[General Biology 1]

ENDTERM | SEM 1 | GRADE 12 | STEM

Cell Membrane Structure and

Function

Structure of the Cell Membrane Type Function Examples

Facilitate the movement of Aquaporins,

Transport
ions and molecules across GLUT
Proteins
the membrane. transporters

Bind to signaling molecules

Receptor
and trigger cellular Insulin receptor
Proteins
responses.

Phospholipid Bilayer Enzymatic Catalyze biochemical

● Composition Salivary amylase
Proteins reactions.

- Phospholipids: Composed of a Help cells stick to one

Adhesion
hydrophilic (polar) head containing a another and to their Cadherins
Proteins
phosphate group and two hydrophobic surroundings.
(non-polar) fatty acid tails.

- Amphipathic Nature: This structure is Fluid Mosaic Model

critical for the formation of the bilayer
in aqueous environments, as the - The membrane exhibits fluidity due to
hydrophilic heads face the water, while the movement of phospholipids and
the hydrophobic tails are shielded from proteins within the bilayer, allowing for
it. flexibility and adaptability.

Membrane Proteins - This model explains how membranes

● Types of Membrane Proteins: can change shape and self-heal while
maintaining their integrity.
- Integral Proteins: Span the
membrane and are involved in
transport and communication. Selective Permeability

- Peripheral Proteins: Loosely - The membrane's structure allows certain

attached to the exterior or substances to pass through while
interior surfaces, playing roles excluding others based on size, charge,
in signaling and structural and solubility.
support.
 [General Biology 1]
ENDTERM | SEM 1 | GRADE 12 | STEM

Cholesterol’s Role
Passive Transport Mechanisms
- Cholesterol molecules embedded in the
membrane stabilize fluidity, preventing - Diffusion: Movement from an area of
the membrane from becoming too rigid higher concentration to lower
at low temperatures and too fluid at high concentration until equilibrium is
temperatures. reached.
- Example: Oxygen and carbon
Glycoproteins and Glycolipids dioxide gases.

- These carbohydrate-containing - Facilitated Diffusion: Movement

molecules are crucial for cell-cell through specific transport proteins.
recognition, communication, and - Example: Glucose transport via
immune responses. GLUT transporters.

Transport Mechanisms - Osmosis: Diffusion of water

across a selectively permeable
membrane.
Types:
- Isotonic: Equal concentrations
of solute inside and outside the
cell.

- Hypotonic: Lower
concentration of solute outside
the cell, causing water to enter
and the cell to swell.

- Hypertonic: Higher
Types of Transport
concentration of solute outside
Type of Energy the cell, causing water to leave
Description and the cell to shrink.
Transport Requirement

Movement of molecules down Active Transport Mechanisms

Passive
their concentration gradient None
Transport - Primary Active Transport: Directly
without energy input.
uses ATP to transport molecules against
Movement of molecules against their gradient.
Active
their concentration gradient, Yes (ATP) Example: Sodium-potassium
Transport
requiring energy (ATP). pump, which moves 3 Na+ ions
out and 2 K+ ions into the cell.
[General Biology 1]
ENDTERM | SEM 1 | GRADE 12 | STEM

● Exocytosis: The process of

- Secondary Active Transport: Uses the expelling substances from the cell,
energy from the gradient created by such as neurotransmitters or
primary active transport to move other hormones.
substances.
-Example: Glucose transport FEYNMAN TECHNIQUE:
coupled with sodium ion *DISCUSS YOUR ANSWER TO YOURSELF*
transport (co-transport).
1. This is composed of a hydrophilic
Endocytosis and Exocytosis (polar) head containing a phosphate
group and two hydrophobic (non-polar)
fatty acid tails.
2. What are the types of membrane
proteins and how do they differ?
3. What are the differences between active
transport and passive transport?

SUMMARY :
- Endocytosis: The process of engulfing
The cell membrane is composed of a
substances into the cell.
phospholipid bilayer, with hydrophilic heads
facing water and hydrophobic tails shielded.
Membrane proteins like integral proteins span
the membrane for transport, while peripheral
proteins play roles in signaling and support.

