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Origin of buried, bottom current-related comet marks and associated

submarine bedforms from a Paleogene continental margin, southeastern
Brazil

Article in Marine Geology · January 2018

DOI: 10.1016/[Link].2017.11.015

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 Marine Geology 395 (2018) 347–362

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine Geology
journal homepage: [Link]/locate/margo

Origin of buried, bottom current-related comet marks and associated T

submarine bedforms from a Paleogene continental margin, southeastern
Brazil
⁎
Fábio Bertona, , Fernando F. Veselyb
a
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Geologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Caixa Postal 19001, CEP 81531-980 Curitiba, Brazil
b
Departamento de Geologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Caixa Postal 19001, CEP 81531-980 Curitiba, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Bottom current-related bedforms, such as depositional and erosive features, are useful indicators of oceano-
Oceanic circulation graphic circulation and sedimentary balance conditions in both modern and ancient marine environments. The
Seismic geomorphology Eocene-Oligocene transition in northern Santos Basin is seismically expressed as a prominent, high-amplitude
Pockmarks reflector (horizon H8.1) that truncates Eocene prograding clinoforms and records a major transgression in the
Gas seepage
basin associated to global and local environmental changes. This surface is punctuated by circular depressions,
Shelf margins
elongated depressions, mounds and conic features, which, based on seismic interpretation, are associated with
Santos Basin
the escape of gas on the paleoseafloor. Elongated negative features with a head and an erosive tail (comet marks)
are associated with the erosive action of bottom currents that, when encounters an obstacle or bottom irregu-
larity such as pockmarks, create a downflow, linear furrow (tail). The occurrence of carbonate mounds and mud
volcanoes may affect the erosive power of the flow by deflecting and/or focusing undercurrents. In the study
area, parallel to subparallel comet marks occur abundantly on the former outer shelf and upper slope, being up
to 1.2 km long, 200 m wide, and 30 m deep. These dimensions allow the classification of such bedforms as giant
comet marks, which form as a result of erosion of the irregular sea floor by currents as fast as 0.6 m s− 1. The
strong alignment of the comet tails indicates paleocurrents to the NE on the Oligocene outer shelf and upper
slope. Conditions for comet mark formation include the development of pockmarks due to gas seeps, reworking
of pockmarks by vigorous and long-lived bottom currents and low sediment supply during the Eocene-Oligocene
transition, a period marked by the opening of the Drake Pass and the establishment of undercurrents through the
connection of the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Bottom-current related bedforms on H8.1 in Santos Basin may
thus be related to such paleoenvironmental changes. Although no pre-Quaternary comet marks have been re-
ported before, their identification and mapping through 3D seismic data is a unique opportunity to assess pa-
leoenvironmental conditions and paleo-circulation on continental margins.

1. Introduction 2002; Foglini et al., 2016). Although not considered contourites stricto
sensu (Stow et al., 1998; Viana et al., 1998), these shallow-water bed-
Bottom currents are important agents in shaping marine mor- forms testify that bottom-current activity is not restricted to deep-
phology by both depositing (contourites) and eroding the sea floor. marine settings.
Moreover, well-sorted sands winnowed or deposited by strong bottom In modern basins, bottom currents frequently interact with irregu-
currents may form high-quality hydrocarbon reservoirs (Rebesco and larities on the sea floor such as pockmarks, mounds, tectonic ridges and
Stow, 2001; Viana, 2002; Duarte and Viana, 2007; Viana et al., 2007; diapirs, which can act as obstacles to the flow (e.g. Bøe et al., 1998;
Mutti et al., 2014). Contourite drifts were first described in slope set- Faugères et al., 1999; Llave et al., 2001; Somoza et al., 2003; Andresen
tings (e.g. Heezen et al., 1966), but current-generated bedforms have et al., 2008; García et al., 2009; Palomino et al., 2011; Stow et al., 2013;
been also identified in shallower waters, including the outer shelf and Schattner et al., 2016; Vandorpe et al., 2016). Recent papers show that
upper slope (e.g. Flemming, 1978; Flemming, 1980; Viana et al., 1998; such obstacles can increase the velocity of the bottom currents and
Carmelenghi et al., 2001; Galloway, 2001; Laberg et al., 2001; Viana, consequently their capability of transporting sediments and eroding the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fabioberton1@[Link] (F. Berton).

[Link]
Received 10 July 2017; Received in revised form 9 November 2017; Accepted 25 November 2017
Available online 28 November 2017
0025-3227/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
F. Berton, F.F. Vesely Marine Geology 395 (2018) 347–362

Comparison of the main characteristics of comet marks described in the literature, in terms of dimensions, environmental context and type of obstacle for the flow. Note that all previously described comet marks were identified in the present-day
sea floor (e.g. García et al., 2009; Palomino et al., 2011; Vandorpe et al.,
2016). Although the configuration and distribution of bottom current-
Length/width

5.0 to 33.33

4.5 to 33.33
related bedforms depends on the energy of prevailing currents, their

1.0 to 5.0

4.2 to 5.5
flow direction and the amount and caliper of available sediments (e.g.
ratio

5.0
Kenyon, 1970; Kenyon and Belderson, 1973; Kenyon, 1986; Flemming,

–
–
–

–
1978; Werner et al., 1980; Kuijpers et al., 2002; Stow et al., 2009;

100–2000 m
up to 20 m
Rebesco et al., 2014; Kuijpers and Nielsen, 2016), the presence of

40–200 m
6–135 m
bottom irregularities can be effective in modifying bottom circulation
1–6 m
Width

and the generation of bedforms (e.g. Somoza et al., 2003; Vandorpe

–

–
–
–

–
et al., 2016).

