between communities and
military and political control. external actors. It’s about recognizing that
both sides have valuable insights to offer.
Main Idea - Equity and Inclusion: This is about making
sure that all the members of a community
- The theory argues that economic events have an equal opportunity to participate. It’s
throughout history have led developing about ensuring that marginalized groups are
nations to become reliant on more advanced not left out. It’s about creating a truly
countries. inclusive process where everyone’s voice is
- This dependence hinders developing nations heard.
from establishing their own institutions and
infrastructure, preventing them from fully Modernization
transitioning into industrialized nations. - It refers to an attempt on the part of the
people particularly those who are custom
Key Points: bound to adapt themselves to the present
time, conditions, needs, styles and ways in
- Unequal Power Relations: The theory general. It indicates a change in people's food
highlights the unequal power dynamics that habits, dress habits, speaking styles, tastes,
emerged from colonialism. choices, preferences, ideas, values,
recreational activities and so on. It is a
 thorough process of change involving values,
norms, institutions and structures. It implies 4. Capabilities Approach:
an inherent change in the mode of life in a - Central to Sen’s conception is the idea of
particular direction for attaining modernity. capabilities, which refers to the substantive
freedoms individuals have to achieve
Social Variables that contribute to Social Progress different kinds of life they value.
- Education Development should thus be seen as
- Technology expanding the range of these capabilities.
- Economic development
- Cultural exchange 5. Poverty as Capability Deprivation:
- Globalization - Rather than seeing poverty solely in terms
of income deprivation, Sen views poverty as
Development as Freedom the deprivation of basic capabilities, limiting
- is a perspective introduced by Amartya Sen individuals' ability to lead lives they have
that redefines how development is reason to value.
understood and measured. Traditional
conceptions of development often focus Development as history
primarily on economic growth, income levels, - in social change refers to the idea that
and material wealth. development—whether economic, social,
Key Concepts of Development as Freedom: or political—is a continuous process
influenced by historical events and forces
1. Freedom as the Central Goal of Development: that shape society over time. Social change,
- Sen argues that development should be in this context, is viewed as part of a
assessed by the expansion of people's historical evolution where societies move
freedoms, not just by economic indicators like from one stage to another, often from more
GDP. Freedom is both the primary end and the traditional to modern structures.
principal means of development.
2. Five Types of Freedoms: key Aspect of this perspective include:
- Political Freedoms: The ability to participate in
political processes, including the right to vote, 1. Historical Progress - Development is seen as a
freedom of expression, and access to linear or sometimes cyclical process influenced by the
information. past. Events like industrialization, colonialism, wars,
- Economic Facilities: The opportunity to access and revolutions play critical roles in shaping the path
resources for consumption, production, or of development.
exchange, which includes access to credit, 2. Modernization Theory - This theory posits that
employment, and economic participation. societies evolve through stages of development, often
- Social Opportunities: Access to education, modeled after the experience of Western countries. It
healthcare, and social services, which emphasizes a shift from traditional, agrarian societies
enhance the individual's ability to live a to industrialized, modern economies with more
healthy, informed, and productive life. complex social and political institutions.
- Transparency Guarantees: The presence of 3. Dependency Theory - This framework critiques the
transparency in government, and the ability to modernization model and argues that historical
trust in the processes and institutions that patterns of exploitation, particularly through
affect daily life. colonialism, have created a global system of
- Protective Security: Safety nets that prevent dependency where wealthier nations exploit poorer
individuals from falling into abject poverty, ones, hindering their development and social change.
such as unemployment benefits, disaster 4. Role of Social Movements - Throughout history,
relief, and social welfare programs. social movements have been crucial in driving social
change. Movements for civil rights, gender equality,
3. Freedom as Both Means and Ends: labor rights, and more have pushed societies to
- Means: Freedoms contribute to transform their institutions and norms, contributing to
development because they enable development.
individuals to make choices that improve 5. Cultural and Ideological Shifts - Social change and
their well-being. development are often accompanied by shifts in
- Ends: The expansion of freedoms is the goal cultural values, ideologies, and ways of life. These
of development itself, reflecting the quality changes can be influenced by historical events,
of life and well-being of individuals.
technological advancements, or even philosophical limited success, often failing to address the root
ideas that take root in society. causes of rural poverty and inequality.

What is Development as History? Social change and development theories

- Refers to the study of how development,
particularly economic and social, has group 3
evolved throughout history.
- Development as history also means STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALIST THEORY Talcott
understanding that change is rarely simple. Parsons (1902-1979)
Societies might make progress in some
areas but face obstacles in others. - He is an American sociologists known for
his structural functionalist perspective.
