Bioenergetics
Objectives
1. Define bioenergetics.
2. List and discuss the nutrients that are used as fuels during
exercise.
3. Identify the high-energy phosphates.
4. Discuss the biochemical pathways involved in anaerobic
ATP production.
5. Discuss the aerobic production of ATP.
6. Discuss the interaction between aerobic and anaerobic ATP
production during exercise.
7. Identify the enzymes that are considered rate limiting in
glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
Outline
Fuels for Exercise High-Energy Control of
Carbohydrates Phosphates Bioenergetics
Bioenergetics Control of ATP-PC
Fats System
Proteins Anaerobic ATP Production
Aerobic ATP production Control of Glycolysis
Control of Krebs Cycle
Aerobic ATP Tally and Electron Transport
Efficiency of Oxidative Chain
Phosphorylation Interaction Between
Aerobic/Anaerobic
ATP Production
Introduction
• Metabolism
– Sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body
– Anabolic reactions
Synthesis of molecules
– Catabolic reactions
Breakdown of molecules
• Bioenergetics
– Converting foodstuffs (fats, proteins, carbohydrates)
into energy
Biological Energy Transformation
Factors That Alter Enzyme Activity
• Temperature
– Small rise in body temperature increases enzyme
activity
– Exercise results in increased body temperature
• pH
– Changes in pH reduces enzyme activity
– Lactic acid produced during exercise
Biological Energy Transformation
The Effect of Body Temperature on
Enzyme Activity
Figure 3.8
Biological Energy Transformation
The Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity
Figure 3.9
FUELS FOR EXERCISE
Fuels for Exercise
Carbohydrates
• Glucose
– Blood sugar
• Glycogen
– Storage form of glucose in liver and muscle
Synthesized by enzyme glycogen synthase
– Glycogenolysis
Breakdown of glycogen to glucose
Fuels for Exercise
Fats
• Fatty acids
– Primary type of fat used by the muscle
– Triglycerides
Storage form of fat in muscle and adipose tissue
Breaks down into glycerol and fatty acids
• Phospholipids
– Not used as an energy source
• Steroids
– Derived from cholesterol
– Needed to synthesize sex hormones
Fuels for Exercise
Protein
• Composed of amino acids
• Some can be converted to glucose in the liver
– Gluconeogenesis
• Others can be converted to metabolic intermediates
– Contribute as a fuel in muscle
• Overall, protein is not a primary energy source
during exercise
Fuels for Exercise
In Summary
The body uses carbohydrate, fat, and protein nutrients
consumed daily to provide the necessary energy to
maintain cellular activities both at rest and during
exercise. During exercise, the primary nutrients used for
energy are fats and carbohydrates, with protein
contributing a relatively small amount of the total energy
used.
Glucose is stored in animal cells as a polysaccharide
called glycogen.
Fatty acids are the primary form of fat used as an energy
source in cells. Fatty acids are stored as triglycerides in
muscle and fat cells.
High-Energy Phosphates
High-Energy Phosphates
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
– Consists of adenine, ribose, and three linked
phosphates
• Synthesis
ADP + Pi ATP
• Breakdown
ATP ATPase
ADP + Pi + Energy
High-Energy Phosphates
Structure of ATP
Figure 3.10
Bioenergetics
Bioenergetics
• Formation of ATP
– Phosphocreatine (PC) breakdown
– Degradation of glucose and glycogen
Glycolysis
– Oxidative formation of ATP
• Anaerobic pathways
– Do not involve O2
– PC breakdown and glycolysis
• Aerobic pathways
– Require O2
– Oxidative phosphorylation
Bioenergetics
Anaerobic ATP Production
• ATP-PC system
– Immediate source of ATP
PC + ADP ATP + C
Creatine kinase
• Glycolysis
– Glucose 2 pyruvic acid or 2 lactic acid
– Energy investment phase
Requires 2 ATP
– Energy generation phase
Produces 4 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate or 2 lactate
Bioenergetics
A Closer Look 3.2
Lactic Acid or Lactate?
• Terms lactic acid and lactate used interchangeably
– Lactate is the conjugate base of lactic acid
• Lactic acid is produced in glycolysis
– Rapidly disassociates to lactate and H+
The ionization of lactic acid forms the
conjugate base called lactate
Figure 3.12
Bioenergetics
The Two Phases of Glycolysis
Figure 3.13
Bioenergetics
Interaction Between Blood Glucose and
Muscle Glycogen in Glycolysis
Figure 3.14
Bioenergetics
Glycolysis: Energy Investment Phase
Figure 3.15
Bioenergetics
Glycolysis: Energy Generation Phase
Figure 3.15
Bioenergetics
Hydrogen and Electron Carrier
Molecules
• Transport hydrogens and associated electrons
– To mitochondria for ATP generation (aerobic)
– To convert pyruvic acid to lactic acid (anaerobic)
• Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
NAD + 2H+ NADH + H+
• Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
FAD + 2H+ FADH2
Bioenergetics
A Closer Look 3.3
NADH is “Shuttled” into Mitochondria
• NADH produced in glycolysis must be converted
back to NAD
– By converting pyruvic acid to lactic acid
– By “shuttling” H+ into the mitochondria
• A specific transport system shuttles H+ across the
mitochondrial membrane
– Located in the mitochondrial membrane
Bioenergetics
Conversion of Pyruvic Acid to Lactic Acid
The addition of two H+ to pyruvic acid forms NAD and lactic acid
Figure 3.16
Bioenergetics
In Summary
The immediate source of energy for muscular contraction
is the high-energy phosphate ATP. ATP is degraded via
the enzyme ATPase as follows:
ATP ATPase
ADP + Pi + Energy
Formation of ATP without the use of O2 is termed
anaerobic metabolism. In contrast, the production of ATP
using O2 as the final electron acceptor is referred to as
aerobic metabolism.