100–10,000 m
up to 2000 m

up to 2000 m
Under low sediment supply, bottom currents potentially form ero-

300–1200 m
up to 100 m

up to 100 m

up to 100 m

up to 40 m
50–200 m

sive features on the shelf and upper slope, with little or no expressive
5–200 m

7–50 m
Length

sediment accumulation (e.g. Flemming, 1980; McLean, 1980; Bøe et al.,

1998; Galloway, 2001; Kowsmann and de Carvalho, 2002; Andresen
et al., 2008). Most bottom current-related erosive features, such as
up to 15 cm

up to 2 m

comet marks (Werner and Newton, 1975), are elongated, asymmetrical

10–30 m
5–90 m
Depth

and oriented according to prevailing currents. Their identification and

mapping can thus provide information regarding ocean circulation in
–

–
–
–

both modern and ancient open marine settings. To date, comet marks
have been described only from modern sea floors (Table 1) (e.g. Werner
and Newton, 1975; Flemming, 1980; Flemming, 1984; Kuijpers et al.,
Pockmarks and/or mass-

1993; Bonaldo et al., 2016; Foglini et al., 2016; Tallobre et al., 2016).
The identification of these bedforms in the stratigraphic record, as first
Subaqueous dunes

transport deposits
Ice-rafted blocks

Ice-rafted blocks

documented in the present paper, is an excellent guide to determine the

Slide blocks

dynamics of bottom current activity in the past and, consequently, to

Pockmarks
Boulders
Obstacle

assess prevailing paleoenvironmental conditions.

Wrecks

Blocks

In northern Santos Basin, offshore Brazil, circular to elongated,

–

negative and positive bedforms punctuate the early Oligocene paleo-

Shelf edge, slope and deep ocean –

Shelf to upper slope – up to 85 m

seafloor. The stratigraphic surface on which the bedforms are located

Deep ocean – up to 1000 m deep

Deep ocean – up to 4500 m deep

Upper slope to mid slope – up to

marks the top of an Eocene progradational wedge and records a major

marine flooding in northern Santos Basin (Moreira et al., 2001; Berton
Shelf – up to 30 m deep

Shelf – up to 60 m deep
Shelf – up to 60 m deep

Shelf – up to 70 m deep
Shelf – up to 60 m deep

and Vesely, 2016a, 2016b). This event is genetically related to climatic

Shelf to upper slope

and tectonic adjustments that happened in the South Atlantic domain

up to 900 m deep

during the early Oligocene and that profoundly affected bottom-current

700 m deep

circulation in the Santos Basin (Duarte and Viana, 2007; Viana et al.,
Context

2007) and other South American Atlantic basins (e.g. Hinz et al., 1999;
deep

Hernández-Molina et al., 2009; Hernández-Molina et al., 2016). In this

paper we describe these bedforms in order to interpret their origin and
to discuss potential implications for bottom-current circulation patterns
Demerara margin, north South
Hudson Bay, Canada – present
Skagerrak, Denmark – present

during the Eocene-Oligocene transition in the Brazilian continental

Durban/Port Elizabeth, South

Atlantic coast, North Africa –

Dover straight, UK – present

Shetland Isles, UK – present

Langeland Belt, Baltic Sea –

Adriatic Sea, Italy – present

Santos Basin, Brazil – early

Bohai Sea, China – present

margin. The study is based on the interpretation of oil industry 3D

Location of the research

seismic data under a seismic geomorphology approach (e.g.

Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Carlotto and Rodrigues, 2009; Jobe et al.,
America - present
Africa – present

2011; Prather et al., 2012; Sylvester et al., 2012).

Oligocene

2. Geological setting
present

present

The Santos Basin (offshore SE Brazil) is a segment of the South

Atlantic rifted margin and is bounded in the north by the Cabo Frio
high, and in the south by the Florianópolis high (Fig. 1). The basin
Verdicchio and Trincardi (2006); Trincardi et al. (2007);

comprises three main evolutionary stages: a Barremian to Aptian syn-

Kenyon (1986); Masson (2001); Kuijpers et al. (2002)

rift phase, an Aptian to Albian transitional restricted marine phase, and

an Albian to modern divergent-margin phase (Moreira et al., 2007).
Bonaldo et al. (2016); Foglini et al. (2016)

From the Turonian to the late Eocene, uplifting at the Brazilian

Loncke et al. (2015); Tallobre et al. (2016)

southeastern margin and the consequent denudation of the Serra do

Mar range increased sediment supply leading to a strongly prograda-
Flemming (1980); Flemming (1984)

tional phase, known as Juréia progradation (Fig. 1) (Macedo, 1989).

This long-term regressive phase (lasting for approximately 60 My) re-
Werner and Newton (1975)

sulted in extensive deltaic progradations during the Late Cretaceous,

Paleocene and Eocene (Figs. 1 and 2) (Mohriak and Magalhães, 1993).
Kuijpers et al. (1993)

Jolivel et al. (2015)

The sediment load contributed to trigger salt movements basinward and

Gee et al. (2001)
Xia et al. (1998)

to generate syn-sedimentary regional faults, structural highs and mini-

Caston (1979)

Present paper

basins (Figs. 2 and 3) (Assine et al., 2008; Badalini et al., 2010).

Authors

By the Eocene, a global warming event (Eocene Thermal Maximum)

seafloor.
Table 1

(Lourens et al., 2005; Zachos et al., 2008) increased rainfall on the Serra
do Mar region, leading to enhanced sediment supply (Zalán and

348
F. Berton, F.F. Vesely Marine Geology 395 (2018) 347–362

A B

Fig. 1. Location of the study area in the Brazilian margin (A), offshore north Santos Basin (B), and basin stratigraphic chart (adapted from Moreira et al., 2007) (C). Note the interruption
of the Juréia progradational phase by a transgression in the Eocene-Oligocene boundary.