1. Haciendas and Land Ownership - He developed the theory of social action
Under Spanish rule, large estates or haciendas were
and structural functionalism emphasizing
established, often controlled by Spanish landlords or
wealthy Filipino elites (illustrados). The local farmers, the interconnectedness of social
known as kasamas or tenant farmers, worked the land instructions and their contribution to
but did not own it. These farmers were often heavily social reality.
exploited through high rents and labor obligations,
- Is a sociological theory that views society
with entire families—including children—required to
work long hours. as a complex system with interconnected
2. Labor-Intensive Agriculture parts that work together to maintain
Traditional agricultural practices in the Philippines stability and social order. (Talcott Parsons
were labor-intensive, particularly in the production of
1902-1979)
export crops like sugar, tobacco, and abaca (hemp). As
demand for these products grew, so did the pressure Rostow’s Modernization theory
on landless farmers and their families to produce
more. The lack of modern machinery and industrial - Geographers have been labelling countries
farming techniques meant that manual labor,
as developed and underdeveloped for
including child labor, was widely used.
3. Child Labor decades, using different terminology over
In rural areas, children were often expected to time. Some countries are considered more
contribute to the family’s survival by working on farms highly developed than others, and since
from a young age. They performed various tasks such
the beginning of the 20th century, there
as planting, harvesting, and caring for livestock. The
agrarian system perpetuated child labor because has been a movement towards helping
entire families were indebted to the landlords, and 'less developed' countries to develop
children were seen as additional labor to help meet further.
production quotas or to pay off debts.
4. Poor Working Conditions Development refers to the improvement of a
Tenant farmers worked long hours under harsh nation with economic growth, achieved
conditions, often with little pay or in a system of debt
industrialization, and high living standards for the
peonage (*inquilinos*). They were subject to the
control of landlords who had almost absolute population. This idea of development is typically
authority over the land and the people working on it. based on western ideals and westernization.
These working conditions were marked by:
- Extremely low wages. - Development Theories help to explain
- Inadequate housing and access to food or why countries may have these different
healthcare. levels of development and how a country
- Exploitation of women and children, particularly in could develop further. There are
the peak of agricultural seasons.
5. Post-Colonial Agrarian Reforms
numerous different development theories
Even after the Philippines gained independence, out there, such as modernization theory,
these social issues persisted. Many attempts were dependency theory, world-systems theory,
made to implement land reforms, including the and globalization. Be sure to read the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) in
the late 20th century, but these efforts were met with
 explanation on Development Theories for West had already achieved this developed status;
more on this. through modernization, other countries must
follow. His novel was based upon these ideals.
What is the Rostow Model?
Rostow also believed that economic development
 The Rostow Model, Rostow’s 5 Stages of would not occur in communist states. He even
Economic Growth, or Rostow’s Model of described communism as a 'cancer' which would
Economic Development is a inhibit economic development.2 This made his
modernization theory model depicting model particularly political, not just as a theory
how countries move from an for helping less developed countries develop
underdeveloped society to one that is further.
more developed and modern.
Modernization Theory appeared in the
middle of the 20th century as a theory to Stages of Rostow's Model of Economic
improve economic development in Development
underdeveloped countries.
Stage 1: Traditional Society
 Modernization theory casts development
Characterized by a rural, agricultural, and
as a uniform evolutionary route that all subsistence economy. Bartering is common,
societies follow, from agricultural, rural, labour is intensive, and there is little technology
and traditional societies to postindustrial, or scientific knowledge. Output from production
urban, and modern forms.1 is limited due to the lack of technology. Countries
 According to Rostow, for a country to in Sub-Saharan Africa or smaller Pacific islands
become fully developed, it must follow 5 are still in stage 1.
particular stages. As time progresses, a
Stage 2: Preconditions for Take-off
country will go through each stage of
Early manufacturing begins to take off, with more
economic growth and eventually reach
machinery entering the agricultural industry.
the final stage as a fully developed nation. National and international connections develop,
The 5 stages of economic growth are: along with education, politics, communication,
and infrastructure. This stage is accelerated by
- Stage 1: Traditional Society aid or Foreign Direct Investment from the West.
- Stage 2: Preconditions for Take-off
- Stage 3: Take-off Stage 3: Take-off
- Stage 4: Drive to Maturity Characterized by industrialization and rapid and
- Stage 5: Age of high mass sustainable growth. Rapidity is essential, giving
consumption the impression of a revolution. Urbanization
increases due to rural-urban migration towards
Who was W.W. Rostow? factories in cities. Infrastructure improvements,
industries become internationalized, investments
Walt Whitman Rostow was an economist and U.S. in technology are high, and the population
politician born in 1916 in New York City. In 1960, becomes wealthier.
his most notable novel was published; The Stages
of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Stage 4: Drive to Maturity
Manifesto. His novel explained that development Slow process over a longer period. The economy
was merely a linear process which countries must is self-sustaining, with economic growth
continuing naturally. New sectors flourish, as
follow to achieve development. At the time,
seen in newly emerging economies like China.
development was seen as a modernization
process, exampled by powerful western countries Stage 5: Age of High Mass Consumption
dominated by capitalism and democracy. The Characterized by a capitalist political system.
