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 Wave Optics

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GLIMPSES

1. Nature of light. The phenomena like inter- (ii) The secondary wavelets spread out in all

SI
ference, diffraction and polarisation establish directions with the speed of light in the
the wave nature of light. However, the pheno- given medium.
mena like black body radiation and photo- (iii) The wavefront at any later time is given by
electric effect establish the particle nature of
the forward envelope of the. secondary
light. de Broglie suggested that light has a dual
wavelets at that time.
nature i.e., it can behave as particles as well as
waves. S. Effect on frequency, wavelength and speed
during refraction. When a light wave travels
2. Wavefront. A wavefront is defined as the
IT
from one medium to another, its frequency
continuous locus of all such particles of the
remains unchanged but both its wavelength
medium which are vibrating in the same phase at
and speed get changed, depending on the
any instant. In case of waves travelling in all
refractive index of the refracting medium.
directions fromla point source, the wavefronts
are spherical in shape. When the source of light 6. Interference of light waves. When light waves
is linear in shape, the wavefronts are from two coherent sources travelling in the
H
cylindrical. At very large distances from the same direction superpose each other, the
source, a portion of spherical or cylindrical intensity in the region of superposition gets
wavefront is plane wavefront. redistributed, becoming maximum at some
3. Ray. An arrow drawn perpendicular to a points and minimum at others. This pheno-
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wavefront in the direction of propagation of a menon is called interference of light.

wave is called a ray. 7. Constructive and destructive interference. If
Two general principles are valid for rays and path difference p = nA or phase difference_
wavefronts : <p = 2 nt; the two waves are in same phase and so
(I) Rays are normal to wavefronts. add up to give maximum of intensity. This is
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(ii) The time taken to travel from one wave- called constructive interference.
front to another is the same along any ray. If p = (2n - 1) A / 2 or <p = (2n - 1) 7r, the two super-
posing waves are out of phase, the resultant
4. Huygens' principle of secondary wavelets.
Huygens' principle is the basis of the wave theory amplitude is equal to difference between their
of light. It tells how a wavefront propagates individual amplitudes and hence intensity is
through a medium. It is based on the following minimum. This is called destructive interference.
assumptions: s. Young's double slit experiment. In Young's
(i) Each point on a wavefront acts as a source double slit experiment, two identical narrow
of new disturbance called secondary waves slits 51 and 52 are placed symmetrically with
or wavelets. respect to narrow slit 5 illuminated with
(10.101)
10.102 PHYSICS-XII

monochromatic light. The interference pattern

is obtained on an observation screen placed at

a%,
large distance D from SI and Sz·
The position of nth bright fringe from the centre where r = -1. = -1. ,is the amplitude ratio of
of screen is ~ 12
DA two waves. If WI and w2 are the widths of the
x =n-
n d
two slits, then
The position of nth dark fringe from the centre
of the screen is
DA

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x' =(2n-1)-
n 2d 11. Coherent sources. Two sources of light which
Fringe width is the separation between two continuously . emit light waves of same
successive bright or dark fringes and is given by frequency (or wavelength) with a zero or
constant phase difference between them, are
p= DA

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d called coherent sources. Two independent
sources of light cannot act as coherent sources,
9. Resultant amplitude and intensity of interfering
they have to be derived from the same parent
waves. If al and a2 are the amplitudes and II and
source.
12 are the intensities of two coherent waves
having phase difference cp, then their resultant 12. Conditions for substained interference:
amplitude and intensity at the point of (I) The two sources should continuously emit
superposition are given by waves of same frequency or wavelength.
IT
(il) The two sources of light should be coherent.
a =~ai + ~ +2al~ cos cp
(iil) The amplitudes of the interfering waves
and I = II + 12 + 2 .~ II 12 cos cp should be equal.
(iv) The two sources should be narrow.
If amplitude of each wave is ao and intensity 10 '
(v) The interfering waves must travel nearly
then
H
along the same direction.
I =2ka~ (1 + cos cp) =210 (1 + cos cp)
(vi) The sources should be monochromatic.
=410 cos2 ~ (viI) The interfering waves should be in the
2
same state of polarisation.
The tenn2 ~ 1112 cos cp is called interference term.
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(viii) The distance between the two coherent

(t) When cos cp remains constant with time, sources should be small and the distance
the two sources are coherent. The intensity between the two sources and the screen
will be maximum at points for which. should be large.
cos cp = + 1 and minimum at points for 13. Fresnel's biprism method. Here two coherent
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which cos cp = - 1. sources are obtained from an incoherent source,