Oliveira, 2005) and contributing to the maintenance of the prograda- accretion clinoforms, mass-transport deposits and sand-rich turbidites
tional trend at least until the Eocene/Oligocene boundary (Fig. 2). At (Berton and Vesely, 2016a, 2016b). Besides the high sediment input
this time, sediment influx to northern Santos Basin was mainly con- controlled by tectonics and climate, progradation was also facilitated by
trolled by the Paraíba do Sul paleodrainage (Ribeiro, 2007). In seismic a general low to negative accommodation at the shelf to upper slope
sections, the Eocene is composed of shelf-margin clinoform complexes zone materialized as thick forced-regressive clinoform complexes
(Fig. 2), including shelf-margin deltas/shoreface deposits, slope- (Berton and Vesely, 2016a).

349
F. Berton, F.F. Vesely Marine Geology 395 (2018) 347–362

Fig. 2. In (A), interpreted regional, dip-oriented 2D seismic line showing structural framework, major stratigraphic surfaces and the position of horizon H8.1 at the Eocene-Oligocene
boundary. In (B), interpretation of a dip-oriented 2D seismic line showing the main structures and stratigraphic surfaces within the Paleogene interval in the study area, and interpretation
of the Eocene progradation phases and early Oligocene transgressive phase in (C).

At the Eocene/Oligocene transition, the South Atlantic was influ- continent and diminished sediment supply to the basin. Moreover,
enced by important changes in water-mass circulation and climate that drainage capture in response to tectonic adjustments in the Serra do
followed the opening of the Scotia Sea and the Drake Passage between Mar led the Paraíba do Sul river to shut down its sediment delivery to
South America and the Antarctic Peninsula, connecting the Atlantic and the Santos Basin and to form its current delta further to the NE in the
the Pacific oceans (e.g. Kennett, 1977; Barker, 2001; Cramer et al., Campos Basin (Karner and Driscoll, 1999). As a consequence, the
2009; Lagabrielle et al., 2009; Eagles and Jokat, 2014; Maldonado northern Santos Basin experienced starvation and a major transgressive
et al., 2014). New patterns of oceanographic circulation were estab- episode took place (Fig. 1) (Moreira et al., 2001; Duarte and Viana,
lished, resulting in the beginning of a global cooling event (Kennett, 2007; Assine et al., 2008). This transgressive event is recorded in the
1977; Zachos et al., 2001; Sahy et al., 2015) and a global sea-level fall study area as an early Oligocene flooding surface (seismic horizon H8.1
(Haq et al., 1987; Zachos et al., 2001; Miller et al., 2005; Cramer et al., according to Assine et al., 2008) that truncates the underlying pro-
2009). A regional discontinuity in the Argentine Basin and in the Ur- grading clinoform complexes (Figs. 2 and 3). The Eocene-Oligocene
uguayan shelf is correlated to this event (erosive surface AR-4), transition in the basin also marks a period of strong influence of the
marking the onset of deposition of an expressive contourite drift system recently-established cold thermohaline bottom currents that were ef-
(Hinz et al., 1999; Hernández-Molina et al., 2009; Hernández-Molina fective in mobilizing sediment (Duarte and Viana, 2007).
et al., 2016). The early stage of development of the Circumpolar Deep
Water current is considered in this context and is manifested as a
3. Dataset and methods
northward vigorous and shallow current along the Argentinian slope
(Hernández-Molina et al., 2009).
The study area is located in northern Santos Basin, approximately
In the Santos Basin, climatic changes altered rainfall regime in the
150 km offshore from the city of Rio de Janeiro (Fig. 1). A public

350
F. Berton, F.F. Vesely Marine Geology 395 (2018) 347–362

A B C

Fig. 3. Inline of the 3D seismic volume (A), interpreted in (B). The most probable source of gas for the seismic chimney interpreted in (B) is located in post-salt Cretaceous intervals.
Thermogenic gas from those intervals ascended through salt-related faults that are connected to the bottom of the seismic chimney. A detail of the inline is shown in (C) and interpreted in
(D). Note the association between the seismic chimney and a negative feature interpreted here as a giant comet mark.

database provided by the Brazilian National Agency of Petroleum, seismic facies associated to horizon H8.1 have been described and in-
Natural Gas and Biofuels (ANP) was used in the present study, com- terpreted (Fig. 4). These facies are building blocks of an Eocene slope
prising 20 2D seismic lines covering an area of up to 2300 km2 and a 3D clinoform complex (Fig. 2) formed during a time period dominated by
seismic volume of approximately 520 km2. Seismic data are from sur- forced and normal regressions due to low accommodation and high
veys performed since the 1990's, including 0228 SANTOS 11A, 0231 sediment supply (Berton and Vesely, 2016a, 2016b). Seismic facies in
Santos 18A, 0247 CABO FRIO 3A, 0261 VB99 2D BMS, and R0003 0259 the Eocene interval are locally cut by vertical zones with chaotic to
2D SPP 2Q 1999 (2D), and 0276 BS500 (3D). transparent reflectors and with concentration of seismic disturbances
The horizon H8.1 was mapped and associated bedforms were de- and hyperbolic diffractions (Fig. 3). These zones are rooted by salt-re-
scribed and interpreted under the scope of seismic geomorphology (e.g. lated faults and are bounded on top by surface H8.1. Based on these
Posamentier et al., 2007). Characteristics of the bottom-current-related characteristics they can be interpreted as seismic chimneys related to
bedforms such as orientation, depth, width and length were measured fluid ascension (Fig. 3) (e.g. Brooks et al., 1986; Hovland and Judd,
using seismic attribute maps and longitudinal and transversal cross- 1988; Heggland, 1998; Pinet et al., 2008; Cathles et al., 2010; Petersen
sections extracted from the 3D volume. Two-dimensional seismic data et al., 2010; Freire, 2013; Somoza et al., 2014).
were used to determine the stratigraphic position of the horizon, and to Horizon H8.1 is a truncation surface that separates prograding
assess the distribution of comet marks in time and space in northern clinoforms and associated seismic facies below from transgressive
Santos Basin. In addition, rose diagrams were generated for the or- subparallel reflectors above (Figs. 2, 3 and 4). It is regionally re-
ientation of elongated and asymmetrical bedforms to deduce paleo- cognized as the Eocene-Oligocene boundary in the basin (Assine et al.,
current directions. 2008) and mark the transition between a net-regressive phase asso-
ciated with the Juréia progradation and an early Oligocene transgres-
sion (Fig. 1) (e.g. Modica and Brush, 2004; Assine et al., 2008;
4. Bedforms on horizon H8.1 Contreras et al., 2010). In plan view the horizon is punctuated by four
main geomorphic features as described below.
The stratigraphic framework of the Eocene in northern Santos Basin
was previously addressed by Berton and Vesely (2016a, 2016b), where