High-production and high-consumption society
with a dominant service sector. Consumption is - Many countries have followed his model
beyond the basic level, i.e., consumption is more exactly, showing it to be an advantageous
luxury items and luxury living. theory.
- However, Rostow's Model is heavily
Rostow's Development Model Country Examples criticised due to its bias, lack of evidence,
- Rostow's model is directly informed by the and gaps in the theory.
growth of western economies; therefore, DEPENDENCY THEORY
countries like the U.S. or the U.K. are
perfect examples. However, since - The theory emerged in the late 1950s and
Rostow's publication, many developing 1960s, primarily through the work of
countries have followed his model. scholars like Raúl Prebisch and Hans
Singer, and later expanded by Marxist
Singapore
theorists such as André Gunder Frank,
- Singapore is a highly developed nation Paul A. Baran, and Paul Sweezy, as well as
with a hugely competitive economy. world-systems theorists like Immanuel
However, it wasn't always this way. Until Wallerstein.
1963, Singapore was a British colony, and - Dependency theory is the result of an
in 1965, the country gained extensive search to find a theoretical
independence. Singapore was significantly framework to sufficiently analyze and
underdeveloped at the time of
explain both development and
independence, shrouded in the shadows
underdevelopment within the
of corruption, ethnic tensions,
international system. It does so by
unemployment, and poverty.
allowing scholars and practitioners to look
- Singapore went through the
industrialization process quickly after in to external matters, such as politics,
the 1960s, becoming considered a Newly economics, and culture, and attempt to
Industrializing Country at the beginning of come to an understanding of how these
the 1970s. The country is now issues influence development policies.
characterized by manufacturing, advanced
technologies, and engineering, with a
heavily urbanized population. Dual States: The international system comprises
two sets of states:
Rostow Model - Key takeaways
- Dominant States: Developed,
- Development Theories help explain why
economically powerful countries.
different levels of development exist
worldwide and what countries can do to - Dependent States: Developing,
develop further. economically weaker countries.
- Rostow's Model, or the 5 Stages of External Forces: Critical in shaping the economic
Economic Growth, was created by Walt activities of dependent states. External factors
Whitman Rostow in 1960, depicted in his
significantly influence their development.
notable novel, The Stages of Economic
Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Historical Relationships: The dynamic and
- Rostow's Model provides 5 stages that a historical patterns of international capitalism play
country must go through to develop. a key role. These relationships and exchanges
These stages mirrored the process that between dominant and dependent states
western nations progressed through to reinforce patterns of inequality.
become where they are today.
 - Dependency theory holds expected consists of the United States, the United
outcomes for peripheral countries: (a) Kingdom, and France. The PC includes advanced
Economically, the outcome of and industrialized countries, such as Canada,
development is continued Japan, Italy, and Spain. Countries within this
underdevelopment; (b) socially, the group have less global power and wealth than the
outcome is inequality and conflict; and (c) CC countries. There are also CP countries, such as
politically, the outcome is the South Africa, India, Brazil, and Saudi Arabia. These
reinforcement of authoritarian countries have a reasonable amount of wealth
government. despite the fact that they are still undergoing
processes of development. PP countries are the
Competing Perspectives
poorest countries of the world and are the least
A great deal of debate within the literature on advanced; they include the Democratic Republic
dependency theory leads to numerous and often of Congo, Liberia, Zimbabwe, and Burundi, among
competing perspectives and discourse. many others.
Dependency theory is, on one hand, about the
There are a number of key assumptions regarding
relationship between developed and
this relationship. Underdevelopment is not a
underdeveloped countries. On the other hand,
phenomenon directly related to the internal
the relationship is about countries that have
conditions of a country, as peripheral countries
emerged and those that are emerging.
are actually dominated by the foreign interests
Alternatively, dependency theory describes the
originating within core countries. Although
world in terms of a capitalist or imperialist core
underdevelopment can be overcome, to do so,
(also known as the wealthy states) and an
countries need to be disconnected from the
exploited (also exploitative) periphery. The
dominance of core countries and the system or
subjective nature of debates found within
structure that their interests and policies
dependency theory means there are many
produce.
different and often productive ways of examining
the world. Limitations

Countries at the core of the international system The propositions of dependency theory are not
are referred to as the "haves,' whereas those without limitations. Although the theory has
found within the periphery are called the "have- served various disciplines in the analysis and
nots." Industries, government, social elites, explanation of the persistent poverty of
financial power, and systems of education are key underdeveloped countries, the theory
characteristics of the core countries. By contrast, significantly failed to explain the rise of the newly
periphery countries possess mining, forestry, industrialized countries of East Asia (Hong Kong,
agriculture, less power, poor systems of South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore), as well as
education, and low wages that are incapable of those of Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, and
sustaining affluent lifestyles. Thailand). The theory also presumes that all
developing countries share the same traits. In
Dependency theorists also describe the
addition, dependency theory is limited in its
interaction of more than just the core and
analytical ability when applied to sectors beyond
periphery. They argue that states perform
manufacturing. Moreover, changes in India's
different functions within the world economy,
economy after that country shifted to an open
which are divided into four groups instead of two:
market system presented further challenges to
center of the center (CC), periphery of the center
dependency theorists.