(it) When cos cp varies continuously with time by refraction. A biprism is essentially a single
so that its average value is zero over the prism with an obtuse angle of 179°, but behaves
time interval of measurement, the resultant as a combination of two acute angled prisms
intensity at all points will be II + 12, No placed base to base, each with a refracting angle
interference fringes are observed. The 1°
of about -.
sources are incoherent. 2
10. Ratio of intensity at maxima and minima of an 14. Lloyd's single mirror method. In this method,
interference pattern. If al and ~ are the ampli- an illuminated slit and its reflected image serve
tudes of two interfering waves, then the ratio as two coherent sources. In contrast to Young's
between the intensities at maxima and minima double slit and Fresnel's biprism methods, here
will be the central fringe is dark.
WAVE OPTICS (Competition Section) 10.103

15. Displacement of interference fringes. When a Transmitted system.

thin transparent sheet of thickness t and For maximum intensity. 21lt cos r = nA
refractive index Il is inserted in the path of one
For minimum intensity.
of the interfering beams, the extra path
A .
difference introduced is 2Iltcosr=(2n+I)-, where n=O,1,2,3 ....
2
fip = Length t in transparent sheet
17. Diffraction of light. The phenomenon of
- Length t in air
bending of light around the comers of small
or fip = Ilt - t = (Il -1) t
obstacles or apertures and their consequent
:. Net path difference for any point on the screen spreading into the regions of geometrical
xd
=v

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-(Il-I) t shadow is called diffraction of light.
18. Diffraction at a single slit. A plane wave of
For the central point of the screen,
wavelength Aon passing through a narrow slit
xd D
V-(Il-I)t=O or x="d(Il-I)t of width a suffers diffraction producing a
central bright fringe (a =Oo~ flanked on both

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Thus the shift in the central bright fringe and
sides by minima and maxima. The intensity of
hence shift of any other fringe is
secondary maxima decreases with the increase
fix = D (Il -1) t = l! (u -1) t in distance from the centre.
d A For nth minimum :
16. Interference in thin films. A soap film or thin
asinan=nA, n=1,2,3, ....
film of oil spread over-water shows beautiful
For nth secondary maximum:
colours, when seen in the reflected light. This is
an =(2n
IT
due to interference between light waves a sin + I)!:, n=I,2,3, ....
2
reflected by the upper and lower surfaces of .
thin films, as shown in the figure below. The ray Angular position of nth minimum,
reflected from the upper denser surface of thin a = nA
n a
film suffers a phase change of 1t or path
difference of 1./2. Distance of nth minimum from the centre of the
H
screen,
Reflected rays
DA
x =n-
n a
Angular position of nth secondary maximum,
a'
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=(2n + I)!:.
n 2a
Distance of nth secondary maximum from the
centre of the screen,
DA
x~ =(2n+I)-
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2a
Width of a secondary maximum,
Transmitted rays
13= DA
Reflected system. The path difference between a
the two consecutive rays reflected from the
Width of central maximum,
upper and the lower surfaces of a thin film of
refractive index Il and thickness t is given by 13 =213= 2 DA
0
A a
p=2.llt cos r-2"
Angular spread of central maximum on either
A side of the centre of the screen is
For maximum intensity. 2 Ilt cos r = (2 n + 1) -
2 A
a=±-
For minimum intensity. 2 Ilt cos r = n'A.. a
10.104 PHYSICS-XII

Total angular spread of the central maximum is distinctly seen. It is equal to the reciprocal of the
2e=2,,- limit of resolution of the optical instrument.
a 24. Diffraction as a limit on resolving power. All
For diffraction to be more pronounced, the size optical instruments like lens, telescope, micro-
of the slit should be comparable to the wave- scope, etc. act as apertures. Light on passing·
length of light used. through them undergoes diffraction. This puts
19. Diffraction at a circular aperture. For diffraction the limit on their resolving power.
of light at a circular aperture of diameter a, the 25. Rayleigh's criterion for resolution. The images
angular spread of central maximum is of two point objects are just resolved when the
central maximum of the diffraction pattern of

R
e=1.22"-
one falls over the first minimum of the
a
diffraction pattern of the other.
If D is the distance at, which the effect is
observed, then 26. Resolving power of a microscope. The resolving
power ofa microscope is defined as the

SI
Linear spread, x = De \ reciprocal of the smallest distance d between
Areal spread, x2 = (Det two point objects at which they can be just
resolved when seen in the microscope.
20. Fresnel's distance. It is the distance at which the
diffraction spread of a beam becomes equal to
.
R.P. of a mIcroscope
1
= - = ~--
2/l sin e
the size of the aperture. If a is the width of the d "-
aperture, then where e is half the angle of cone of light from
each point object and /l is the refractive index of
a2
IT
DF =- the medium between the object and the objective.
"- The factor /l sin e is called numerical aperture
The ray optics is valid for a distance D < DF.
(N.A.).
21. Diffraction grating. It is an arrangement of a
27. Resolving power of a telescope. The resolving
very large number of very narrow, equidistant
power of a telescope is defined as the reciprocal
H
and parallel slits. The diffraction pattern has
of the smallest angular separation' de' between
the central principal maximum of maximum
two distant objects whose images can be just
intensity and a number of higher order intensity
resolved by it.
maxima whose intensity decreases with the
increase of n; the order of the spectrum. The 1 D
=- = --
O