351
F. Berton, F.F. Vesely Marine Geology 395 (2018) 347–362

B C

Fig. 4. In (A), a 2D dip-oriented seismic line depicts the main seismic facies and the occurrence of negative features in the erosive H8.1 surface, in the shelf and upper slope. The negative
features can be either pockmarks or comet marks, as they are not differentiable in most seismic sections. Their seismic expression is similar in both crosslines (B) and inlines (C). Note how
the negative forms truncate underlying reflectors.

4.1. Pockmarks 4.2. Comet marks

These are crater-like depressions (Fig. 5A) (Figs. 4 and 5) with This type of bedform comprises elongated depressions observed in
diameters varying from 50 to 170 m and depths up to 20 ms TWT 2D seismic sections as asymmetric channel-like structures (Figs. 4, 5
(approx. 25 m). In plan view most features are sub-circular (Fig. 5), but and 6). They can be observed in both dip- and strike-oriented 2D sec-
depressions slightly elongated S-N or SW-NE are also observed. In cross tions, although their lateral extent may be wider in the strike-oriented
section the craters are generally semi-circular (e.g. Fig. 5C), with few sections, allowing their differentiation from sub-circular pockmarks.
exceptions showing V-shaped or flat bottomed profiles. The angle of When this asymmetry is not detected, it is not possible to differentiate
slope estimated from 3D seismic data varies from 15° to 20°, rarely less between elongated and sub-circular depressions based on 2D seismics
than 10° or reaching 30°. Some features are asymmetrical, displaying in only (Figs. 4 and 5C) (e.g. Martínez-Carreño and García-Gil, 2013).
one side abnormally gentle slopes (below 10°). The depressions are In plan view these bedforms are elongated, asymmetric and dis-
randomly distributed on horizon H8.1 but often form clusters and/or continuous scours with a head-and-tail or drop-like geometry (Fig. 7).
occur associated with elongated depressions (comet marks; see de- This morphology is comparable to that of modern comet marks re-
scription below; Fig. 5). Locally, the depressions are aligned NE-SW ported in the literature (e.g. Werner and Newton, 1975; Flemming,
(Fig. 5) and at least some of them are connected to seismic chimneys 1980; Flemming, 1984; Kuijpers et al., 1993; Gee et al., 2001;
related to fluid escapes. Verdicchio and Trincardi, 2006; Trincardi et al., 2007; Jolivel et al.,
Based on their characteristics, the circular to sub-circular depres- 2015). The head (i.e. the deepest part of the comet marks) is a circular
sions can be interpreted as pockmarks (Fig. 5B), i.e. circular depressions depression up to 25 ms TWT deep (approx. 30 m) and up to 200 m wide
formed at the seafloor as a result of fluid escapes (Cathles et al., 2010). (Fig. 6). Only one among all mapped comet marks has an abnormal
Considering the limited seismic resolution, pockmarks with dimensions depth of 35 ms TWT (approx. 44 m; Fig. 8). Both width and depth de-
such as some observed may not correspond to a single depression, but crease progressively to zero towards the tail (Fig. 6).
to a cluster of smaller depressions (e.g. Hovland and Judd, 1988). The Observed lengths generally range from 300 to 500 m (length/width
pockmarks that punctuate H8.1 were probably formed as a result of gas ratio from 4.2 to 5.5).s In exceptional cases giant comet marks (e.g.
leaks that ascended through salt-related faults and formed the gas Flemming, 1984; Verdicchio and Trincardi, 2006; Trincardi et al.,
chimneys observed in underlying strata (Fig. 3). The aligned pockmarks 2007) up to 1.2 km long (Fig. 7) can be detected. The structures are
coincide with NE-SW salt-related faults, suggesting a link between strongly aligned in the NE-SW direction, with tails pointing NE (Fig. 7).
pockmarks and fault-controlled fluid escapes (Fig. 5A). The only exceptions are E-W comet marks (tails pointing east; Fig. 7)

352
F. Berton, F.F. Vesely Marine Geology 395 (2018) 347–362

AB

Fig. 5. Part of the H8.1 horizon, showing circular negative features interpreted here as pockmarks (A). Locally, pockmarks occur as clusters, or following an alignment that coincides with
the direction of salt-related faults (NE-SW). In the left part of the horizon, elongated features interpreted as comet marks can be observed. The process of generation of pockmarks is
shown in (B) (from Cathles et al., 2010). The A-A’ section displayed in (C) is a crossline that shows the similarity of pockmarks and comet marks when seen in two-dimensional view, and
the rounded bottom of the features.