Bioenergetics
In Summary
Exercising skeletal muscles produce lactic acid.
However, once produced in the body, lactic acid is
rapidly converted to its conjugate base, lactate.
Muscle cells can produce ATP by any one or a
combination of three metabolic pathways: (1) ATP-PC
system, (2) glycolysis, (3) oxidative ATP production.
The ATP-PC system and glycolysis are two anaerobic
metabolic pathways that are capable of producing ATP
without O2.
Bioenergetics
Aerobic ATP Production
• Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
– Pyruvic acid (3 C) is converted to acetyl-CoA (2 C)
CO2 is given off
– Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate (4 C) to
form citrate (6 C)
– Citrate is metabolized to oxaloacetate
Two CO2 molecules given off
– Produces three molecules of NADH and one FADH
– Also forms one molecule of GTP
Produces one ATP
Bioenergetics
The Three
Stages
of Oxidative
Phosphorylation
Figure 3.17
Bioenergetics
The Krebs Cycle
Figure 3.18
Bioenergetics
Fats and Proteins in Aerobic Metabolism
• Fats
– Triglycerides glycerol and fatty acids
– Fatty acids acetyl-CoA
Beta-oxidation
– Glycerol is not an important muscle fuel during
exercise
• Protein
– Broken down into amino acids
– Converted to glucose, pyruvic acid, acetyl-CoA, and
Krebs cycle intermediates
Bioenergetics
Relationship Between the Metabolism of
Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Fats
Figure 3.19
Bioenergetics
Aerobic ATP Production
• Electron transport chain
– Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the
mitochondria
– Electrons removed from NADH and FADH are
passed along a series of carriers (cytochromes) to
produce ATP
Each NADH produces 2.5 ATP
Each FADH produces 1.5 ATP
– Called the chemiosmotic hypothesis
– H+ from NADH and FADH are accepted by O2 to
form water
Bioenergetics
The Chemiosmotic Hypothesis of ATP
Formation
• Electron transport chain results in pumping of H+
ions across inner mitochondrial membrane
– Results in H+ gradient across membrane
• Energy released to form ATP as H+ ions diffuse
back across the membrane
Bioenergetics
The Electron Transport Chain
Figure 3.20
Bioenergetics
A Closer Look 3.4
Beta Oxidation is the Process of
Converting Fatty Acids to Acetyl-CoA
• Breakdown of triglycerides releases fatty acids
• Fatty acids must be converted to acetyl-CoA to be
used as a fuel
– Activated fatty acid (fatty acyl-CoA) into
mitochondrion
– Fatty acid “chopped” into 2 carbon fragments
forming acetyl-CoA
• Acetyl-CoA enters Krebs cycle and is used for
energy
Bioenergetics
Beta Oxidation
Figure 3.21
Bioenergetics
In Summary
Oxidative phosphorylation or aerobic ATP production
occurs in the mitochondria as a result of a complex
interaction between the Krebs cycle and the electron
transport chain. The primary role of the Krebs cycle is to
complete the oxidation of substrates and form NADH and
FADH to enter the electron transport chain. The end
result of the electron transport chain is the formation of
ATP and water. Water is formed by oxygen-accepting
electrons; hence, the reason we breathe oxygen is to
use it as the final acceptor of electrons in aerobic
metabolism.
Control of Bioenergetics
Control of Bioenergetics
• Rate-limiting enzymes
– An enzyme that regulates the rate of a metabolic
pathway
• Modulators of rate-limiting enzymes
– Levels of ATP and ADP+Pi
High levels of ATP inhibit ATP production
Low levels of ATP and high levels of ADP+Pi stimulate ATP
production
– Calcium may stimulate aerobic ATP production
Control of Bioenergetics
Example of a Rate-Limiting Enzyme
Figure 3.22
Control of Bioenergetics
Factors Known to Affect Rate-Limiting
Enzymes
Pathway Rate-Limiting Stimulators Inhibitors
Enzyme
ATP-PC system Creatine kinase ADP ATP
Glycolysis Phosphofructokinase AMP, ADP, Pi, pH ATP, CP, citrate, pH
++
Krebs cycle Isocitrate ADP, Ca , NAD ATP, NADH
dehydrogenase
Electron transport Cytochrome Oxidase ADP, Pi ATP
chain
Control of Bioenergetics
In Summary
Metabolism is regulated by enzymatic activity. An
enzyme that regulates a metabolic pathway is termed a
“rate-limiting” enzyme.
The rate-limiting enzyme for glycolysis is
phosphofructokinase, while the rate-limiting enzymes for
the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain are
isocitrate dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase,
respectively.
In general, cellular levels of ATP and ADP+Pi regulate
the rate of metabolic pathways involved in the production
of ATP. High levels of ATP inhibit further ATP
production, while low levels of ATP and high levels of
ADP+Pi stimulate ATP production. Evidence also exists
that calcium may stimulate aerobic energy metabolism.
Interaction Between Aerobic/Anaerobic ATP Production
Interaction Between Aerobic/Anaerobic
ATP Production
• Energy to perform exercise comes from an
interaction between aerobic and anaerobic
pathways
• Effect of duration and intensity
– Short-term, high-intensity activities
Greater contribution of anaerobic energy systems
– Long-term, low to moderate-intensity exercise
Majority of ATP produced from aerobic sources
Interaction Between Aerobic/Anaerobic ATP Production
In Summary
Energy to perform exercise comes from an interaction of
anaerobic and aerobic pathways.
In general, the shorter the activity (high intensity), the
greater the contribution of anaerobic energy production.
In contrast, long-term activities (low to moderate
intensity) utilize ATP produced from aerobic sources.