The fluid mosaic model explains the membrane's

flexibility and self-healing ability. Selective
permeability allows certain substances to pass,
excluding others based on size, charge, and
Types: solubility. Cholesterol stabilizes fluidity in
- Phagocytosis: Engulfing large particles varying temperatures.
or cells (e.g., white blood cells engulfing
bacteria). Glycoproteins and glycolipids aid in cell
- Pinocytosis: Engulfing liquids and communication and immune response.
small particles. Transport mechanisms include passive transport
- Receptor-mediated endocytosis: (no energy input) and active transport (ATP
Specific uptake of molecules based on requirement).
receptor binding.
Passive transport includes diffusion (e. g. ,
gases) and facilitated diffusion through
 [General Biology 1]
ENDTERM | SEM 1 | GRADE 12 | STEM

transport proteins. Osmosis involves water Nucleic NucleotidGenetic information

movement in isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic DNA, RNA
Acids es storage and transfer
solutions. Active transport utilizes ATP in
primary methods (e. g. , sodium-potassium
pump) or secondary methods (e. g. , co- Carbohydrates
transport). - are organic compounds composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, usually
Endocytosis engulfs substances into cells with hydrogen.
through phagocytosis, pinocytosis, or receptor-
mediated uptake. Exocytosis expels substances - Most abundant biological molecule on
like neurotransmitters. The structure and Earth
functions of the cell membrane are crucial for
cellular processes and maintaining homeostasis. - Also called saccharides (sákkharon in
Biological Macromolecules Greek) meaning sweet or sugar.

Types of Macromolecules

Types of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharides (Simple sugars)
- The simplest form of carbohydrates;
they cannot be broken down into
simpler sugars.
Ex.
MacromoleMonomer Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) – A primary source of
Function Examples energy in cells.
cule s
Fructose – Found in fruits.
CarbohydraMonosac Energy source, Glucose, starch, Galactose – A component of lactose in milk.
tes charides structural support cellulose
2. Disaccharides (Double sugars)
Fatty Energy storage, - made by combining two
Fats, oils,
Lipids acids, membrane structure, monosaccharides.
phospholipids
glycerol signaling Examples:
Sucrose (table sugar) – Composed of glucose
Amino Catalysis, transport, Enzymes, and fructose.
Proteins
acids structure, signaling antibodies Lactose (milk sugar) – Composed of glucose
and galactose.
[General Biology 1]
ENDTERM | SEM 1 | GRADE 12 | STEM

Maltose – Composed of two glucose units. - Two or more double bonds in their fatty
acid chains. Found in plant oils and are
3. Polysaccharides (Complex usually liquid at room temperature.
carbohydrates)
- Long chains of monosaccharides linked 2. Phospholipids
together. - Contain two fatty acids, a glycerol
Examples: molecule, and a phosphate group.
Starch – Energy storage in plants. - Major component of cell membranes,
Glycogen – Energy storage in animals (stored in forming the lipid bilayer that separates
liver and muscles). the cell interior from the external
Cellulose – A structural component of the plant environment.
cell wall.
Chitin– Found in the exoskeleton of arthropods 3. Steroids
and cell walls of fungi. - Characterized by four fused carbon
rings.
Lipids - Include hormones (like estrogen and
- A diverse group of organic compounds testosterone) and cholesterol, which is a
that are insoluble in water but soluble in precursor for other steroids and is vital
nonpolar solvents such as alcohol or for membrane structure.
acetone.
- They form the cell membrane. 4. Waxes
- Made of long-chain fatty acids linked to
Fatty Acids long-chain alcohols.
- a molecule characterized by the - Provide protective barriers, such as on
presence of a carbonyl group attached to the surface of plants (cuticle) and in the
a long chain hydrocarbon. ear (earwax).

Types of Lipids
1. Triglycerides (fats)
- Composed of one glycerol molecule and
three fatty acids.
- Primary source of long-term energy
storage in animals.