identified in the upper slope, where paleo-sea floor gradient increases. 4.4. Mud volcanoes
At least some of the comet marks are connected downward to gas-es-
cape conduits (e.g. Fig. 8B, C), suggesting that the circular depressions Positive, conic geomorphic features occur in close association with
that form the head of the comet marks were originally formed as gas- the largest mound (Fig. 9) and a giant comet mark with abnormal depth
scape pockmarks on the seafloor (e.g. Cathles et al., 2010; Valle and (35 ms TWT, which is equivalent to approx. 44 m deep; Fig. 8). The
Gamberi, 2011). conic peaks are up to 25 ms TWT high (approx. 31 m), configure the
highest positive features on surface H8.1and above them younger re-
flectors terminate in onlap (Fig. 9). In plan view, these features are sub-
4.3. Mounds circular with diameters ranging from 120 to 250 m. Slopes are asym-
metrical, with angles varying from 5° to 9°. They are rooted by vertical
Mounds occur sparsely distributed in the study area and consist in zones interpreted as seismic chimneys (Fig. 9), and their characteristics
asymmetric positive features with irregular tops punctuated by semi- are comparable to present-day mud volcanoes associated with gas es-
circular highs and small depressions (Figs. 8 and 9). The largest mound capes (e.g. Somoza et al., 2003; García et al., 2009; Somoza et al.,
rises 15 ms TWT (approx. 19 m) above the surrounding area, but is 2014).
punctuated by two conic highs (see description below; Fig. 9). Slope
angles vary from less than 2° to up to 6°. In plan view, the largest 5. Discussion
mound has an slightly elongated, irregular (ameboid) shape with a
1.3 km-long maximum axis oriented NE-SW. This mound is connected 5.1. Origin of gas-related bedforms on surface H8.1
downward with a vertical zone in which reflectors are highly disturbed
(fluid-related seismic chimney; Fig. 9). Reflectors immediately above On horizon H8.1, comet marks occur in association with gas-related
H8.1 terminate in onlap against mound slopes. Other smaller mounds bedforms such as pockmarks, mounds and mud volcanoes (e.g. Figs. 5,
identified on H8.1 are less than 100 m large laterally, less than 10 ms 7 and 8). Although a connection between an individual bedform and a
TWT (approx. 12.5 m) tall, and do not show clear connection with seismic chimney is not always visible in sections (e.g. Figs. 4 and 6),
seismic chimneys. However, the association between the largest mound examples of all types of bedform appear connected to the gas chimneys
and a seismic chimney allows to interpret its origin as a result of au- that reach H8.1 (e.g. Figs. 8 and 9). Consequently, it seems reasonable
thigenic carbonate precipitation induced by fluid ascension (e.g. to consider that all the identified features are genetically linked to gas
Hovland and Judd, 1988; Heggland, 1998; Valle and Gamberi, 2011; seeps and that only the conduits that currently contain some amount of
Somoza et al., 2014). gas are detected by seismics resolution (e.g. Heggland, 1998; Andresen
et al., 2008; Cathles et al., 2010). The gas chimneys are rooted by faults

353
F. Berton, F.F. Vesely Marine Geology 395 (2018) 347–362

Fig. 6. Cross-sections of a giant comet mark, showing its morphology in different sections. The most reliable view for comet mark interpretation in seismic sections corresponds to section
A-A’, where the asymmetry and elongated character is on evidence. Note that the head of the comet mark is a deep and circular negative feature, similar to a pockmark.

354
F. Berton, F.F. Vesely Marine Geology 395 (2018) 347–362

Fig. 7. Seismic expression of comet marks and pockmarks in a 3D inline (A) and in horizon H8.1 (B, C, D and F). Note the strong alignment of the elongated features, which can be used
for the assessment of paleocurrent direction (E).

355
F. Berton, F.F. Vesely Marine Geology 395 (2018) 347–362

B C

Fig. 8. Perspective view of a giant comet mark associated with a mound and mud volcanoes (A). A pockmark and a smaller comet mark can also be observed. As the comet tails can be
used to interpret paleocurrents, the mud volcanoes in the vicinities of the giant comet head are located upstream of the flow. A crossline section is depicted in (B) and interpreted in (C),
showing the connection of a fault and a seismic chimney that reach H8.1, as well as the direct relation between the giant comet mark and the seismic chimney located upstream of the

356
F. Berton, F.F. Vesely Marine Geology 395 (2018) 347–362

A B

Fig. 9. A positive feature in H8.1 horizon, interpreted as a mound, is punctuated by positive conic features interpreted as mud volcanoes (A). Pockmarks and/or comet marks are locally
associated with these features. A 3D crossline in (B) shows the association of the mound and a mud volcano with a seismic chimney that disturbs near reflectors and is connected in the
bottom with a fault.