(PC), center of the periphery (CP), and periphery
of the periphery (PP). For example, the CC
There are fewer supporters of dependency theory contradictions, leading to their
today than there were decades ago. Some believe replacement by more advanced economic
dependency theory to be a less relevant systems, which in turn give rise to new
conceptualization of the arrangement of wealth, societies.
whereas others claim that dependency theory is
Marx’s writings identify four modes of production
still applicable to the study of state
that humanity has already used:
impoverishment and the world system in the 21st
century. 4 Modes of Production

Dialectical and Historical Materialism 1) Hunting and Gathering

Dialectical Materialism - The earliest economic system where small

groups survived by hunting, fishing, and
- is a philosophical method for
foraging. Labor was cooperative with little
understanding change in the world. It is
division, and resources were shared
based on the idea that all things are in a
communally.
state of constant change driven by
contradictions. These contradictions are 2) Slavery
resolved through the process of thesis,
- An economy driven by forced labor, where
antithesis, and synthesis.
enslaved individuals were treated as
Historical Materialism property and worked for their owners
without compensation. This system
- Historical materialism, theory of history
supported wealth creation for a ruling
associated with the German economist
class, with extreme social divisions.
and philosopher Karl Marx and his
colleague Friedrich Engels. Historical
materialism applies the logic of dialectical
3.) Feudalism
materialism to human civilization.The
theory suggests that all human societal - A hierarchical system where land
institutions, such as government and ownership determined social and
religion, emerge from its economic economic relations. Lords owned land,
activity. As a result, social and political and peasants or serfs worked the land in
change happens when these institutions exchange for protection and sustenance,
no longer align with the "mode of with agriculture being the primary
production," or the way the economy economic activity.
operates.
4) Capitalism
- All human beings must engage in
economic activity for the necessities of - An economic system where private
life. All of a society's institutions must individuals or corporations control the
align with its mode of production, adapt means of production, and production is
to it, or become obsolete. This dynamic driven by profit in competitive markets.
drives historical change and explains why Workers sell their labor for wages, while
societies eventually vanish: as modes of owners of capital accumulate wealth.
production evolve, they encounter new NEO-LIBERALISM
Neoliberalism - is an economic and political
philosophy that emerged in the mid-20th century,
Some Impact of Neo-Liberalism:
emphasizing the importance of free markets,
individual entrepreneurship, and limited - Increased Inequality – Increased
government intervention in the economy. inequality under neoliberalism arises from
policies that prioritize free markets,
Influential Figures: deregulation, and tax cuts for the wealthy,
- Economists from the Mont Pelerin Society like leading to a concentration of wealth
Friedrich Hayek, Milton Friedman, Ludwig von among a small elite while marginalizing
lower-income populations.
Mises, and James M. Buchanan.
- Social Justice - Neoliberalism often
- Political leaders such as Margaret Thatcher, exacerbates social injustice by prioritizing
Ronald Reagan, and Alan Greenspan. market-driven policies that favor wealth
accumulation for the elite while neglecting
Historical Context:
the needs of marginalized communities.
- Neoliberalism gained traction following - Environmental Degradation –
the post-war consensus and neo- Neoliberalism often prioritizes economic
Keynesian economics’ inability to address growth and profit maximization over
the stagflation of the 1970s. environmental sustainability, leading to
significant environmental degradation.
Key features of neoliberalism: - More priotization of profit over social
welfare – Neoliberalism’s emphasis on
- Market Efficiency - Neoliberalism
profit maximization often leads to the
advocates for the belief that free markets
prioritization of corporate interests over
are the most efficient way to allocate
social welfare, resulting in policies that
resources and generate wealth.
favor deregulation and privatization.
- Deregulation – Neoliberalism advocates
for the belief that free markets are the
most efficient way to allocate resources
and generate wealth.
- Privatization – Neoliberal policies often
involve transferring public services and
assets into private hands, arguing that
private entities can manage resources
more efficiently than the state.
- Fiscal Austerity – Neoliberalism typically
supports reducing government spending,
particularly on social programs, with the
belief that a balanced budget is essential
for economic health.
- Globalization – Neoliberalism encourages
international trade and investment,
advocating for policies that reduce
barriers to trade and promote global
economic integration.