Saturated Fats
- No double bonds between carbon atoms.
Found in animal fats and are usually
solid at room temperature.

Unsaturated Fats
 [General Biology 1]
ENDTERM | SEM 1 | GRADE 12 | STEM

Proteins: Structure and Function

Levels of Protein Structure:

- Primary: The linear sequence of amino
acids linked by peptide bonds.
- Secondary: Localized folding into
alpha-helices and beta-sheets stabilized
by hydrogen bonds.
- Tertiary: Overall 3D structure formed
by interactions among side chains (R
groups), including hydrogen bonds,
ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions,
and disulfide bridges.
- Quaternary: Assembly of multiple
polypeptide chains into a functional
State at Room protein.
Type Structure Examples
Temperature

No double
Saturated
bonds; linear Solid Butter, lard
Fats
chains

Unsaturated One or more Olive oil, fish

Liquid
Fats double bonds oil

Enzyme Function
[General Biology 1]
ENDTERM | SEM 1 | GRADE 12 | STEM

● Enzymes are biological catalysts Defense Antibodies help animals

that speed up chemical reactions by fight off invasion by
lowering the activation energy. viruses and bacteria

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity:

- Temperature: Each enzyme has an Regulation Enzymes help Control
optimal temperature. chemical reactions in the
- pH: Each enzyme has an optimal pH. body
- Substrate Concentration: Increased
substrate concentration increases
reaction rate until saturation. Nucleic Acids
- essential biomolecules that carry the
genetic blueprint of life.
Functions of Protein
- polymers made up of repeating units
called nucleotides.
Function Example - founded by Friedrich Miescher in 1869.

Movement Actin and mysin, necessary Each nucleotide has three components:
for contraction of muscle - A sugar molecule, a phosphate group.
fibers and nitrogenous base: Adenine (A),
Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Guanine
(G) in DNA; in RNA, Uracil (U)
Structure Collagen, the most replaces Thymine.
abundant protein in the
human body, forms bones, Two Main Types:
tendons, ligaments and - DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) and RNA
cartilage (Ribonucleic Acid), both crucial for the
storage, transmission, and execution of
Keratin forms hair, nails, genetic information.
horns, feathers, and scales
DNA and RNA differ in structure and function:
● DNA: Double-stranded helix with
Transport Hemoglobin in red blood
complementary base pairing (A-T, G-
cells carries oxygen
C).
through the bloodstream
● RNA: Single-stranded and often shorter
than DNA
Nutrition Casein in milk stores
amino acids for use by 1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
some newborn animals - Most are found within the cell nucleus
(small amount can also be found in the
mitochondria)
[General Biology 1]
ENDTERM | SEM 1 | GRADE 12 | STEM

- the storage and transfer of genetic

information
- Two base pairs: Guanine to Cytosine,
Thymine to Adenine

2. RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

Has three major types:

● rRNA
● mRNA
● tRNA
FEYNMAN TECHNIQUE:
*DISCUSS YOUR ANSWER TO YOURSELF*
- functions primarily in synthesis of
proteins
- Two base pairs: Guanine to Cytosine, 4. What are the biological
Uracil to Adenine macromolecules?
5. What is considered as the simplest
Nitrogen Bases form of carbohydrates?
1. Pyrimidines 6. Describe the difference between
- Uracil, Thymine, Cytosine RNA and DNA.
2. Purines 7. Describe the levels of protein
- Adenine, Guanine structure.

Pentose Sugars SUMMARY :

- There are two related pentose sugars: Macromolecules are large, complex molecules
RNA contains ribose while DNA essential for life. They are made up of smaller
contains deoxyribose. repeating units called monomers. Let's explore
the four main types:

Carbohydrates: These are sugars and starches,

composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
They are our primary energy source and provide
structural support. Examples include glucose,
starch, and cellulose.