that cut a thick underlying succession from the early Cretaceous to the 5.2. Origin of comet marks on surface H8.1
Paleogene (Figs. 3, 8 and 9), indicating that uprising thermogenic gas
from a probable Cretaceous source migrated through these faults and, Comet marks were defined by Werner and Newton (1975) as erosive
when reached the topmost extension of the faults, created a gas features with an erosive tail formed when a current reaches an obstacle.
chimney thus reaching the Early Oligocene paleo-seafloor. In most Although comet marks were initially related to positive obstacles on the
cases this process generated pockmarks (Fig. 5), and ultimately mounds seafloor such as pebbles and boulders (Table 1) (e.g. Werner and
and/or mud volcanoes (Figs. 8 and 9). Aligned pockmarks with a NE- Newton, 1975; Flemming, 1980; Flemming, 1984; Hampton, 1985;
SW direction that coincides with the orientation of the regional salt- Masson et al., 2004), in a broader sense it can be considered as an
related faults reinforce this interpretation (Fig. 5A) (e.g. Andresen et al., elongated erosive feature that form when bottom currents interact with
2008; de Mahiques et al., 2017). seafloor irregularities that impose a barrier or tortuosity to the flow
The most common gas-related bedforms on H8.1 are the sub-cir- (e.g. Werner et al., 1980; Trincardi et al., 2007). As a result, an erosive
cular depressions interpreted as pockmarks (Fig. 5). Pockmarks are well shadow is created downstream of the obstruction (Werner et al., 1980;
documented in the seafloor of many basins, where they commonly Flemming, 1980; Flemming, 1984; Dorn and Werner, 1993; Kuijpers
occur as complexes and clusters (Fig. 5A) (e.g. Heggland, 1998; et al., 1993; Stow et al., 2009). Flume experiments performed by
Hovland et al., 2002; Andresen et al., 2008; Petersen et al., 2010; Nickel Werner et al. (1980) showed that when the flow meets the obstacle, the
et al., 2012; Luo et al., 2013; Loncke et al., 2015). In modern settings, velocity distribution creates a paired helical flow. The result is an in-
pockmarks with tens to hundreds of meters wide, such as those from crease in bed shear stress as the flow passes around the obstacle
H8.1, commonly correspond to clusters of multiple individual pock- (Verdicchio and Trincardi, 2006).
marks (e.g. Hovland and Judd, 1988). This seems to be the case of the Table 1 compares attributes of the comet marks described in the
sub-circular depressions identified through seismic geomorphology on present paper with examples from previous studies on the Quaternary
H8.1, especially when limitations inherent of seismic resolution are record, including the different types of obstacles involved. As the
considered. deeper parts (heads) of the studied comet marks are circular depres-
Mounds and conical peaks interpreted as mud volcanoes occur in sions (Fig. 6), it can be interpreted that these elongated bedforms were
association with pockmarks (Figs. 8 and 9), but their distribution in the originally sub-circular such as pockmarks and that these circular de-
study area is restricted. The association between pockmarks and au- pressions would have acted as obstacles to the flow (e.g. Bøe et al.,
thigenic carbonate mounds is well documented in moderns seafloors 1998; Andresen et al., 2008; Loncke et al., 2015; Tallobre et al., 2016).
(e.g. Heggland, 1998; Valle and Gamberi, 2011; Somoza et al., 2014) Loncke et al. (2015) observed a similar association between fault-con-
and this is the base for the interpretation of the mounded features on trolled gas seeps, pockmarks and comet marks in the present-day
H8.1 as carbonate mounds related to gas ascension. Such features French Guyana seafloor, suggesting that the gas-seep-related pock-
correspond to carbonate buildups developed over gas seepages marks acted as obstacles to strong bottom currents. In the study area
(Hovland and Judd, 1988; Cathles et al., 2010) related to the anaerobic this interpretation is reinforced by the presence of slightly elongated
oxidation of methane by chemosynthetic organisms (Paull et al., 2008). pockmarks, oriented similarly to the comet-mark tails and that might
The identified mud volcanoes are smaller than the mounds in area, but represent a transition between sub-circular features and fully-elongated
form higher positive features that locally rise from the mound (Fig. 9) erosive bedforms. Such elongated to elliptical pockmarks have been
and are probably built from the accumulation of ejected and/or ex- identified from many basins and are commonly interpreted as a result of
truded sediment, commonly associated to fluid-venting structures vigorous currents flowing over circular pockmarks under conditions of
(Fig. 9) (e.g. Paull et al., 2008; Somoza et al., 2014; Vandorpe et al., low sediment supply (Bøe et al., 1998; Andresen et al., 2008; Schattner
2016). et al., 2016), possibly representing a transition between a sub-circular
bedform and a comet mark. With time and if environmental conditions