R.P. of a telescope
direction of nth principal maximum is given by de 122 "-

(a + b) sin en = n,,- where D is the diameter of the telescope

where n =0, 1,2,3 .... objective and "-is the wavelength of light used.
This equation is known as grating law. Here 28. Resolving power of the human eye. The human
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(a + b) is called grating element, where a is width eye can see two point objects distinctly if they
of each slit and b is the width of opaque space subtend at the eye, an angle equal to one minute
between two consecutive slits. of arc. This angle is called the limit of resolution
22. Limit of resolution. The smallest linear or of the eye. The reciprocal of this angle equals
angular separation between two point objects at the resolving power of the eye.
which they can be just resolved by an optical 29. Polarisation of waves. A transverse wave in
instrument is called the limit of resolution of the which vibrations are present in all possible
instrument. directions, in a plane perpendicular to the direc-
23. Resolving power: It is the ability of an optical tion of propagation, is said to be unpolarised. If
instrument to resolve or separate the images of the vibrations of a wave are present in just one
two nearby point objects so that they can be direction in a plane perpendicular to the
WAVE OPTICS (Competition Section) 10.105

direction of propagation, the wave is said to be 38. Nicol prism. It is an optical device based on the
polarised or plane polarised. The phenomenon phenomenon of double refraction which is used
of restricting the oscillations of a wave to just for producing and analysing plane polarised
one direction in the transverse plane is called light. It consists of two pieces of calcite cut with
polarisation. a 68° angle and stuck together with Canada
30. Unpolarised light. A kind of light in which the balsam.
electric field vector takes all possible directions 39. Polaroids. These are thin commercial sheets
in the transverse plane, rapidly and randomly, which make use of the property of selective
during the time of measurement is called absorption (dichroism) to produce an intense
unpolarised light. For example, the light of the beam of plane polarised light. Polaroids are

R
sun, candle light, etc. used in sunglasses, camera filters, wind screens
31. Plane polarised light. If the electric field vector and car head lights of motor cars to reduce glare
of light reflected from shiny surfaces, etc.
vibrates just in one direction perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation, the light is 40. Optical activity. Substances which can rotate

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said to be linearly polarised. In a linearly the plane of polarisation of light are called
polarised wave, the vibrations at all points, at optically active substances while the pheno-
all times, lie in the same plane, so it is also called menon is called optical activity.
a plane polarised wave.
41. Specific rotation. It is the angle through which
32. Polariser. A device that plane polarises the the plane of polarisation rotates when plane
unpolarised light passed through it is called a polarised light is passed through one decimetre
polariser. For example, a tourmaline crystal, length of solution containing one gram of the
nicol prism, polaroid, etc.
IT
substance per cnr'. The measurement is done at
33. Law of Malus. This law states that when a beam a given temperature T, using sodium light (the
of completely plane polarised light is passed D-line).
through an analyser, the intensity 'I' of the Specific rotation
transmitted light varies directly as the square of
Observed angle of rotation in degrees
the angle '9' between the transmission direc-
H
Length of the tube in decimetrex Grams of
tions of polariser and analyser.
substance in 1em 3 of solution
I=Iocos
2
e
where 10 is the maximum intensity of
T
[s]D =-
e
I xc
transmitted light.
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34. Plane of polarisation. The plane passing 42. Doppler effect. It is the phenomenon of the I

through the direction of wave propagation and apparent change in the frequency of light due to
perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called the relative motion between the source and
the plane of polarisation. observer. The apparent frequency v' is given by ,

35. Plane of vibration. The plane containing the

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direction of vibration and the direction of wave

propagation is called the plane of vibration. When source moves towards the observer,
36. Brewster angle. The angle of incidence at which velocity v is taken +ve and when it moves away
a beam of unpolarised light falling on a trans- from the observer, v is taken -ve.
parent surface is reflected as a beam of comp- 43. Doppler shift. The apparent change in the
letely plane polarised light is called polarising frequency of light due to Doppler effect is called
or Brewster angle. It is denoted by ip' Doppler shift.
37. Brewster law. This law states that the tangent of . v
the pol arising angle of incidence of a trans- (i) ~v=±-v
c
parent medium is equal to its refractive index.
(ii) ~ A. = + ~ . A. .
Il = tan ip c