Lipids: These are fats and oils, composed of

fatty acids and glycerol. They store energy, form
cell membranes, and play a role in signaling.
Examples include fats, oils, and phospholipids.
[General Biology 1]
ENDTERM | SEM 1 | GRADE 12 | STEM

Proteins: These are made of amino acids and

perform a vast range of functions. They act as
catalysts (enzymes), transport molecules,
provide structure, and participate in signaling.
Examples include enzymes and antibodies.

Nucleic Acids: These are DNA and RNA, made

of nucleotides. They store and transmit genetic
information. DNA holds the blueprint of life,
while RNA translates that information into
proteins. Stage Location Inputs Outputs

Let's look closer at each type: Light, H2O,

Light-dependent Thylakoid O2, ATP,
ADP,
Reactions Membranes NADPH
Carbohydrates: These come in three forms: NADP+
monosaccharides (simple sugars), disaccharides
(double sugars), and polysaccharides (complex Glucose,
Calvin Cycle (Light- CO2, ATP,
carbohydrates). Stroma ADP,
independent) NADPH
NADP+
Lipids: They include triglycerides (fats),
saturated and unsaturated fats, phospholipids,
steroids, and waxes. Light-dependent Reactions

Proteins: Their structure determines their

function. There are four levels of protein
structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary. Enzymes are a special type of
protein that speeds up chemical reactions.

Nucleic Acids: DNA is a double-stranded helix, ● Process: Capture light energy to

while RNA is single-stranded. Both are crucial split water, releasing oxygen and
for genetic [Link] tool: producing ATP and NADPH.
● Key Components:
Photosynthesis ○ Photosystems: Light-
harvesting complexes that
Overview of Photosynthesis absorb photons and transfer
energy to reaction centers.
○ Electron Transport
Chain: Transfers electrons,
creating a proton gradient
for ATP synthesis.
[General Biology 1]
ENDTERM | SEM 1 | GRADE 12 | STEM

9. Explain how photosystems in light-

Calvin Cycle dependent reactions work to produce
ATP.
10. In the Calvin Cycle, Rubisco is an
enzyme that catalyzes the following
basic steps in the process:.
11. How are the products of light-dependent
reactions channeled to feed into the
Calvin Cycle within the larger picture of
photosynthesis?

SUMMARY :
Photosynthesis is a process that occurs in two
stages: light-dependent reactions and the Calvin
Cycle.
During light-dependent reactions in the
● Function: Uses ATP and NADPH
thylakoid membranes, light, water, ADP, and
to convert CO2 into glucose.
NADP+ are used to produce oxygen, ATP, and
● Key Steps:
NADPH. The Calvin Cycle, taking place in the
1. Carbon Fixation: CO2 is
stroma, utilizes CO2, ATP, and NADPH to
incorporated into ribulose
generate glucose, ADP, and NADP+.
bisphosphate (RuBP) by the
Key components include photosystems and an
enzyme Rubisco.
electron transport chain for ATP synthesis.
2. Reduction: ATP and
In the Calvin Cycle, carbon fixation, reduction,
NADPH are used to convert
and regeneration steps convert CO2 into
3-phosphoglycerate into
glucose.
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
(G3P).
3. Regeneration: RuBP is Please watch the following videos
regenerated, allowing the Transport Mechanism :
cycle to continue. [Link]
Oyl7eI

FEYNMAN TECHNIQUE: Biomolecules:

*DISCUSS YOUR ANSWER TO YOURSELF* [Link]
8. What do the plants absorb and produce V96QHKW
in the light-dependent reactions of ATP: [Link]
photosynthesis, and where does the YvDeE1LngMn1uuE
reaction take place?
[General Biology 1]
ENDTERM | SEM 1 | GRADE 12 | STEM

Photosynthesis:
[Link]
8gIU0Bh5s

[Link]
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Prepared By: Mercado, Richard and

Alfonso, Janelia Inah L.
Following Lessons Discussed By: Sir
Melvin & Ma’am Jerlyn Gamboa

Link of the Sources:

GENBIO PPTS and HANDOUTS (By

Ma'am Jerlyn Gamboa

FLASHCARD: GENBIO ENDTERM

[Link]
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GOODLUCK, EVERYONE!!! study well:)