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are kept constant, these elliptical pockmarks will become potentially such positive geomorphic features over bottom circulation can only be
more elongated, giving rise to a comet mark (e.g. Andresen et al., 2008; inferred.
Loncke et al., 2015). Comet marks are common in the Quaternary record (Table 1) and
Besides the nature of the obstacle, sediment availability and the recent studies have described similar features and processes in the
characteristics of the prevailing currents also play important roles in the modern seafloor of the Santos Basin (Schattner et al., 2016). Although
generation of comet marks (Werner et al., 1980). Pockmarks developed we did not find any previous report on pre-Quaternary comet marks, it
in areas with strong bottom-current activity and full sediment avail- seems plausible to consider that they occur in other continental margins
ability would be rapidly filled (e.g. Heggland, 1998; Cathles et al., characterized by a combination of bottom-current activity and low se-
2010), but in cases of low supply, a negative sediment balance will diment supply. Their subtle character and similarity with submarine
prevail, allowing the currents to erode the seafloor (e.g. Andresen et al., channels in 2D seismic data (e.g. Fig. 4) probably prevented their in-
2008). However, the geometry and dimensions of the resultant erosive terpretation by previous researches, especially when three-dimensional
features (i.e. the erosive tail of a comet mark) are controlled by the seismic data was not available. Considering the evolutionary history
intensity and duration of the currents (Werner et al., 1980). Flume proposed here for the comet marks on H8.1 (Fig. 10) and recent reports
experiments showed that, in sediment-starved environments, the mor- of giant comet marks in the Demerara margin (Loncke et al., 2015;
phology of comet marks is not a reliable indicator of flow velocity Tallobre et al., 2016), the presence of gas-related bedforms such as
(Werner et al., 1980). Many authors consider comet-mark formation in pockmarks may be a guide for the identification of seismic-scale giant
a range of flow velocities from 0.4 m s− 1 to more than 1.0 m s− 1 (e.g. comet marks in the pre-Quaternary record.
Kenyon, 1986; Masson, 2001; Kuijpers et al., 2002; Verdicchio and
Trincardi, 2006; Trincardi et al., 2007; Wynn and Masson, 2008; Stow 5.3. Implications for the Eocene-Oligocene transition in the Santos Basin
et al., 2009). Length/width ratio of the erosive tail is the main indicator
to be used in the assessment of flow power (e.g. Kuijpers et al., 2002; The link between comet marks and bottom-current circulation
Verdicchio and Trincardi, 2006), but it has to be considered that comet under conditions of low sediment availability is well known and tested
marks are a result of velocity peaks and do not form under steady, in laboratory experiments (e.g. McLean, 1980; Werner et al., 1980;
background flow conditions (e.g. Masson, 2001; Trincardi et al., 2007). Masson, 2001). In the study area, the occurrence of pockmarks and
Under the action of long-duration, strong currents, the erosive tails may comet marks allied with the lack of detectable associated depositional
tend to a quasi-infinite length, forming structures similar to sand rib- features suggest that the prevailing sediment-starved conditions during
bons (e.g. Kenyon and Belderson, 1973; McLean, 1980; Kuijpers et al., the Eocene-Oligocene transition (Duarte and Viana, 2007) prevented
1998; Kuijpers et al., 2002). In the study area, comet marks have a pockmark fill and contourite deposition. Such conditions are the result
moderate length/width ratio (Table 1; Fig. 6), suggesting their forma- of the shutdown of sediment supply to the basin associated to tectonic
tion by bottom currents as fast as 0.6 m s− 1 (e.g. Kuijpers et al., 2002; adjustments in the hinterland and the consequent re-organization of the
Verdicchio and Trincardi, 2006). river drainage system, marking the final stage of the Juréia prograda-
The formation of exceptionally large comet marks as those de- tion and the onset of the early Oligocene transgression (Figs. 1 and 2)
scribed in the present paper (Figs. 5–8) (e.g. Flemming, 1984; Gee et al., (e.g. Moreira et al., 2001; Assine et al., 2008; Berton and Vesely, 2016a,
2001; Verdicchio and Trincardi, 2006; Trincardi et al., 2007; Loncke 2016b). Drowning of the shelf associated with sea-level rise was a major
et al., 2015) appears to follow a simple evolutionary history. This condition for the establishment of shallow undercurrents, as it created
started with the ascension of thermogenic gas from a probable Cre- space to the flow (Duarte and Viana, 2007).
taceous source through salt-related faults (Fig. 3). When the gas As discussed above, comet tails are formed when the undercurrent
reached the top of the fault planes, it accumulated until there was reach an obstacle. Consequently, the orientation of the erosive tails is a
pressure enough to force its ascension, creating gas chimneys (Fig. 3) reliable paleocurrent indicator (e.g. Caston, 1979; Werner et al., 1980;
(Cathles et al., 2010). The gas chimneys reached the Oligocene seafloor, Xia et al., 1998; Gee et al., 2001; Kuijpers et al., 2002; Trincardi et al.,
forming pockmarks (Fig. 5) (e.g. Cathles et al., 2010; Valle and 2007; Bonaldo et al., 2016). Relict comet marks can thus be used to
Gamberi, 2011), or mounds and/or mud volcanoes (Figs. 8 and 9) when reconstruct past trends in oceanic circulation on continental margins.
the volume of gas was larger (e.g. Brooks et al., 1986). Pockmarks thus The rose diagram of Fig. 11 shows that comet marks in the study area
acted as negative obstacles to bottom currents and consequently were are consistently oriented SW-NE, with a paleoflow trending NE (68°
submitted to downstream erosion, gradually assuming an elongated to mean azimuth). Few exceptions have been recorded in the upper slope
elliptical geometry (e.g. Bøe et al., 1998; Andresen et al., 2008). With region, with comet marks formed by currents flowing almost to the east
the maintenance of strong currents and low sediment supply, the (83° mean azimuth). The results indicate paleocurrents going mainly to
downstream migration of erosion created the elongated tails that re- the NE in the outer shelf to upper slope during the early Oligocene
sulted in the observed comet-shaped morphology. This interpreted se- transgression, differing from the SW-trending paleo-Brazil current that
quence of events is illustrated in Fig. 10. was active during the early Miocene in the upper slope domain (Duarte
Positive geomorphic features such as mounds and mud volcanoes and Viana, 2007). This may reflect a bottom-current re-organization
also appear to have influenced comet mark formation on H8.1, but only between the Oligocene and the Miocene in the Santos Basin, possibly
locally due to their very restrict distribution. In the present-day Gulf of associated with major climatic changes. The early Oligocene experi-
Cádiz, carbonate buildups act as resistant barriers to the undercurrent enced a global cooling event with the establishment of permanent ice-
flow, influencing the distribution of bedforms on the seafloor (e.g. sheets in Antarctica, an icehouse condition that prevailed until the late
Vandorpe et al., 2016). In this case, bottom currents may be con- Oligocene (Abreu and Anderson, 1998; Zachos et al., 2001).
centrated between the resistant carbonate features, enhancing their The most probable cause for this climatic change that presumably
velocities and consequently their erosion and sediment transport cap- triggered bottom-current reorganization is the thermic isolation of
ability. This condition results in the formation of erosive bottom-cur- Antarctica due to the tectonic opening of the Drake Pass and the Scotia
rent-related features that are directly associated to positive geomorphic Sea between South America and Antarctica, and the consequent es-
features. On H8.1, a giant comet mark with abnormal depth (up to tablishment of a circumpolar current through this pathway (Kennett,
44 m) is closely associated with the presence of a chain of mud volca- 1977; Barker, 2001; Cramer et al., 2009; Lagabrielle et al., 2009;
noes located upstream (Fig. 8). In that specific case, the mud volcanoes Violante et al., 2010; Eagles and Jokat, 2014; Maldonado et al., 2014).
may have acted as obstacles, focusing the currents and enhancing their This event caused vigorous bottom currents to flow northward along
velocity and erosive capability. However, as the association between the South American slope, scouring the seafloor and forming a regional
mud volcanoes and a giant comet mark is an exception, the influence of stratigraphic early Oligocene discontinuity (surf. AR-4) in the Argentine

358
F. Berton, F.F. Vesely Marine Geology 395 (2018) 347–362

Fig. 10. Model of comet mark generation in the study area, in a context of transgression and low sediment supply. (A): an accumulation of thermogenic gas is formed in the top of salt-
related faults; (B): the forced ascension of gas results in the formation of seismic chimneys in subsurface and generates circular pockmarks when reach the sea floor; (C): continuous
bottom current action over the pockmarks first creates elliptical pockmarks and later comet marks of variable sizes; (D): in the final stage of comet mark formation, new pockmarks are
still being formed in the seafloor, while some of the chimneys lose all of the original fluids and become seismically invisible.

Basin and in the Uruguayan shelf (Punta del Este Basin) (Hinz et al., (Duarte and Viana, 2007) and NE-trending contour currents that gen-
1999; Hernández-Molina et al., 2009; Hernández-Molina et al., 2010; erated furrows on the lower slope of the Santos Basin (Viana et al.,
Violante et al., 2010; Hernández-Molina et al., 2016). Discontinuity 2007). Altogether, these paleocurrents and their resultant bedforms
H8.1 in the Santos Basin may be time-equivalent to surface AR-4, tes- represent the early manifestations on the Brazilian margin of major
tifying the action of recently-established bottom currents related to climatic changes triggered by tectonic adjustments that took place in
climatic changes along the Brazilian margin. In the same way that AR-4 South America and Antarctica, and that have equivalent products along
marks the onset of deposition of a contourite drift (Hernández-Molina the South American Atlantic margin (e.g. Hinz et al., 1999; Hernández-
et al., 2009; Hernández-Molina et al., 2010; Preu et al., 2013; Molina et al., 2009; Violante et al., 2010; Hernández-Molina et al.,
Hernández-Molina et al., 2016), H8.1 marks the onset of deposition of 2016).
the Santos Drift System during the early Oligocene in Santos Basin
(Duarte and Viana, 2007). 6. Conclusions
The shallow NE-trending undercurrents that generated comet marks
on the shelf during the erosive phase related to H8.1 are probably time- We present a first report of pre-Quaternary, bottom-current-related
equivalent to SW-trending undercurrents that acted along the slope comet marks from the examination of a 3D seismic horizon in the

359
F. Berton, F.F. Vesely Marine Geology 395 (2018) 347–362

A B

Fig. 11. Spectral decomposition of horizon H8.1 (A) and interpretation of pockmarks and comet marks (B). A rosette plot shows a strong orientation of the elongated bedforms towards
NE, with a mean direction of 68°.

Eocene-Oligocene succession of the Santos Basin, offshore Brazil. The • Comet marks are also good paleocurrent indicators because of their
main conclusions drawn from this study are listed below: asymmetry and parallelism. They can thus be useful to map spatial
and temporal patterns of paleo-oceanic circulation across con-
• The development of comet marks in the study area was due to a tinental margins and to detect environmental changes in the marine
combination of several factors including: a) sediment starvation geological record. Comet marks on horizon H8.1 indicate a NE-
because of the migration of the Paraíba do Sul river mouth to the trending current active in the shelf during early Oligocene, differing
north; b) base-level rise and the consequent creation of space for the from the SW-trending paleo-Brazil current that was active during
establishment of shallow undercurrents on the shelf; c) enhanced Miocene, but time-equivalent to previously described bottom cur-
thermohaline circulation promoted by global cooling; d) gas seepage rents that acted on the slope. This time interval coincides with
creating pockmarks on the outer shelf and upper slope; e) bottom- global climatic changes associated with changes in the volume of ice
current modulation of pockmarks, resulting first in elongated in Antarctica.
pockmarks, and later in comet marks. • Horizon H8.1 is probably equivalent to discontinuity AR-4 from the
• Although not mandatory to comet mark generation, resistant posi- Argentine Basin and Uruguayan shelf, reflecting the energy and
tive gas-seep-related geomorphic features such as carbonate mounds range of action of undercurrents that flowed northward along the
and mud volcanoes probably affected bottom circulation and en- South American Atlantic margin during early Oligocene, following
hanced the flow power and consequent erosive capability of the the opening of the Drake Passage and the Scotia Sea and the es-
currents. tablishment of a circumpolar flow and associated vigorous bottom
• Comet marks are reliable paleoenvironmental proxies once their currents.
formation requires the activity of bottom currents under low sedi- • Bottom-current-related comet marks have been probably under-
ment availability, a condition more typically achieved during major reported from the pre-Quaternary marine geological record mainly
marine transgressions. because of their subtle seismic expression, which potentially leads to

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their misinterpretation as other seafloor features (e.g. submarine Flemming, B.W., 1978. Underwater sand dunes along the southeast African continental
channels) when 3D seismic data is not available. In that matter, the margin – observations and implications. Mar. Geol. 26, 177–198.
Flemming, B.W., 1980. Sand transport and bedform patterns on the continental shelf
presence of gas-seep-related bedforms during time periods marked between Durban and Port Elizabeth (Southeast African continental margin).
by sediment starvation may be a guide to the identification of Sediment. Geol. 26, 179–205.
seismic-scale comet marks in the stratigraphic record. Flemming, B.W., 1984. Giant comet marks. Geo-Mar. Lett. 4, 113–115.
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